This document summarizes various research methods used to study the brain, including experimental ablation techniques like producing lesions and histological tracing of neural connections. It also discusses recording and stimulating neural activity using electrodes, chemicals and imaging techniques. Neurochemical methods are used to localize neurotransmitters and receptors, while genetic methods involve twin, adoption and targeted mutation studies.
Neuroscientists use four main methods to measure brain activity and correlate it with behavior: 1) examining brain anatomy using CT or MRI scans; 2) recording brain activity during tasks using EEG, MEG, PET, or fMRI scans; 3) studying the effects of brain damage; and 4) examining the effects of stimulating specific brain areas using transcranial magnetic stimulation or injecting chemicals. However, interpreting the results of brain stimulation experiments is challenging because behaviors involve multiple brain regions.
This is the ppt that describes about organization of nerve in central nervous system. It also classify the nerves in various ways. Functions of different nerves and its characteristics are also described in this ppt.
The document provides an overview of the biological aspects of psychology, including:
- The nervous system and endocrine system direct activities in the body. The nervous system is composed of the central and peripheral nervous systems.
- Neurons are the basic unit of the nervous system and communicate via electrical and chemical signals. The peripheral nervous system connects the central nervous system to senses and organs.
- The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord. Techniques like EEG, PET, SPECT, fMRI, TMS provide views of brain structure and function. Key brain regions support functions like movement, memory, and emotion.
This document provides an overview of applied physiology of the nervous system. It begins with an introduction to the central nervous system, including its organization and main parts like the brain and spinal cord. Key concepts covered include the structure and functions of neurons and neuroglia. The roles of gray and white matter are discussed. Main functions of the central nervous system include temperature regulation, spinal cord reflexes, memory and learning, and voluntary movement. Imaging techniques for the central nervous system are also mentioned. The document goes on to explain topics like resting membrane potential, action potentials, synaptic transmission, and the reflex arc.
این پاورپوینت خلاصه شده فصل شش یکی از کتابهای مربوط به علوم اعصاب است. این پاورپوینت در کارگاه تخصصی توانبخشی دیداری عصبی توسط دکتر علیزاده ارائه شده است.
The document provides an overview of the nervous system, including its organization and major components. It discusses the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Key topics covered include the structure and function of neurons, types of neurons, nerve impulses, and synaptic transmission. The major divisions and structures of the brain are outlined. The role of the spinal cord and reflex arcs are also summarized.
Nervous system ( anatomy and physiology)Ravish Yadav
the topic contain function of nervous system, classification of nervous system, neurons anatomy, structural classification of neurons, functional classification of neurons, nerve impulse
This presentation covers one of the oldest research methods in Physiological Psychology named Experimental Ablation. The credits for all the content and images goes to Neil R. Carlson's textbook Physiology of Behavior.
Neuroscientists use four main methods to measure brain activity and correlate it with behavior: 1) examining brain anatomy using CT or MRI scans; 2) recording brain activity during tasks using EEG, MEG, PET, or fMRI scans; 3) studying the effects of brain damage; and 4) examining the effects of stimulating specific brain areas using transcranial magnetic stimulation or injecting chemicals. However, interpreting the results of brain stimulation experiments is challenging because behaviors involve multiple brain regions.
This is the ppt that describes about organization of nerve in central nervous system. It also classify the nerves in various ways. Functions of different nerves and its characteristics are also described in this ppt.
The document provides an overview of the biological aspects of psychology, including:
- The nervous system and endocrine system direct activities in the body. The nervous system is composed of the central and peripheral nervous systems.
- Neurons are the basic unit of the nervous system and communicate via electrical and chemical signals. The peripheral nervous system connects the central nervous system to senses and organs.
- The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord. Techniques like EEG, PET, SPECT, fMRI, TMS provide views of brain structure and function. Key brain regions support functions like movement, memory, and emotion.
This document provides an overview of applied physiology of the nervous system. It begins with an introduction to the central nervous system, including its organization and main parts like the brain and spinal cord. Key concepts covered include the structure and functions of neurons and neuroglia. The roles of gray and white matter are discussed. Main functions of the central nervous system include temperature regulation, spinal cord reflexes, memory and learning, and voluntary movement. Imaging techniques for the central nervous system are also mentioned. The document goes on to explain topics like resting membrane potential, action potentials, synaptic transmission, and the reflex arc.
این پاورپوینت خلاصه شده فصل شش یکی از کتابهای مربوط به علوم اعصاب است. این پاورپوینت در کارگاه تخصصی توانبخشی دیداری عصبی توسط دکتر علیزاده ارائه شده است.
The document provides an overview of the nervous system, including its organization and major components. It discusses the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Key topics covered include the structure and function of neurons, types of neurons, nerve impulses, and synaptic transmission. The major divisions and structures of the brain are outlined. The role of the spinal cord and reflex arcs are also summarized.
Nervous system ( anatomy and physiology)Ravish Yadav
the topic contain function of nervous system, classification of nervous system, neurons anatomy, structural classification of neurons, functional classification of neurons, nerve impulse
This presentation covers one of the oldest research methods in Physiological Psychology named Experimental Ablation. The credits for all the content and images goes to Neil R. Carlson's textbook Physiology of Behavior.
The document discusses the structure and function of neurons and the nervous system. It notes that neurons are the basic building blocks and come in three types: sensory, motor, and interneurons. It describes the parts of neurons and how they communicate via action potentials. The central topics covered include the brain and its major parts like the cerebral cortex, limbic system, and how scanning technologies provide insights into brain function.
The nervous system is made up of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The brain controls most body functions, including awareness, movements, sensations, thoughts, speech and memory.
This document provides an overview of neuropharmacology and neurotransmission. It defines neuropharmacology and describes the two main branches. It explains what neurotransmission is and how it works, describing the role of neurons, neurotransmitters, and the mechanism of neurotransmission. It discusses different types of neurons, neurotransmitters like acetylcholine and dopamine, and conditions they are involved in like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. The document also provides interesting facts about neurons and neurotransmitters. It concludes with a recent discovery about how endocannabinoids travel in the brain to reach receptors.
Computational neuropharmacology drug designingRevathi Boyina
This document discusses computational neuropharmacology, which uses computational modeling approaches from neuroscience and dynamical systems theory integrated with traditional neuropharmacological methods to study drug effects on the brain and behavior. It describes how computational models are used in neuroscience to simulate neurons, neural circuits, and brain regions. It suggests computational neuropharmacology could help integrate molecular and systems-level descriptions of the nervous system to analyze drug effects on neural activity patterns and behavioral states. This may provide strategies for molecular screening of drugs and searching for target-specific drugs to shift pathological brain dynamics to normal patterns.
The nervous system is organized into two main parts - the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord and acts as the command center that processes sensory input and directs motor output. The PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body and senses the external environment via sensory receptors. Communication between neurons is mediated by electrical and chemical signals. The nervous system works with the endocrine system to maintain homeostasis via reflexes and other rapid or slower responses.
This document discusses EEG (electroencephalography) and provides an overview of several key topics:
- It outlines the agenda/topics to be covered including the history of EEG, neural activities, action potentials, EEG generation, brain rhythms, recording and measurement techniques, abnormal EEG patterns, aging effects, and mental disorders.
- It describes how EEG signals are generated by the electrical activity of neurons in the brain and measured via electrodes on the scalp. Different brain wave frequencies (rhythms) can be identified in the EEG based on amplitude and frequency.
- Recording, measuring, and processing EEG signals requires electrodes, amplifiers, filters, and techniques like sampling to convert the analog signals to digital
The document provides an overview of the biological perspective and the nervous system. It discusses the structure and function of neurons, nerves, and the nervous tissue. It describes the nervous system as a network of specialized cells that carry information throughout the body. It also summarizes the key parts of the nervous system including the central nervous system made up of the brain and spinal cord, as well as the peripheral nervous system. It outlines the somatic and autonomic nervous systems and their functions in controlling voluntary and involuntary actions.
This document discusses sensory and motor pathways in the human body. It begins by listing the key learning outcomes, which include describing sensory receptors, pathways in the spinal cord and brain, motor neurons and tracts, and the corticospinal tract. It then discusses myelinated and non-myelinated nerve fibers, how they conduct impulses, and their roles. The document proceeds to explain sensory pathways from receptors to the brain, motor pathways from the brain to muscles, and provides diagrams of sensory and motor tracts in the spinal cord. It concludes by describing functions of sensory and motor neurons.
The document discusses the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system. It describes the main components of the nervous system including neurons, glial cells, and nerves. It explains the structure and function of the central nervous system including the brainstem, cerebellum, diencephalon, and cerebrum. It also discusses disorders that can affect the nervous system such as multiple sclerosis, tumors, strokes, and seizures. Various imaging techniques used to study the brain are also outlined such as EEG, CT scans, MRI, and PET scans.
This document provides an overview of the biological basis of behavior, including the structure and function of the nervous system. It discusses neurons, neurotransmitters, and how they communicate between each other. It describes the divisions and parts of the brain, including the cerebral cortex and limbic system. Tools for studying the nervous system like EEG, MRI, and PET scans are also summarized. The relationship between genetics, genes, and behavior is briefly covered. The endocrine and autonomic nervous systems are defined and compared.
Indian Dental Academy: will be one of the most relevant and exciting training center with best faculty and flexible training programs for dental professionals who wish to advance in their dental practice,Offers certified courses in Dental implants,Orthodontics,Endodontics,Cosmetic Dentistry, Prosthetic Dentistry, Periodontics and General Dentistry.
Physiological psychology describes the biological mechanisms underlying behavior. Behavior involves muscular movements that can be studied across species. A species' physiology must be adapted to its environment for survival. The brain is composed of specialized regions that carry out distinct functions. Key regions include the frontal lobe, which controls decision-making and emotional responses, and the hippocampus, which is crucial for memory formation and retrieval. Physiological techniques like brain imaging and lesion studies provide insights into the neural underpinnings of behavior.
Neurons are the basic structural and functional units of the nervous system. They transmit electrical and chemical signals and have three main parts - the cell body, dendrites, and axon. The cell body contains the nucleus. Dendrites receive signals and the long axon conducts signals away from the cell body. Neurons communicate with each other via synapses, where neurotransmitters are released by the presynaptic neuron and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell. This allows signals to be transmitted electrically along neurons and chemically between neurons.
The document provides an overview of the basic concepts of neuroscience. It describes the central nervous system as consisting of the brain and spinal cord, which integrate and coordinate activities in the body. The peripheral nervous system connects the central nervous system to other parts of the body and environment. Within the nervous system, neurons are the basic functional units that transmit electrochemical signals. The document also discusses the structure and functions of key components like the cerebrum, cerebrospinal fluid, spinal cord, and autonomic and somatic nervous systems. It addresses questions about topics such as the differences between central and peripheral nervous systems, components of neurons, and the roles of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
The document provides an overview of the nervous system, including:
1. It describes the organization and main components of the nervous system, including neurons, neuroglia, nerves, and the central and peripheral nervous systems.
2. It explains the functions of the nervous system in sensation, motor control, and higher cognitive processes. It also describes the types of sensory receptors and motor responses.
3. It provides details on the structure and function of neurons, neurotransmission, and the generation and propagation of nerve impulses through neurons.
The document discusses the structure and function of the nervous system. It describes the central nervous system, which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, which relays messages between the central nervous system and the rest of the body. It then discusses the basic unit of the nervous system, the neuron, including its main parts like dendrites, the cell body, and axon. It also explains how neurons communicate electrically within themselves and chemically between each other using neurotransmitters. Imaging techniques like EEG, CT, MRI, fMRI, and PET are also summarized that are used to study the brain.
Optogenetics is a technique that uses light to control neurons that have been genetically modified to express light-sensitive ion channels. It allows scientists to precisely stimulate or silence neural activity by exposing specific neurons to light. The first demonstration of optogenetics in mammalian neurons used channelrhodopsin, a light-activated ion channel from algae, to activate neurons with light. Optogenetics holds promise for advancing understanding of brain function and developing new treatments for neurological disorders like Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, and blindness through targeted neuromodulation with light. Challenges include improving light-sensitive tools and light sources to target deeper brain regions.
The document discusses the nervous system and immune system. It provides information on the types of cells in the nervous system including neurons, glial cells, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and microglia. It describes how neurons transmit signals through electrical impulses and the role of synapses. The immune system sections covers the different blood cells, organs of the immune system like the spleen and lymph nodes, and how the lymphatic system connects these organs to monitor the body for invading microbes.
The document discusses the structure and function of the nervous system. It describes how the nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Neurons are the basic functional units that transmit signals in the nervous system. The document outlines the main parts of neurons including the cell body, dendrites, axon, and myelin sheath. It also describes the different types of neurons and specialized cells that support neurons called neuroglial cells.
The document discusses the structure and function of neurons and the nervous system. It notes that neurons are the basic building blocks and come in three types: sensory, motor, and interneurons. It describes the parts of neurons and how they communicate via action potentials. The central topics covered include the brain and its major parts like the cerebral cortex, limbic system, and how scanning technologies provide insights into brain function.
The nervous system is made up of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The brain controls most body functions, including awareness, movements, sensations, thoughts, speech and memory.
This document provides an overview of neuropharmacology and neurotransmission. It defines neuropharmacology and describes the two main branches. It explains what neurotransmission is and how it works, describing the role of neurons, neurotransmitters, and the mechanism of neurotransmission. It discusses different types of neurons, neurotransmitters like acetylcholine and dopamine, and conditions they are involved in like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. The document also provides interesting facts about neurons and neurotransmitters. It concludes with a recent discovery about how endocannabinoids travel in the brain to reach receptors.
Computational neuropharmacology drug designingRevathi Boyina
This document discusses computational neuropharmacology, which uses computational modeling approaches from neuroscience and dynamical systems theory integrated with traditional neuropharmacological methods to study drug effects on the brain and behavior. It describes how computational models are used in neuroscience to simulate neurons, neural circuits, and brain regions. It suggests computational neuropharmacology could help integrate molecular and systems-level descriptions of the nervous system to analyze drug effects on neural activity patterns and behavioral states. This may provide strategies for molecular screening of drugs and searching for target-specific drugs to shift pathological brain dynamics to normal patterns.
The nervous system is organized into two main parts - the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord and acts as the command center that processes sensory input and directs motor output. The PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body and senses the external environment via sensory receptors. Communication between neurons is mediated by electrical and chemical signals. The nervous system works with the endocrine system to maintain homeostasis via reflexes and other rapid or slower responses.
This document discusses EEG (electroencephalography) and provides an overview of several key topics:
- It outlines the agenda/topics to be covered including the history of EEG, neural activities, action potentials, EEG generation, brain rhythms, recording and measurement techniques, abnormal EEG patterns, aging effects, and mental disorders.
- It describes how EEG signals are generated by the electrical activity of neurons in the brain and measured via electrodes on the scalp. Different brain wave frequencies (rhythms) can be identified in the EEG based on amplitude and frequency.
- Recording, measuring, and processing EEG signals requires electrodes, amplifiers, filters, and techniques like sampling to convert the analog signals to digital
The document provides an overview of the biological perspective and the nervous system. It discusses the structure and function of neurons, nerves, and the nervous tissue. It describes the nervous system as a network of specialized cells that carry information throughout the body. It also summarizes the key parts of the nervous system including the central nervous system made up of the brain and spinal cord, as well as the peripheral nervous system. It outlines the somatic and autonomic nervous systems and their functions in controlling voluntary and involuntary actions.
This document discusses sensory and motor pathways in the human body. It begins by listing the key learning outcomes, which include describing sensory receptors, pathways in the spinal cord and brain, motor neurons and tracts, and the corticospinal tract. It then discusses myelinated and non-myelinated nerve fibers, how they conduct impulses, and their roles. The document proceeds to explain sensory pathways from receptors to the brain, motor pathways from the brain to muscles, and provides diagrams of sensory and motor tracts in the spinal cord. It concludes by describing functions of sensory and motor neurons.
The document discusses the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system. It describes the main components of the nervous system including neurons, glial cells, and nerves. It explains the structure and function of the central nervous system including the brainstem, cerebellum, diencephalon, and cerebrum. It also discusses disorders that can affect the nervous system such as multiple sclerosis, tumors, strokes, and seizures. Various imaging techniques used to study the brain are also outlined such as EEG, CT scans, MRI, and PET scans.
This document provides an overview of the biological basis of behavior, including the structure and function of the nervous system. It discusses neurons, neurotransmitters, and how they communicate between each other. It describes the divisions and parts of the brain, including the cerebral cortex and limbic system. Tools for studying the nervous system like EEG, MRI, and PET scans are also summarized. The relationship between genetics, genes, and behavior is briefly covered. The endocrine and autonomic nervous systems are defined and compared.
Indian Dental Academy: will be one of the most relevant and exciting training center with best faculty and flexible training programs for dental professionals who wish to advance in their dental practice,Offers certified courses in Dental implants,Orthodontics,Endodontics,Cosmetic Dentistry, Prosthetic Dentistry, Periodontics and General Dentistry.
Physiological psychology describes the biological mechanisms underlying behavior. Behavior involves muscular movements that can be studied across species. A species' physiology must be adapted to its environment for survival. The brain is composed of specialized regions that carry out distinct functions. Key regions include the frontal lobe, which controls decision-making and emotional responses, and the hippocampus, which is crucial for memory formation and retrieval. Physiological techniques like brain imaging and lesion studies provide insights into the neural underpinnings of behavior.
Neurons are the basic structural and functional units of the nervous system. They transmit electrical and chemical signals and have three main parts - the cell body, dendrites, and axon. The cell body contains the nucleus. Dendrites receive signals and the long axon conducts signals away from the cell body. Neurons communicate with each other via synapses, where neurotransmitters are released by the presynaptic neuron and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell. This allows signals to be transmitted electrically along neurons and chemically between neurons.
The document provides an overview of the basic concepts of neuroscience. It describes the central nervous system as consisting of the brain and spinal cord, which integrate and coordinate activities in the body. The peripheral nervous system connects the central nervous system to other parts of the body and environment. Within the nervous system, neurons are the basic functional units that transmit electrochemical signals. The document also discusses the structure and functions of key components like the cerebrum, cerebrospinal fluid, spinal cord, and autonomic and somatic nervous systems. It addresses questions about topics such as the differences between central and peripheral nervous systems, components of neurons, and the roles of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
The document provides an overview of the nervous system, including:
1. It describes the organization and main components of the nervous system, including neurons, neuroglia, nerves, and the central and peripheral nervous systems.
2. It explains the functions of the nervous system in sensation, motor control, and higher cognitive processes. It also describes the types of sensory receptors and motor responses.
3. It provides details on the structure and function of neurons, neurotransmission, and the generation and propagation of nerve impulses through neurons.
The document discusses the structure and function of the nervous system. It describes the central nervous system, which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, which relays messages between the central nervous system and the rest of the body. It then discusses the basic unit of the nervous system, the neuron, including its main parts like dendrites, the cell body, and axon. It also explains how neurons communicate electrically within themselves and chemically between each other using neurotransmitters. Imaging techniques like EEG, CT, MRI, fMRI, and PET are also summarized that are used to study the brain.
Optogenetics is a technique that uses light to control neurons that have been genetically modified to express light-sensitive ion channels. It allows scientists to precisely stimulate or silence neural activity by exposing specific neurons to light. The first demonstration of optogenetics in mammalian neurons used channelrhodopsin, a light-activated ion channel from algae, to activate neurons with light. Optogenetics holds promise for advancing understanding of brain function and developing new treatments for neurological disorders like Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, and blindness through targeted neuromodulation with light. Challenges include improving light-sensitive tools and light sources to target deeper brain regions.
The document discusses the nervous system and immune system. It provides information on the types of cells in the nervous system including neurons, glial cells, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and microglia. It describes how neurons transmit signals through electrical impulses and the role of synapses. The immune system sections covers the different blood cells, organs of the immune system like the spleen and lymph nodes, and how the lymphatic system connects these organs to monitor the body for invading microbes.
The document discusses the structure and function of the nervous system. It describes how the nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Neurons are the basic functional units that transmit signals in the nervous system. The document outlines the main parts of neurons including the cell body, dendrites, axon, and myelin sheath. It also describes the different types of neurons and specialized cells that support neurons called neuroglial cells.
Histololgy of Female Reproductive System.pptxAyeshaZaid1
Dive into an in-depth exploration of the histological structure of female reproductive system with this comprehensive lecture. Presented by Dr. Ayesha Irfan, Assistant Professor of Anatomy, this presentation covers the Gross anatomy and functional histology of the female reproductive organs. Ideal for students, educators, and anyone interested in medical science, this lecture provides clear explanations, detailed diagrams, and valuable insights into female reproductive system. Enhance your knowledge and understanding of this essential aspect of human biology.
10 Benefits an EPCR Software should Bring to EMS Organizations Traumasoft LLC
The benefits of an ePCR solution should extend to the whole EMS organization, not just certain groups of people or certain departments. It should provide more than just a form for entering and a database for storing information. It should also include a workflow of how information is communicated, used and stored across the entire organization.
Cell Therapy Expansion and Challenges in Autoimmune DiseaseHealth Advances
There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
8 Surprising Reasons To Meditate 40 Minutes A Day That Can Change Your Life.pptxHolistified Wellness
We’re talking about Vedic Meditation, a form of meditation that has been around for at least 5,000 years. Back then, the people who lived in the Indus Valley, now known as India and Pakistan, practised meditation as a fundamental part of daily life. This knowledge that has given us yoga and Ayurveda, was known as Veda, hence the name Vedic. And though there are some written records, the practice has been passed down verbally from generation to generation.
Travel Clinic Cardiff: Health Advice for International TravelersNX Healthcare
Travel Clinic Cardiff offers comprehensive travel health services, including vaccinations, travel advice, and preventive care for international travelers. Our expert team ensures you are well-prepared and protected for your journey, providing personalized consultations tailored to your destination. Conveniently located in Cardiff, we help you travel with confidence and peace of mind. Visit us: www.nxhealthcare.co.uk
Osteoporosis - Definition , Evaluation and Management .pdfJim Jacob Roy
Osteoporosis is an increasing cause of morbidity among the elderly.
In this document , a brief outline of osteoporosis is given , including the risk factors of osteoporosis fractures , the indications for testing bone mineral density and the management of osteoporosis
Travel vaccination in Manchester offers comprehensive immunization services for individuals planning international trips. Expert healthcare providers administer vaccines tailored to your destination, ensuring you stay protected against various diseases. Conveniently located clinics and flexible appointment options make it easy to get the necessary shots before your journey. Stay healthy and travel with confidence by getting vaccinated in Manchester. Visit us: www.nxhealthcare.co.uk
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a simplified look into the mechanisms involved in the regulation of respiration:
Learning objectives:
1. Describe the organisation of respiratory center
2. Describe the nervous control of inspiration and respiratory rhythm
3. Describe the functions of the dorsal and respiratory groups of neurons
4. Describe the influences of the Pneumotaxic and Apneustic centers
5. Explain the role of Hering-Breur inflation reflex in regulation of inspiration
6. Explain the role of central chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
7. Explain the role of peripheral chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
8. Explain the regulation of respiration during exercise
9. Integrate the respiratory regulatory mechanisms
10. Describe the Cheyne-Stokes breathing
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 42, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 36, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 13, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
2. Research Methods
• Experimental Ablation
– Evaluating the behavioural effects of brain damage
– Producing brain lesions
– Stereotaxic surgery
– Histological methods
– Tracing neural connections
– Study of the living human brain
• Recording and Stimulating Neural Activity
– Recording neural activity
– Recording the brain’s metabolic and synaptic activity
– Measuring the brain’s secretion
– Stimulating neural activity
– Behavioural effects of electrical stimulation
• Neurochemical Methods
– Finding neurons that’s produce particular neurochemicals
– Localizing particular receptors
• Genetic Methods
– Twin studies
– Adoption studies
– Targeted mutations
3. Experimental Ablation
• Investigating brain functions involves destroying parts
of the brain and evaluating the animal’s subsequent
behaviour.
• Evaluating the behavioural effects of brain damage-
– Lesion- Wound or injury.
– Lesion studies- Experiments in which part of the brain is
damaged and the animal’s behaviour is observed.
– Goal- To discover what functions are performed by
different regions of the brain and how these combine to
accomplish particular behaviours.
– Must be careful about interpretations of behaviour shown
by animals after brain damage.
– Differentiation between brain function and behaviour
4. • Producing brain lesions
– On the surface- Anesthetize -> Open scalp -> Remove part of the
skull -> Cut through dura mater -> Suction device to aspirate the
brain tissue.
– In the subcortical regions- Produced by passing electrical
currents through a stainless steel wire that is coated in
insulating varnish except for the tip. Guiding wire stereotaxically
-> Turn on the lesion making device -> Produces radio frequency
-> Generates heat that kills cells in the region surrounding the
tip of the electrode.
– Excitotoxic lesions- Killing neurons by using kainic acid that
overstimulates neurons to death. Allows for selective
destruction of neurons and spares axons of surrounding
neurons.
– Sham lesions- A placebo procedure that duplicates all the steps
of producing a brain lesion except for the one that causes the
brain damage. Done to establish a control group.
– Reversible brain lesion- Using muscimol to anesthesize a region
of the brain by stimulating GABA receptors.
5. • Stereotaxic surgery
– Brain surgery using a
stereotaxic apparatus
to position an
electrode or cannula in
a specified field
position of the brain.
Done using stereotaxic
apparatus.
– Stereotaxic atlas- A
collection of drawings
of sections of the brain
of a particular animal
with measurements
that provide
coordinates of
stereotaxic surgery.
6. • Histological methods
– Fixing, slicing, staining and observing the brain.
– Fixation and sectioning- Using formaldehyde to
harden the soft brain tissue and to avoid autolysis.
– Microtome- Used to cut thin slices of brain
– Staining- To reveal fine details and cellular
structures. Most common is a cell-body stain done
by using methylene blue or cresyl violet. The
substance that picks up the dye is called Nissl
substance after Franz Nissl. Consists of RNA, DNA
and other proteins.
7. • Electron Microscopy
– Helpful in observing small
anatomical structures
such as synaptic vesicles.
– A beam of electrons is
passed through the
tissues which casts a
shadow onto the
photographic plate
exposed by the electrons.
– Scanning electron
microscope- A microscope
that provides 3-d
information about the
shape of the surface of a
small object.
8. • Tracing neural connections
– Tracing efferent neurons-
• Anterograde labeling method- A histological method
that labels axons and terminal buttons of neurons
whose cell bodies are located in a particular region.
• PHA-L- A protein (lectins) derived from kidney beans
and used as an anterograde tracer, taken up by
dendrites and cell bodies, and carried to the ends of
the axons. Binds with specific complex molecule
present in the cells of the immune system.
• Immunocytochemical method- A histological method
that uses radioactive antibodies or antibodies bound
with a dye molecule to indicate the presence of
particular proteins of peptides.
9. – Tracing afferent neurons
• Retrograde labelling method-
A histological method that
labels cell bodies that give rise
to the terminal buttons that
form synapses with cells in a
particular region.
• Fluorogold- A dye that serves
as a retrograde label taken up
by the terminal buttons and
carried back to the cell
bodies.
– Transneuronal tracing-
Identifies a series of
multiple neurons that form
serial synaptic connections
with each other.
• Pseudorabies virus- A
weakened form of pig herpes
virus used for transneuronal
tracing, which labels
interconnected series of
neurons.
10. • Study of the living human
brain
– Computerized
tomography (CT scan)-
The use of device that
employs a computer to
analyze data obtained by a
scanning beam of X-rays
to produce a 2-d picture of
a slice through the body.
– Magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI)- A
technique whereby the
interior of the body can be
accurately imaged and it
involves the interaction
between radio waves and
a strong magnetic field.
Picks up radio waves
emitted by hydrogen
atoms.
11. Recording and stimulating neural activity
• Recording neural activity
– Studying the changes in the electrical activity of a particular region can be
used to determine if that region plays a role in various behaviours.
Recordings can be made:
• Chronically- over an extended period of time after the animal recovers
from surgery.
• Acutely- over a relatively short period of time during which the animal is
kept anesthetized.
– Recordings can be made using-
• Microelectrodes- Are very fine electrodes used to record activity of
individual neurons. Recording the activity of a single neuron is also
called single-unit recording.
• Macroelectrodes- An electrode used to record the electrical activity of
large number of neurons in a particular region of the brain. A form of
representation of data from macroelectrodes in ink-writing oscillograph
or polygraph. Recording from a person’s scalp are called
electroencephalograms (EEG).
• Magnetoencephalography- A procedure that detects groups of
synchronously activated neurons by means of the magnetic field induced
by their electrical activity. Uses an array of superconducting quantum
interference devices (SQUID).
12. • Recording the brain’s metabolic and synaptic activity
– 2-deoxyglucose (2DG)- A sugar that enters calls along with
glucose but is not metabolized. Done to see the rate of
metabolism in cells. High cell activity = high cell metabolism =
high absorption of 2DG.
– Autoradiography- A procedure that locates radioactive
substances in the slice of tissue. The radiation exposes a
photographic emulsion or a piece of film that covers the tissue.
– Immediately early genes and Fos- Particular genes in the
nucleus respond to nuclear activation by releasing proteins such
as Fos that bind with the chromosomes in the nucleus. These
proteins can be traced by using methods like staining.
– Positron emission tomography (PET)- The use of a device that
reveals the localization of a radioactive tracer in a living brain.
Mostly radioactive 2-DG or radioactive water that emit
positrons while decaying.
– Functional MRI (fMRI)- A modification of the MRI procedure
that permits the measurement of regional metabolism in the
brain. Detects levels of oxygen in brain’s blood.
13. • Measuring the
brain’s secretions
– Microdialysis- A
procedure for
analysing
chemicals present
in the interstitial
fluid through a
small piece of
tubing made of a
semipermeable
membrane that is
implanted in the
brain.
14. • Stimulating neural activity
– Electrical- By passing electrical current through
the wire inserted into the brain.
– Chemical- By injecting excitatory amino acids such
as kainic acid or glutamic acid.
• Disadvantage- Slightly more complicated than
electrical. Uses cannula, tubes, solutions of amino
acids.
• Advantage- Activates cell-bodies but not axons. This
effects can be studies in a more localized manner.
15. • Behavioural effects of electrical brain stimulation
– Electrical impulses can be used to generate
behaviours, however they are never truly as natural as
naturally occurring neural impulses. One of the ways
in which this can be achieved is by activating
modulators in the brain that help in secreting other
hormones such as activating acetylcholine that
activates cerebral cortex.
– Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)- Stimulation
of the cerebral cortex by means of magnetic fields
produced by passing pulses of electricity through the
coil of wire placed next to the skull. It interferes with
the functions of the brain region that is stimulated.
16. Neurochemical methods
• Finding neurons that produce particular
neurochemicals. For ex., organophosphate insecticides
directly activate the neural circuits responsible for
dreaming. Are acetylcholinesterase inhibitors. Three
ways in which we can detect where the insecticide acts
in the brain:
– Look for neurons that contains acetylcholine (localize
neurotransmitters and neuromodulators)
• Localizing the chemicals themselves
• The enzymes that produce them
– Look for the enzyme acetylcholinesterase
– Look for acetylcholine receptors
• Autoradiography- Using radioactive ligand-brain tissue
interaction
• Immunocytochemistry- Using antigen-antibody
interaction
17. Genetic methods
• Twin studies- Studying concordance rate for a
particular trait in monozygotic and dizygotic twins.
– Concordant- If both twins are diagnosed with a disorder
– Discordant- if one out the two got a diagnosis of the
disorder.
– Any disorder with a genetic basis would have a higher
concordance in identical twins than fraternal twins.
• Adoption studies- Estimating the heritability of a
particular behavioural trait is to compare people who
were adopted early in their lives with their biological
and adoptive parents.
• Targeted mutation- Mutated genes (knockout genes)
produced in labs and inserted into chromosomes of
animals. Do not produce functional proteins.