Research an AAPI Project Overview Final
Assignment
You will need to write a brief biography of their life in your own words, apply course texts to specific aspects of their life and career, and argue for their contributions to and/or influence on Asian America. Your project should also include at least one picture of the person(s) you’re researching. Other visual aids, such as PowerPoints, are optional, but may enhance the presentation of your project.
Research and Sources
EVERYONE needs to do research for this project.
Required Sources (at least 4 total):
· at least two sources from readings on our syllabus
-at least one must be from KAAS
· at least two outside sources
-at least one should be a scholarly article from an academic, peer-reviewed journal. The scholarly article does not need to necessarily address your figure directly, but must be applicable to an aspect of their life.
Word Limit, Format, etc
The entire assignment should be 1000-1250 words (4-5 pages). You should maintain objectivity in your project and write in the third person (he, she, they). You should cite the sources when you paraphrase or directly quote material. I prefer MLA citation and formatting; MLA information is available on Canvas in the “Course Information” module. Please include a Works Cited page, or you may include the Works Cited entries below the last line of content.
Student: ____________________
Project Grade: /150
Criteria for Evaluation—Research Project Strong Satisfactory Needs
Improvement
Comments
TOPIC: The project is about a significant Asian
American or Pacific Islander figure, historical
or contemporary.
/5
BIOGRAPHY: The project provides a brief
biography of the figure in the student’s own
words. This biography covers personal and
professional aspects of the figure’s life, and
provides enough relevant information and
context for someone unfamiliar with this
person.
/20
RESEARCH: The project uses appropriate,
relevant, and reputable sources (syllabus,
scholarly, creative, etc).
/20
APPLYING SOURCES & ANALYSIS: The project
thoughtfully applies the sources to and
analyzes aspects of the figure’s life. The
application of sources and analysis is
deliberate and appropriate, and
demonstrates strong and original insights.
/20
SIGNIFICANCE: The project effectively argues
for the figure’s contributions to and/or
influence on Asian America; this argument is
well-supported by the biography and previous
analysis.
/20
CONTEXTS: The project demonstrates a clear
and strong understanding of historical, social,
intellectual, and/or cultural contexts.
/40
GRAMMAR, etc: The project is coherent and
well-organized, free ...
IntroductionIn this paper complete all the required activities a.docxvrickens
Introduction
In this paper complete all the required activities and answer the reflection questions. This assignment will help extend your understanding of the unit topics and concepts to applications in everyday life. Please respond to all of the questions in paragraph form with the question numbers labeled. You should incorporate concepts from the readings into your answers and cite the readings as needed. The paper should be 2-3 pages and submitted via Canvas by Sunday 11:59 pm CT.
Directions
Question 1
Watch the clip linked below that describes race as a social constructed category. Why is a color-blind approach to racial inequality not effective? Describe examples of how racial inequality is reproduced by social institutions. Why Color Blindness Will NOT End Racism | Decoded | MTV News (Links to an external site.)
Question 2
The racial gap in wealth is a good example of intersectionality in social problems.
· Explain how homeownership and neighborhood segregation is an example of the connection between wealth and racial inequalities.
· How have policies and histories impacted the current racial gap in wealth?
· To inform your response watch the following film clip, research the history and current state of segregation and home value in your city (or nearest major city), and examine the graph below.
Video Clip:
Race the House we Live In (Links to an external site.)
Reasearch:
The Washington Post: America is more diverse than ever- but still segregated (Links to an external site.)
Reading Journals (10% or 100 points total / 8) Each week for weeks 2-9, you will complete and submit a reading journal that summarizes the main points from the week’s reading and discusses ideas you developed based on the readings. The length and style are at your discretion. I cannot imagine that you would be able to adequately summarize and reflect on the week’s readings in less than two pages, but you might. It will be most helpful to you if you complete these weekly.
There are three grade possibilities for these assignments:
12.5 = You submitted something and it met expectations by engaging all the readings;
9 = You submitted something and it did not meet expectations;
0 = You did not submit anything. This is almost a simple “check” assignment.
The “9” grade is for those submissions that show you have not done (all) the reading or not done it thoroughly.
These assignments are mainly for you to a) keep you on track and b) give you a record of your ideas about the readings.
Length: 2+ pages Style: Informal, Formal, Academic, Whatever Works For You Citation: Mention the authors, use quotations marks, and, if it’s helpful for you, refer to pages.
The Problem of Biculturalism: Japanese American Identity and Festival before World War
II
Author(s): Lon Kurashige
Source: The Journal of American History, Vol. 86, No. 4 (Mar., 2000), pp. 1632-1654
Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of Organization of American Historians
Stable ...
Reading Journals (10 or 100 points total 8) Each week for weeks.docxsedgar5
Reading Journals (10% or 100 points total / 8) Each week for weeks 2-9, you will complete and submit a reading journal that summarizes the main points from the week’s reading and discusses ideas you developed based on the readings. The length and style are at your discretion. I cannot imagine that you would be able to adequately summarize and reflect on the week’s readings in less than two pages, but you might. It will be most helpful to you if you complete these weekly.
There are three grade possibilities for these assignments:
12.5 = You submitted something and it met expectations by engaging all the readings;
9 = You submitted something and it did not meet expectations;
0 = You did not submit anything. This is almost a simple “check” assignment.
The “9” grade is for those submissions that show you have not done (all) the reading or not done it thoroughly.
These assignments are mainly for you to a) keep you on track and b) give you a record of your ideas about the readings.
Length: 2+ pages Style: Informal, Formal, Academic, Whatever Works For You Citation: Mention the authors, use quotations marks, and, if it’s helpful for you, refer to pages.
The Problem of Biculturalism: Japanese American Identity and Festival before World War
II
Author(s): Lon Kurashige
Source: The Journal of American History, Vol. 86, No. 4 (Mar., 2000), pp. 1632-1654
Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of Organization of American Historians
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2567581
Accessed: 22-01-2020 05:46 UTC
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms
Organization of American Historians, Oxford University Press are collaborating with
JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Journal of American History
This content downloaded from 169.231.96.149 on Wed, 22 Jan 2020 05:46:46 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
The Problem of Biculturalism:
Japanese American Identity and
Festival before World War II
Lon Kurashige
On May 23, 1934, Mihiko Shimizu persuaded the leading association of Japanese
immigrants in Los Angeles to establish a celebration in honor of their American-
born children. Such a Nisei, or second-generation, festival, he asserted, was needed
to reenergize the small businesses of Little Tokyo, which no longer enjoyed the rapid
growth and prosperity they had in the 191 Os and 1920s.1 Shimizu saw the sluggish
market for his dry goods as an indication of a long-term trend that would prove
more devastating to Japanese retailing than the current depression.
IntroductionIn this paper complete all the required activities a.docxvrickens
Introduction
In this paper complete all the required activities and answer the reflection questions. This assignment will help extend your understanding of the unit topics and concepts to applications in everyday life. Please respond to all of the questions in paragraph form with the question numbers labeled. You should incorporate concepts from the readings into your answers and cite the readings as needed. The paper should be 2-3 pages and submitted via Canvas by Sunday 11:59 pm CT.
Directions
Question 1
Watch the clip linked below that describes race as a social constructed category. Why is a color-blind approach to racial inequality not effective? Describe examples of how racial inequality is reproduced by social institutions. Why Color Blindness Will NOT End Racism | Decoded | MTV News (Links to an external site.)
Question 2
The racial gap in wealth is a good example of intersectionality in social problems.
· Explain how homeownership and neighborhood segregation is an example of the connection between wealth and racial inequalities.
· How have policies and histories impacted the current racial gap in wealth?
· To inform your response watch the following film clip, research the history and current state of segregation and home value in your city (or nearest major city), and examine the graph below.
Video Clip:
Race the House we Live In (Links to an external site.)
Reasearch:
The Washington Post: America is more diverse than ever- but still segregated (Links to an external site.)
Reading Journals (10% or 100 points total / 8) Each week for weeks 2-9, you will complete and submit a reading journal that summarizes the main points from the week’s reading and discusses ideas you developed based on the readings. The length and style are at your discretion. I cannot imagine that you would be able to adequately summarize and reflect on the week’s readings in less than two pages, but you might. It will be most helpful to you if you complete these weekly.
There are three grade possibilities for these assignments:
12.5 = You submitted something and it met expectations by engaging all the readings;
9 = You submitted something and it did not meet expectations;
0 = You did not submit anything. This is almost a simple “check” assignment.
The “9” grade is for those submissions that show you have not done (all) the reading or not done it thoroughly.
These assignments are mainly for you to a) keep you on track and b) give you a record of your ideas about the readings.
Length: 2+ pages Style: Informal, Formal, Academic, Whatever Works For You Citation: Mention the authors, use quotations marks, and, if it’s helpful for you, refer to pages.
The Problem of Biculturalism: Japanese American Identity and Festival before World War
II
Author(s): Lon Kurashige
Source: The Journal of American History, Vol. 86, No. 4 (Mar., 2000), pp. 1632-1654
Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of Organization of American Historians
Stable ...
Reading Journals (10 or 100 points total 8) Each week for weeks.docxsedgar5
Reading Journals (10% or 100 points total / 8) Each week for weeks 2-9, you will complete and submit a reading journal that summarizes the main points from the week’s reading and discusses ideas you developed based on the readings. The length and style are at your discretion. I cannot imagine that you would be able to adequately summarize and reflect on the week’s readings in less than two pages, but you might. It will be most helpful to you if you complete these weekly.
There are three grade possibilities for these assignments:
12.5 = You submitted something and it met expectations by engaging all the readings;
9 = You submitted something and it did not meet expectations;
0 = You did not submit anything. This is almost a simple “check” assignment.
The “9” grade is for those submissions that show you have not done (all) the reading or not done it thoroughly.
These assignments are mainly for you to a) keep you on track and b) give you a record of your ideas about the readings.
Length: 2+ pages Style: Informal, Formal, Academic, Whatever Works For You Citation: Mention the authors, use quotations marks, and, if it’s helpful for you, refer to pages.
The Problem of Biculturalism: Japanese American Identity and Festival before World War
II
Author(s): Lon Kurashige
Source: The Journal of American History, Vol. 86, No. 4 (Mar., 2000), pp. 1632-1654
Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of Organization of American Historians
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2567581
Accessed: 22-01-2020 05:46 UTC
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms
Organization of American Historians, Oxford University Press are collaborating with
JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Journal of American History
This content downloaded from 169.231.96.149 on Wed, 22 Jan 2020 05:46:46 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
The Problem of Biculturalism:
Japanese American Identity and
Festival before World War II
Lon Kurashige
On May 23, 1934, Mihiko Shimizu persuaded the leading association of Japanese
immigrants in Los Angeles to establish a celebration in honor of their American-
born children. Such a Nisei, or second-generation, festival, he asserted, was needed
to reenergize the small businesses of Little Tokyo, which no longer enjoyed the rapid
growth and prosperity they had in the 191 Os and 1920s.1 Shimizu saw the sluggish
market for his dry goods as an indication of a long-term trend that would prove
more devastating to Japanese retailing than the current depression.
Naked - A Cultural History of American Nudism_140321221956.pdfSumni Uchiha
According to the data released by the NSO for the Financial Year 2021-22 on 31st May, 2022, the real GDP grew at the rate of 8.7 per cent. Thus, the growth rate of real GDP for India was higher than most of the other big economies. This is a clear indication that the Indian Economy is now on the path to recovery. But, challenges still remain in its way. The retail inflation is almost 8 per cent. The number of poor people is very high, the unemployment rate is at an alarming level, and a big part of the population is still grappling with malnutrition and undernutrition. According to the 'Report on Currency and Finance' published by the Reserve Bank of India on 28th April 2022, it will take another 10 years or more for the Indian Economy to recover fully from the adverse effects of COVID-19. All these issues have been adequately discussed in this 40th revised and updated edition of the book.
The organisation, structure and contents of the present edition are as follows:
Part I of the book 'Economic Development: A Theoretical Background' is divided into three chapters. It discusses the concepts of economic growth and development, common characteristics of underdeveloped countries, the role of economic and non-economic factors in economic development, the concept of human development, human development index, gender inequality index, multidimensional poverty index, etc., and issues concerning the relationship between environment and development.
Part II discusses the 'Structure of the Indian Economy' and consists of thirteen chapters. It is devoted to the discussion of various issues relating to the nature of the Indian economy including the natural resources and ecological issues, infrastructural development, population problem, unemployment and poverty (including a discussion on universal basic income), income growth and inequalities, etc.
Part III of the book 'Basic Issues in Agriculture' consists of nine chapters. It starts with a discussion of the role, nature and cropping pattern of Indian agriculture and then takes up for discussion the issues in Indian agricultural policy (including a review of the new global opportunities and challenges facing Indian agriculture in the wake of the various agreements concluded under WTO). We then proceed to a discussion of agricultural production and productivity trends, progress and failures in the field of land reform, green revolution and its impact on the rural economy of the country, agricultural finance and marketing, agricultural prices and agricultural price policy, the food security system in India, and agricultural labour.
Part IV on 'The Industrial Sector and Services in Indian Economy' consists of ten chapters. It starts with a discussion of industrial development during the period of planning and then proceeds to discuss some major industries of India. This is followed by a discussion of small-scale industries, industrial policy, role and performance of public sector enterprises, the issue o
A mini-archive of excerpts from published UWA Arts academics' works. Take a look at these essay-fragments to see how different scholars describe their argument.
Expand upon your 5 page midterm paper. Develop it into a 10-12 pa.docxSANSKAR20
Expand upon your 5 page midterm paper. Develop it into a 10-12 page paper
In your final paper, you’ll need to cite the following:SELECT TWO ESSAYS (2)
· Asian American Studies: A Reader
SELECT TWO PIECES (2)
· Charlie Chan is Dead 2: At Home in the World – An Anthology of Contemporary Asian American Fiction
SELECT ONE (you may use more than one from this group of texts) (1)
· Bulosan’s America Is in the Heart
· Kochiyama’s Passing it On: A Memoir
· Prashad’s Everybody Was Kung-Fu Fighting: Afro-Asian Connections and the Myth of Cultural Purity
SELECT TWO OF THE FOLLOWING FILMS ON RESERVE (links to the Said documentary provided below) (2)
Fires in the Mirrorhttp://www.pbs.org/now/shows/232/index.htmlhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hnkrUJny0CE
Yuri Kochiyama: A Passion for Justicehttp://www.wmm.com/filmcatalog/pages/c110.shtml
My America… Or Honk if you Love Buddhahttp://www.columbia.edu/cu/weai/exeas/films/my-america.html
Harvest of Empire: The Untold Story of Latinos in Americahttp://harvestofempiremovie.com/
Perfumed Nightmare (Mababangong Bangungot)http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/37745/The-Perfumed-Nightmare/overviewhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r7lMMIs_7lQ
Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a Peoplehttp://www.mediaed.org/cgi-bin/commerce.cgi?preadd=action&key=412http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ko_N4BcaIPY
Slaying the Dragon
http://www.asianwomenunited.org/slaying-the-dragon-asian-women-in-u-s-television-and-film-1988/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N3Ka_xIPsHE&feature=channel_video_title
Stuart Hall – On Origins of Cultural Studies
http://www.mediaed.org/cgi-bin/commerce.cgi?preadd=action&key=414
Tim Wise on White Privilege: Racism, White Denial & the Costs of Inequalityhttp://www.mediaed.org/cgi-bin/commerce.cgi?preadd=action&key=137
Who Killed Vincent Chin?http://www.pbs.org/pov/whokilledvincentchin/
Edward Said: On Orientalism (access from Dailymotion.com -- links below arranged in order – parts one to four) http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xcakwf_orientalism-1-edward-said_webcamhttp://www.dailymotion.com/video/xcbvfy_orientalism-2-edward-said_newshttp://www.dailymotion.com/video/xcasdg_orientalism-3-edward-said-methods-o_newshttp://www.dailymotion.com/video/xcasl5_orientalism-4-edward-said-palestini_creationhttp://www.mediaed.org/cgi-bin/commerce.cgi?preadd=action&key=403 (Media Education Foundation website)
SELECT ONE OF THE FOLLOWING ITEMS ON RESERVE (1)
· Asian Americans: Movement and the Moment (edited by Louie and Omatsu)
· Asian American Sexualities: Dimensions of the Gay and Lesbian Experience (edited by Leong)
· The Big Aiiieeeee!: An Anthology of Chinese and Japanese American Literature (edited by Chin, et al.)*
· Dragon Ladies: Asian American Feminists Breathe Fire (edited by Shah)
· The Forbidden Book: The Philippine American War in Political Cartoons (edited by de la Cruz, et al.)
· Island: Poetry and History of Chinese Immigrants on Angel Island, 1910-1940 (edited by Lai, et al.)
· Lone Heart Mountain ...
IntroductionYour current submission cites research from 1996 (cl.docxvrickens
Introduction
Your current submission cites research from 1996 (close to 25 years old) that references the use of calculators when your research problem focuses on 1:1 implementation
Recommendation: Use the ISTE Standards or current research to make your case as to the current role of digital resources in the current decade.
Your current submission states, “Research has shown both positive and negative impacts of technology implementation on student achievement.”, but there are no sources.
Recommendation: Cite reputable sources for this claim.
Your current submission states, “For all students of mathematics the calculator is an essential
tool.” This leads the reader to assume falsely that the study is focusing exclusively on the effect of calculator use on student achievement in mathematics.
Recommendation: Find a quote that addresses the broader issue of digital teaching and learning involving 1:1 implementation.
Statement of the Research Problem
Your current submission describes in detail a past study which is not the purpose of the Signature Project Stage 1 Chapter 1 submission.
Recommendation: The purpose of this section of the Chapter 1 submission is to justify briefly and concisely the rationale for your study leading to the following: The purpose of this study is to ______________. You are writing a research proposal for a hypothetical quasi-experimental or experimental study that has not been implemented, not summarizing in extensive detail someone else’s study.
Data and Identification of the Problem
Your current submission refers to this section as Data Graphic and Discussion and proceeds to describe in extensive detail the justification for this completed study, methodology for this completed study, the subjects for this completed study, and finally the data generated from this completed study.
Recommendation: Display Figure 1 and Table 1 and provide a two or three paragraph (maximum) summary of the data that argues how the data from this study supports your research problem statement. The final paragraph should read, For this study (meaning, your hypothetical study), the following question was addressed: ________? As part of this study, the investigation included one research hypothesis: _______________.
Impact on Student Achievement
Your current submission reports the findings from one completed study even though the research literature contains hundreds of studies investigating the impact of digital tools and resources within a 1:1 environment on student achievement.
Recommendation: Reference briefly the findings from the completed study and how it corroborates with findings from other research studies investigating the impact of digital learning within a 1:1 environment on student achievement.
Research Method
Your current submission does not include a research method for your proposed hypothetical study.
Recommendation: Add a section entitled, Research Method.
Summary
Your current submission does not summarize the key area ...
Biographical Criticism Essay. 003 Critique Essay Example Of Research Paper 13...xdqflrobf
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Pop Culture Across Cultures Context & DescriptionSouth Korea.docxChantellPantoja184
Pop Culture Across Cultures
Context & Description
South Korean pop artist Psy’s smash hit single “Gangnam Style” is more than just a song. It is a cultural phenomenon. The video has gone viral on YouTube, garnering over 600 MILLION hits in just three months, becoming the third-most viewed video on the website (YouTube.com). “Gangnam Style” has been remade and parodied by hundreds of people all around the world. Psy’s popularity has crossed over from South Korea to many countries including the United States. He has granted interviews to the Today Show and the Ellen DeGeneres Show, danced “Gangnam Style” with Britney Spears, and become one of the most popular Halloween costumes of 2012. And through this buzz in the United States, one thing remains the same: the song is sung in Korean (not English).
“Gangnam Style” is one of the many K-Pop (Korean Pop) songs in what Chinese journalists called the Korean wave (韓流), “a phenomenon that refers to the onslaught of South Korean entertainment in Asia and, more recently, in other parts of the world” (Valerio). Despite differences in language, Psy’s song is now a mainstay in popular (pop) culture in the United States and beyond. However, Psy’s “Gangnam Style” is definitely not the first K-Pop song to exist: groups like 2NE1 and BIGBANG are certainly popular in Korea, but they did not make as big of a splash as Psy’s hit. What was it that made “Gangnam Style” so popular? Why Psy? Why now? Is it Psy’s appearance? The dance associated with the song? The music itself? The lyrics? The splashy, fun music video? Or is it the catchy concept, “Dress classy and dance cheesy”? And what might be the influence of this song on K-Pop music in the US in the future?
The purpose of this project is to explore the nature of popularity by examining a transnational flow of pop culture--a situation that requires the negotiation of different values, assumptions and tastes. What makes a popular artifact from one culture “cross over” to other cultures? What makes the artifact popular in the first place? Why are people drawn to artifacts from certain countries? Why do people seek alternatives from other cultures? What ideological, social, cultural, political, economic, and/or historical factors affect the popularity of an artifact in different countries? What makes one artifact internationally appealing while other artifacts from the same country do not gain the same kind of popularity? How does the success of one artifact open the door for other artifacts from the same country?
Write a magazine article in which you analyze a transnational cultural artifact: a song, music video, user-created video, movie, blog, book, fashion style, celebrity, etc. In preparation for this project, explore the criteria that help explain what makes a cultural artifact popular in one context and consider how the same criteria may or may not apply to another context. Then, identify a pop culture artifact. It may be something that has crosse.
His 204 week 5 final paper native american historysivakumar4841
HIS 204 Week 5 Final Paper Native American history
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HIS 204 Week 4 Quiz
HIS 204 Week 4 DQ 2 Cold War
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HIS 204 Week 2 DQ 1 The Progressive Movement
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Mr. Bush, a 45-year-old middle school teacher arrives at the emergen.docxaudeleypearl
Mr. Bush, a 45-year-old middle school teacher arrives at the emergency department by EMS ground transport after he experienced severe mid-sternal chest pain at work. On arrival to the ED:
a. What priority interventions would you initiate?
b. What information would you require to definitively determine what was causing Mr. Bush’s chest pain?
.
Movie Project Presentation Movie TroyInclude Architecture i.docxaudeleypearl
Movie Project Presentation: Movie: Troy
Include: Architecture in the movie. Historical research to figure out if the movie did a good job of representing the art historical past of not. Anything in the movie that are related to art or art history. And provide its outline and bibliography (any website source is acceptable as well)
.
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Naked - A Cultural History of American Nudism_140321221956.pdfSumni Uchiha
According to the data released by the NSO for the Financial Year 2021-22 on 31st May, 2022, the real GDP grew at the rate of 8.7 per cent. Thus, the growth rate of real GDP for India was higher than most of the other big economies. This is a clear indication that the Indian Economy is now on the path to recovery. But, challenges still remain in its way. The retail inflation is almost 8 per cent. The number of poor people is very high, the unemployment rate is at an alarming level, and a big part of the population is still grappling with malnutrition and undernutrition. According to the 'Report on Currency and Finance' published by the Reserve Bank of India on 28th April 2022, it will take another 10 years or more for the Indian Economy to recover fully from the adverse effects of COVID-19. All these issues have been adequately discussed in this 40th revised and updated edition of the book.
The organisation, structure and contents of the present edition are as follows:
Part I of the book 'Economic Development: A Theoretical Background' is divided into three chapters. It discusses the concepts of economic growth and development, common characteristics of underdeveloped countries, the role of economic and non-economic factors in economic development, the concept of human development, human development index, gender inequality index, multidimensional poverty index, etc., and issues concerning the relationship between environment and development.
Part II discusses the 'Structure of the Indian Economy' and consists of thirteen chapters. It is devoted to the discussion of various issues relating to the nature of the Indian economy including the natural resources and ecological issues, infrastructural development, population problem, unemployment and poverty (including a discussion on universal basic income), income growth and inequalities, etc.
Part III of the book 'Basic Issues in Agriculture' consists of nine chapters. It starts with a discussion of the role, nature and cropping pattern of Indian agriculture and then takes up for discussion the issues in Indian agricultural policy (including a review of the new global opportunities and challenges facing Indian agriculture in the wake of the various agreements concluded under WTO). We then proceed to a discussion of agricultural production and productivity trends, progress and failures in the field of land reform, green revolution and its impact on the rural economy of the country, agricultural finance and marketing, agricultural prices and agricultural price policy, the food security system in India, and agricultural labour.
Part IV on 'The Industrial Sector and Services in Indian Economy' consists of ten chapters. It starts with a discussion of industrial development during the period of planning and then proceeds to discuss some major industries of India. This is followed by a discussion of small-scale industries, industrial policy, role and performance of public sector enterprises, the issue o
A mini-archive of excerpts from published UWA Arts academics' works. Take a look at these essay-fragments to see how different scholars describe their argument.
Expand upon your 5 page midterm paper. Develop it into a 10-12 pa.docxSANSKAR20
Expand upon your 5 page midterm paper. Develop it into a 10-12 page paper
In your final paper, you’ll need to cite the following:SELECT TWO ESSAYS (2)
· Asian American Studies: A Reader
SELECT TWO PIECES (2)
· Charlie Chan is Dead 2: At Home in the World – An Anthology of Contemporary Asian American Fiction
SELECT ONE (you may use more than one from this group of texts) (1)
· Bulosan’s America Is in the Heart
· Kochiyama’s Passing it On: A Memoir
· Prashad’s Everybody Was Kung-Fu Fighting: Afro-Asian Connections and the Myth of Cultural Purity
SELECT TWO OF THE FOLLOWING FILMS ON RESERVE (links to the Said documentary provided below) (2)
Fires in the Mirrorhttp://www.pbs.org/now/shows/232/index.htmlhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hnkrUJny0CE
Yuri Kochiyama: A Passion for Justicehttp://www.wmm.com/filmcatalog/pages/c110.shtml
My America… Or Honk if you Love Buddhahttp://www.columbia.edu/cu/weai/exeas/films/my-america.html
Harvest of Empire: The Untold Story of Latinos in Americahttp://harvestofempiremovie.com/
Perfumed Nightmare (Mababangong Bangungot)http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/37745/The-Perfumed-Nightmare/overviewhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r7lMMIs_7lQ
Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a Peoplehttp://www.mediaed.org/cgi-bin/commerce.cgi?preadd=action&key=412http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ko_N4BcaIPY
Slaying the Dragon
http://www.asianwomenunited.org/slaying-the-dragon-asian-women-in-u-s-television-and-film-1988/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N3Ka_xIPsHE&feature=channel_video_title
Stuart Hall – On Origins of Cultural Studies
http://www.mediaed.org/cgi-bin/commerce.cgi?preadd=action&key=414
Tim Wise on White Privilege: Racism, White Denial & the Costs of Inequalityhttp://www.mediaed.org/cgi-bin/commerce.cgi?preadd=action&key=137
Who Killed Vincent Chin?http://www.pbs.org/pov/whokilledvincentchin/
Edward Said: On Orientalism (access from Dailymotion.com -- links below arranged in order – parts one to four) http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xcakwf_orientalism-1-edward-said_webcamhttp://www.dailymotion.com/video/xcbvfy_orientalism-2-edward-said_newshttp://www.dailymotion.com/video/xcasdg_orientalism-3-edward-said-methods-o_newshttp://www.dailymotion.com/video/xcasl5_orientalism-4-edward-said-palestini_creationhttp://www.mediaed.org/cgi-bin/commerce.cgi?preadd=action&key=403 (Media Education Foundation website)
SELECT ONE OF THE FOLLOWING ITEMS ON RESERVE (1)
· Asian Americans: Movement and the Moment (edited by Louie and Omatsu)
· Asian American Sexualities: Dimensions of the Gay and Lesbian Experience (edited by Leong)
· The Big Aiiieeeee!: An Anthology of Chinese and Japanese American Literature (edited by Chin, et al.)*
· Dragon Ladies: Asian American Feminists Breathe Fire (edited by Shah)
· The Forbidden Book: The Philippine American War in Political Cartoons (edited by de la Cruz, et al.)
· Island: Poetry and History of Chinese Immigrants on Angel Island, 1910-1940 (edited by Lai, et al.)
· Lone Heart Mountain ...
IntroductionYour current submission cites research from 1996 (cl.docxvrickens
Introduction
Your current submission cites research from 1996 (close to 25 years old) that references the use of calculators when your research problem focuses on 1:1 implementation
Recommendation: Use the ISTE Standards or current research to make your case as to the current role of digital resources in the current decade.
Your current submission states, “Research has shown both positive and negative impacts of technology implementation on student achievement.”, but there are no sources.
Recommendation: Cite reputable sources for this claim.
Your current submission states, “For all students of mathematics the calculator is an essential
tool.” This leads the reader to assume falsely that the study is focusing exclusively on the effect of calculator use on student achievement in mathematics.
Recommendation: Find a quote that addresses the broader issue of digital teaching and learning involving 1:1 implementation.
Statement of the Research Problem
Your current submission describes in detail a past study which is not the purpose of the Signature Project Stage 1 Chapter 1 submission.
Recommendation: The purpose of this section of the Chapter 1 submission is to justify briefly and concisely the rationale for your study leading to the following: The purpose of this study is to ______________. You are writing a research proposal for a hypothetical quasi-experimental or experimental study that has not been implemented, not summarizing in extensive detail someone else’s study.
Data and Identification of the Problem
Your current submission refers to this section as Data Graphic and Discussion and proceeds to describe in extensive detail the justification for this completed study, methodology for this completed study, the subjects for this completed study, and finally the data generated from this completed study.
Recommendation: Display Figure 1 and Table 1 and provide a two or three paragraph (maximum) summary of the data that argues how the data from this study supports your research problem statement. The final paragraph should read, For this study (meaning, your hypothetical study), the following question was addressed: ________? As part of this study, the investigation included one research hypothesis: _______________.
Impact on Student Achievement
Your current submission reports the findings from one completed study even though the research literature contains hundreds of studies investigating the impact of digital tools and resources within a 1:1 environment on student achievement.
Recommendation: Reference briefly the findings from the completed study and how it corroborates with findings from other research studies investigating the impact of digital learning within a 1:1 environment on student achievement.
Research Method
Your current submission does not include a research method for your proposed hypothetical study.
Recommendation: Add a section entitled, Research Method.
Summary
Your current submission does not summarize the key area ...
Biographical Criticism Essay. 003 Critique Essay Example Of Research Paper 13...xdqflrobf
BIOGRAPHICAL CRITICISM.1.doc. 6 Texts for Introducing Biographical Criticism / Moore English. How to write a biographical criticism. Biographical Approach to Kate .... Biographical criticism definition. Biographical Criticism Definition .... 019 Essay Example Narrative Topics Biographical Sample For High Within .... Biographical criticism. How to write a biographical literary criticism - proofreadingwebsite .... Biographical criticism essay. Biographical Analysis Free Essay Example. PPT - Biographical and Historical Criticism PowerPoint Presentation .... 008 How To Write Biographical Essay Autobiography Example Thatsnotus. Reflection Essay: Examples of biographical essays. 020 Biography Essay Gre Analytical Writing Sample Essays Thatsnotus. PPT - Literary Analysis: Biographical Perspective PowerPoint .... Biographical Criticism English Biography Writers. Sample Of Biographical Essay Telegraph. Biography Criticism Biography Works. 003 Critique Essay Example Of Research Paper 131380 Thatsnotus. Formalist Criticism:. 007 Biography Essay Examples Free Writing An About Yourself How To .... School essay: Biographical essay examples. 013 Essay Example How To Start An Autobiographical Sample .... Biographical criticism essay - Reasearch amp; Essay Writings From HQ Writers. Literary Criticism Essay. PDF Biography in Literary Criticism. Historical and Biographical Approach on Hamlet. DOC Marxist Criticism Aina Singh - Academia.edu Biographical Criticism Essay Biographical Criticism Essay. 003 Critique Essay Example Of Research Paper 131380 Thatsnotus
Pop Culture Across Cultures Context & DescriptionSouth Korea.docxChantellPantoja184
Pop Culture Across Cultures
Context & Description
South Korean pop artist Psy’s smash hit single “Gangnam Style” is more than just a song. It is a cultural phenomenon. The video has gone viral on YouTube, garnering over 600 MILLION hits in just three months, becoming the third-most viewed video on the website (YouTube.com). “Gangnam Style” has been remade and parodied by hundreds of people all around the world. Psy’s popularity has crossed over from South Korea to many countries including the United States. He has granted interviews to the Today Show and the Ellen DeGeneres Show, danced “Gangnam Style” with Britney Spears, and become one of the most popular Halloween costumes of 2012. And through this buzz in the United States, one thing remains the same: the song is sung in Korean (not English).
“Gangnam Style” is one of the many K-Pop (Korean Pop) songs in what Chinese journalists called the Korean wave (韓流), “a phenomenon that refers to the onslaught of South Korean entertainment in Asia and, more recently, in other parts of the world” (Valerio). Despite differences in language, Psy’s song is now a mainstay in popular (pop) culture in the United States and beyond. However, Psy’s “Gangnam Style” is definitely not the first K-Pop song to exist: groups like 2NE1 and BIGBANG are certainly popular in Korea, but they did not make as big of a splash as Psy’s hit. What was it that made “Gangnam Style” so popular? Why Psy? Why now? Is it Psy’s appearance? The dance associated with the song? The music itself? The lyrics? The splashy, fun music video? Or is it the catchy concept, “Dress classy and dance cheesy”? And what might be the influence of this song on K-Pop music in the US in the future?
The purpose of this project is to explore the nature of popularity by examining a transnational flow of pop culture--a situation that requires the negotiation of different values, assumptions and tastes. What makes a popular artifact from one culture “cross over” to other cultures? What makes the artifact popular in the first place? Why are people drawn to artifacts from certain countries? Why do people seek alternatives from other cultures? What ideological, social, cultural, political, economic, and/or historical factors affect the popularity of an artifact in different countries? What makes one artifact internationally appealing while other artifacts from the same country do not gain the same kind of popularity? How does the success of one artifact open the door for other artifacts from the same country?
Write a magazine article in which you analyze a transnational cultural artifact: a song, music video, user-created video, movie, blog, book, fashion style, celebrity, etc. In preparation for this project, explore the criteria that help explain what makes a cultural artifact popular in one context and consider how the same criteria may or may not apply to another context. Then, identify a pop culture artifact. It may be something that has crosse.
His 204 week 5 final paper native american historysivakumar4841
HIS 204 Week 5 Final Paper Native American history
HIS 204 Week 5 DQ 2 The Lived Experience of Ordinary People
HIS 204 Week 5 DQ 1 The Age of Reagan
HIS 204 Week 4 Quiz
HIS 204 Week 4 DQ 2 Cold War
HIS 204 Week 4 DQ 1 A Single American Nation
HIS 304 Week 3 Quiz
HIS 204 Week 3 Final Paper Preparation (Native American history)
HIS 204 Week 3 DQ 2 The End of Isolation
HIS 204 Week 3 DQ 1 Normalcy and the New Deal
HIS 204 Week 2 Quiz
HIS 204 Week 2 Paper The Progressive Presidents
HIS 204 Week 2 DQ 2 America's Age of Imperialism
HIS 204 Week 2 DQ 1 The Progressive Movement
HIS 204 Week 1 Quiz
HIS 204 Week 1 DQ 2 The Industrial Revolution
HIS 204 Week 1 DQ 1 The History of Reconstruction
Mr. Bush, a 45-year-old middle school teacher arrives at the emergen.docxaudeleypearl
Mr. Bush, a 45-year-old middle school teacher arrives at the emergency department by EMS ground transport after he experienced severe mid-sternal chest pain at work. On arrival to the ED:
a. What priority interventions would you initiate?
b. What information would you require to definitively determine what was causing Mr. Bush’s chest pain?
.
Movie Project Presentation Movie TroyInclude Architecture i.docxaudeleypearl
Movie Project Presentation: Movie: Troy
Include: Architecture in the movie. Historical research to figure out if the movie did a good job of representing the art historical past of not. Anything in the movie that are related to art or art history. And provide its outline and bibliography (any website source is acceptable as well)
.
Motivation and Retention Discuss the specific strategies you pl.docxaudeleypearl
Motivation and Retention
Discuss the specific strategies you plan to use to motivate individuals from your priority
population to participate in your program and continue working on their behavior change.
You can refer to information you obtained from the Potential Participant Interviews. You
also can search the literature for strategies that have been successfully used in similar
situations; be sure to cite references in APA format.
.
Mother of the Year In recognition of superlative paren.docxaudeleypearl
Mother of the Year
In recognition of superlative parenting
Elizabeth Nino
is awarded
2012 Mother of the Year
May 9, 2012
MOM
Smash That Like Button: Facebook’s Chris Cox Is Messing with One of the Most Valuable Features on the Internet
Inside Facebook’s Decision to Blow Up the Like Button
The most drastic change to Facebook in years was born a year ago during an off-site at the Four Seasons Silicon Valley, a 10-minute drive from headquarters. Chris Cox, the social network’s chief product officer, led the discussion, asking each of the six executives around the conference room to list the top three projects they were most eager to tackle in 2015. When it was Cox’s turn, he dropped a bomb: They needed to do something about the “like” button.
The like button is the engine of Facebook and its most recognized symbol. A giant version of it adorns the entrance to the company’s campus in Menlo Park, Calif. Facebook’s 1.6 billion users click on it more than 6 billion times a day—more frequently than people conduct searches on Google—which affects billions of advertising dollars each quarter. Brands, publishers, and individuals constantly, and strategically, share the things they think will get the most likes. It’s the driver of social activity. A married couple posts perfectly posed selfies, proving they’re in love; a news organization offers up what’s fun and entertaining, hoping the likes will spread its content. All those likes tell Facebook what’s popular and should be shown most often on the News Feed. But the button is also a blunt, clumsy tool. Someone announces her divorce on the site, and friends grit their teeth and “like” it. There’s a devastating earthquake in Nepal, and invariably a few overeager clickers give it the ol’ thumbs-up.
Changing the button is like Coca-Cola messing with its secret recipe. Cox had tried to battle the like button a few times before, but no idea was good enough to qualify for public testing. “This was a feature that was right in the heart of the way you use Facebook, so it needed to be executed really well in order to not detract and clutter up the experience,” he says. “All of the other attempts had failed.” The obvious alternative, a “dislike” button, had been rejected on the grounds that it would sow too much negativity.
Cox told the Four Seasons gathering that the time was finally right for a change, now that Facebook had successfully transitioned a majority of its business to smartphones. His top deputy, Adam Mosseri, took a deep breath. “Yes, I’m with you,” he said solemnly.
Later that week, Cox brought up the project with his boss and longtime friend. Mark Zuckerberg’s response showed just how much leeway Cox has to take risks with Facebook’s most important service. “He said something like, ‘Yes, do it.’ He was fully supportive,” Cox says. “Good luck,” he remembers Zuckerberg telling him. “That’s a hard one.”
The solution would eventually be named Reactions. It will arrive .
Mrs. G, a 55 year old Hispanic female, presents to the office for he.docxaudeleypearl
Mrs. G, a 55 year old Hispanic female, presents to the office for her annual exam. She reports that lately she has been very fatigued and just does not seem to have any energy. This has been occurring for 3 months. She is also gaining weight since menopause last year. She joined a gym and forces herself to go twice a week, where she walks on the treadmill at least 30 minutes but she has not lost any weight, in fact she has gained 3 pounds. She doesn’t understand what she is doing wrong. She states that exercise seems to make her even more hungry and thirsty, which is not helping her weight loss. She wants get a complete physical and to discuss why she is so tired and get some weight loss advice. She also states she thinks her bladder has fallen because she has to go to the bathroom more often, recently she is waking up twice a night to urinate and seems to be urinating more frequently during the day. This has been occurring for about 3 months too. This is irritating to her, but she is able to fall immediately back to sleep.
Current medications:
Tylenol 500 mg 2 tabs daily for knee pain. Daily multivitamin
PMH:
Has left knee arthritis. Had chick pox and mumps as a child. Vaccinations up to
date.
GYN hx:
G2 P1. 1 SAB, 1 living child, full term, wt 9lbs 2 oz. LMP 15months ago. No history of abnormal Pap smear.
FH:
parents alive, well, child alive, well. No siblings. Mother has HTN and father has high cholesterol.
SH:
works from home part time as a planning coordinator. Married. No tobacco history, 1-2 glasses wine on weekends. No illicit drug use
Allergies
: NKDA, allergic to cats and pollen. No latex allergy
Vital signs
: BP 129/80; pulse 76, regular; respiration 16, regular
Height 5’2.5”, weight 185 pounds
General:
obese female in no acute distress. Alert, oriented and cooperative.
Skin
: warm dry and intact. No lesions noted
HEENT:
head normocephalic. Hair thick and distribution throughout scalp. Eyes without exudate, sclera white. Wears contacts. Tympanic membranes gray and intact with light reflex noted. Pinna and tragus nontender. Nares patent without exudate. Oropharynx moist without erythema. Teeth in good repair, no cavities noted. Neck supple. Anterior cervical lymph nontender to palpation. No lymphadenopathy. Thyroid midline, small and firm without palpable masses.
CV
: S1 and S2 RRR without murmurs or rubs
Lungs
: Clear to auscultation bilaterally, respirations unlabored.
Abdomen
- soft, round, nontender with positive bowel sounds present; no organomegaly; no abdominal bruits. No CVAT.
Labwork:
CBC
:
WBC 6,000/mm3 Hgb 12.5 gm/dl Hct 41% RBC 4.6 million MCV 88 fl MCHC
34 g/dl RDW 13.8%
UA:
pH 5, SpGr 1.013, Leukocyte esterase negative, nitrites negative, 1+ glucose; small protein; negative for ketones
CMP:
Sodium 139
Potassium 4.3
Chloride 100
CO2 29
Glucose 95
BUN 12
Creatinine 0.7
GFR est non-AA 92 mL/min/1.73 GFR est AA 101 mL/min/1.73 Calcium 9.5
Total protein 7.6 Bilirubin, total 0.6 Alkaline.
Mr. Rivera is a 72-year-old patient with end stage COPD who is in th.docxaudeleypearl
Mr. Rivera is a 72-year-old patient with end stage COPD who is in the care of Hospice. He has a history of smoking, hypertension, obesity, and type 2 Diabetes. He is on Oxygen 2L per nasal cannula around the clock. His wife and 2 adult children help with his care. Develop a concept map for Mr. Rivera. Consider the patients Ethnic background (he and his family are from Mexico) and family dynamics. Please use the
concept map
form provided.
.
Mr. B, a 40-year-old avid long-distance runner previously in goo.docxaudeleypearl
Mr. B, a 40-year-old avid long-distance runner previously in good health, presented to his primary provider for a yearly physical examination, during which a suspicious-looking mole was noticed on the back of his left arm, just proximal to the elbow. He reported that he has had that mole for several years, but thinks that it may have gotten larger over the past two years. Mr. B reported that he has noticed itchiness in the area of this mole over the past few weeks. He had multiple other moles on his back, arms, and legs, none of which looked suspicious. Upon further questioning, Mr. B reported that his aunt died in her late forties of skin cancer, but he knew no other details about her illness. The patient is a computer programmer who spends most of the work week indoors. On weekends, however, he typically goes for a 5-mile run and spends much of his afternoons gardening. He has a light complexion, blonde hair, and reports that he sunburns easily but uses protective sunscreen only sporadically.
Physical exam revealed: Head, neck, thorax, and abdominal exams were normal, with the exception of a hard, enlarged, non-tender mass felt in the left axillary region. In addition, a 1.6 x 2.8 cm mole was noted on the dorsal upper left arm. The lesion had an appearance suggestive of a melanoma. It was surgically excised with 3 mm margins using a local anesthetic and sent to the pathology laboratory for histologic analysis. The biopsy came back Stage II melanoma.
1. How is Stage II melanoma treated and according to the research how effective is this treatment?
250 words.
.
Moving members of the organization through the change process ca.docxaudeleypearl
Moving members of the organization through the change process can be quite difficult. As leaders take on this challenge of shifting practice from the current state to the future, they face the obstacles of confidence and competence experienced by staff. Change leaders understand the importance of recognizing their moral purpose and helping others to do the same. Effective leaders foster moral purpose by building relationships, considering other’s perspectives, demonstrating respect, connecting others, and examining progress (Fullan & Quinn, 2016). For this Discussion, you will clarify your own moral perspective and how it will impact the elements of focusing direction.
To prepare:
· Review the Adams and Miskell article. Reflect on the measures taken in building capacity throughout the organization.
· Review Fullan and Quinn’s elements of Focusing Direction in Chapter 2. Reflect on aspects needed to build capacity as a leader.
· Analyze the two case examples used to illustrate focused direction in Chapter 2.
· Clarify your own moral purpose, combining your personal values, persistence, emotional intelligence, and resilience.
A brief summary clarifying your own moral imperative.
· Using the guiding questions in Chapter 2 on page 19, explain your moral imperative and how you can use your strengths to foster moral imperative in others.
· Based on Fullan’s information on change leadership, in which areas do you feel you have strong leadership skills? Which areas do you feel you need to continue to develop?
Learning Resources
Required Readings
Fullan, M., & Quinn, J. (2016).
Coherence: The right drivers in action for schools, districts, and systems
. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Chapter 2, “Focusing Direction” (pp. 17–46)
Florian, L. (Ed.). (2014).
The SAGE handbook of special education
(2nd ed.). London, England: Sage Publications Ltd.
Chapter 23, “Researching Inclusive Classroom Practices: The Framework for Participation” (389–404)
Chapter 31, “Assessment for Learning and the Journey Towards Inclusion” (pp. 523–536)
Adams, C.M., & Miskell, R.C. (2016). Teacher trust in district administration: A promising line of inquiry. Journal of Leadership for Effective and Equitable Organizations, 1-32. DOI: 10.1177/0013161X1665220
Choi, J. H., Meisenheimer, J. M., McCart, A. B., & Sailor, W. (2016). Improving learning for all students through equity-based inclusive reform practices effectiveness of a fully integrated school-wide model on student reading and math achievement. Remedial and Special Education, doi:10.1177/0741932516644054
Sailor, W. S., & McCart, A. B. (2014). Stars in alignment. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 39(1), 55-64. doi: 10.1177/1540796914534622
Required Media
Grand City Community
Laureate Education (Producer) (2016c).
Tracking data
[Video file]. Baltimore, MD: Author.
Go to the Grand City Community and click into
Grand City School District Administration Offices
. Revie.
Mr. Friend is acrime analystwith the SantaCruz, Califo.docxaudeleypearl
Mr. Friend is a
crime analyst
with the Santa
Cruz, California,
Police
Department.
Predictive Policing: Using Technology to Reduce Crime
By Zach Friend, M.P.P.
4/9/2013
Nationwide law enforcement agencies face the problem
of doing more with less. Departments slash budgets
and implement furloughs, while management struggles
to meet the public safety needs of the community. The
Santa Cruz, California, Police Department handles the
same issues with increasing property crimes and
service calls and diminishing staff. Unable to hire more
officers, the department searched for a nontraditional
solution.
In late 2010 researchers published a paper that the
department believed might hold the answer. They
proposed that it was possible to predict certain crimes,
much like scientists forecast earthquake aftershocks.
An “aftercrime” often follows an initial crime. The time and location of previous criminal activity helps to
determine future offenses. These researchers developed an algorithm (mathematical procedure) that
calculates future crime locations.1
Equalizing Resources
The Santa Cruz Police Department has 94 sworn officers and serves a population of 60,000. A
university, amusement park, and beach push the seasonal population to 150,000. Department personnel
contacted a Santa Clara University professor to apply the algorithm, hoping that leveraging technology
would improve their efforts. The police chief indicated that the department could not hire more officers.
He felt that the program could allocate dwindling resources more efficiently.
Santa Cruz police envisioned deploying officers by shift to the most targeted locations in the city. The
predictive policing model helped to alert officers to targeted locations in real time, a significant
improvement over traditional tactics.
Making it Work
The algorithm is a culmination of anthropological and criminological behavior research. It uses complex
mathematics to estimate crime and predict future hot spots. Researchers based these studies on
In Depth
Featured Articles
- IAFIS Identifies Suspect from 1978 Murder Case
- Predictive Policing: Using Technology to Reduce
Crime
- Legal Digest Part 1 - Part 2
Search Warrant Execution: When Does Detention Rise to
Custody?
- Perspective
Public Safety Consolidation: Does it Make Sense?
- Leadership Spotlight
Leadership Lessons from Home
Archive
- Web and Print
Departments
- Bulletin Notes - Bulletin Honors
- ViCAP Alerts - Unusual Weapons
- Bulletin Reports
Topics in the News
See previous LEB content on:
- Hostage Situations - Crisis Management
- School Violence - Psychopathy
About LEB
- History - Author Guidelines (pdf)
- Editorial Staff - Editorial Release Form (pdf)
Patch Call
Known locally as the
“Gateway to the Summit,”
which references the city’s
proximity to the Bechtel Family
National Scout Reserve. More
The patch of the Miamisburg,
Ohio, Police Department
prominently displays the city
seal surroun.
Mr. E is a pleasant, 70-year-old, black, maleSource Self, rel.docxaudeleypearl
Mr. E is a pleasant, 70-year-old, black, male
Source: Self, reliable source
Subjective:
Chief complaint:
“I urinate frequently.”
HPI:
Patient states that he has had an increase in urination for the past several years, which seems to be worsening over the past year. He estimates that he urinates clear/light yellow urine approximately every 1.5-2 hours while awake and is up 2-4 times at night to urinate. He states some urgency and hesitancy with urination and feeling of incomplete voiding. He denies any pain or blood. Denies any head trauma. Denies any increase in thirst or hunger. He denies any unintentional weight loss.
Allergies
: NKA
Current Mediations
:
Multivitamin, daily
Aspirin, 81 mg, daily
Olmesartan, 20 mg daily
Atorvastatin, 10 mg daily
Diphenhydramine, 50 mg, at night
Pertinent History:
Hypertension, hyperlipidemia, insomnia
Health Maintenance. Immunizations:
Immunizations up to date
Family History:
No cancer, cardiac, pulmonary or autoimmune disease in immediate family members
Social History:
Patient lives alone. He drinks one cup of caffeinated coffee each morning at the local diner. He denies any nicotine, alcohol or drug use.
ROS:
Incorporated into HPI
Objective:
VS
– BP: 118/68, HR: 86, RR: 16, Temp 97.6, oxygenation 100%, weight: 195 lbs, height: 70 inches.
Mr. E is alert, awake, oriented x 3. Patient is clean and dressed appropriate for age.
Cardiac: No cardiomegaly or thrills; regular rate and rhythm, no murmur or gallop
Respiratory: Clear to auscultation
Abdomen: Bowel sounds positive. Soft, nontender, nondistended, no hepatomegaly
Neuro: CN 2-12 intact
Renal/prostate: Prostate enlarged, non-tender. No asymmetry or nodules palpated
Labs:
Test Name
Result
Units
Reference Range
Color
Yellow
Yellow
Clarity
Clear
Clear
Bilirubin
Negative
Negative
Specific Gravity
1.011
1.003-1.030
Blood
Negative
Negative
pH
7.5
4.5-8.0
Nitrite
Negative
Negative
Leukocyte esterase
Negative
Negative
Glucose
Negative
mg/dL
Negative
Ketones
Negative
mg/dL
Negative
Protein
Negative
mg/dL
Negative
WBC
Negative
/hpf
Negative
RBC
Negative
/hpf
Negative
Lab
Pt’s Result
Range
Units
Sodium
137
136-145
mmol/L
Potassium
4.7
3.5-5.1
mmol/L
Chloride
102
98-107
mmol/L
CO2
30
21-32
mmol/L
Glucose
92
70-99
mg/dL
BUN
7
6-25
mg/dL
Creat
1.6
.8-1.3
mg/dL
GFR
50
>60
Calcium
9.6
8.2-10.2
mg/dL
Total Protein
8.0
6.4-8.2
g/dL
Albumin
4.5
3.2-4.7
g/dL
Bilirubin
1.1
<1.1
mg/dL
Alkaline Phosphatase
94
26-137
U/L
AST
25
0-37
U/L
ALT
55
15-65
U/L
Pt’s results
Normal Range
Units
WBC
9.9
3.4 - 10.8
x10E3/uL
RBC
4.0
3.77 - 5.28
x10E6/uL
Hemoglobin
11.5
11.1 - 15.9
g/dL
H.
Motor Milestones occur in a predictable developmental progression in.docxaudeleypearl
Motor Milestones occur in a predictable developmental progression in young children. They begin with reflexive movements that develop into voluntary movement patterns. For the motor milestone of independent walking, there are many precursor reflexes that must first integrate and beginning movement patterns that must be learned. Explain the motor progression of walking in a child, starting with the integration of primitive reflexes to the basic motor skills needed for a child to walk independently. Discuss at which time frame each milestone occurs from birth to walking (12-18 months of age). What are some reasons why a child could be delayed in walking? At what age is a child considered delayed in walking and in need of intervention? What interventions are available to children who are having difficulty walking? Please be sure to use APA citations for all sources used to formulate your answers.
.
Most women experience their closest friendships with those of th.docxaudeleypearl
Most women experience their closest friendships with those of the same sex. Men have suffered more of a stigma in terms of sharing deep bonds with other men. Open affection and connection is not actively encouraged among men. Recent changes in society might impact this, especially with the advent of the meterosexual male. “The meterosexual male is less interested in blood lines, traditions, family, class, gender, than in choosing who they want to be and who they want to be with” (Vernon, 2010, p. 204).
In this week’s reading material, the following philosophers discuss their views on this topic: Simone de Beauvoir, Thomas Aquinas, MacIntyre, Friedman, Hunt, and Foucault. Make sure to incorporate their views as you answer each discussion question. Think about how their views may be similar or different from your own. In at least 250 words total, please answer each of the following, drawing upon your reading materials and your personal insight:
To what extent do you think women still have a better opportunity to forge deeper friendships than men? What needs to change to level the friendship playing field for men, if anything?
How is the role of the meterosexual man helping to forge a new pathway for male friendships?
.
Most patients with mental health disorders are not aggressive. Howev.docxaudeleypearl
Most patients with mental health disorders are not aggressive. However, it is important for nurses to be able to know the signs and symptoms associated with the five phases of aggression, and to appropriately apply nursing interventions to assist in treating aggressive patients. Please read the case study below and answer the four questions related to it.
Aggression Case Study
Christopher, who is 14 years of age, was recently admitted to the hospital for schizophrenia. He has a history of aggressive behavior and states that the devil is telling him to kill all adults because they want to hurt him. Christopher has a history of recidivism and noncompliance with his medications. One day on the unit, the nurse observes Christopher displaying hypervigilant behaviors, pacing back and forth down the hallway, and speaking to himself under his breath. As the nurse runs over to Christopher to talk, he sees that his bedroom door is open and runs into his room and shuts the door. The nurse responds by attempting to open the door, but Christopher keeps pulling the door shut and tells the nurse that if the nurse comes in the room he will choke the nurse. The nurse responds by calling other staff to assist with the situation.
1. What phase of the aggression cycle is Christopher in at the beginning of this scenario? What phase is he in at the end the scenario? (State the evidence that supports your answers).
2. What interventions could have been implemented to prevent Christopher from escalating at the beginning of the scenario?
3. What interventions should the nurse take to deescalate the situation when Christopher is refusing to open his door?
4. If a restrictive intervention (restraint/seclusion) is used, what are some important steps for the nurse to remember?
SCHOLAR NURSING ARTICLE>>>APA FORMAT>>>
.
Most of our class readings and discussions to date have dealt wi.docxaudeleypearl
Most of our class readings and discussions to date have dealt with the issue of ethics and ethical behavior. Various philosophers have made contributions to jurisprudence including how to apply ethical principles (codes of conduct?) to ethical dilemma.
Your task is to watch the Netflix documentary ‘The Social Dilemma.’ If you cannot currently access Netflix it offers a free trial opportunity, which you can cancel after viewing the documentary. Should this not be an option for whatever reason, then please email me and we will create an alternative ethics question.
DUE DATE: Tuesday, Sept. 29, 2020 by noon
SEND YOUR NO MORE THAN 5 PAGE DOUBLE SPACED RESPONSE TO MY EMAIL ADDRESS. LATE PAPERS SUBJECT TO DOWNGRADING
As critics have written, the documentary showcases ways our minds are twisted and twirled by social media companies like Facebook, Twitter, and Google through their platforms and search engines, and the why of what they are doing, and what must be done to stop it.
After watching the movie, respond to the following questions in the order given. Use full sentences and paragraphs, and start off each section by stating the question you are answering. Be succinct.
What are the critical ethical issues identified?
What concerns are raised over the polarization of society and promulgation of fake news?
What is the “attention-extraction model” of software design and why worry?
What is “surveillance capitalism?”
Do you agree that social media warps your perceptions of reality?
Who has the power and control over these social media platforms – software designers, artificial intelligence (Ai), CEOs of media platforms, users, government?
Are social media platforms capable of self-regulation to address the political and ethical issues raised or not? If not, then should government regulate?
What other actions can be taken to address the basic concern of living in a world “…where no one believes what’s true.”
.
Most people agree we live in stressful times. Does stress and re.docxaudeleypearl
Most people agree we live in stressful times. Does stress and reactions to stress contribute to illness? Explain why or why not. Support your opinions with information from the text.
Make sure to reference and cite your textbook as well as any other source you may use to support your answers to the question. Your initial post must include appropriate APA references at the end.
.
Most of the ethical prescriptions of normative moral philosophy .docxaudeleypearl
Most of the ethical prescriptions of normative moral philosophy tend to fall into one of the following three categories: deontology, consequentialism, and virtue ethics. These categories in turn put an emphasis on different normative standards for judging what constitutes right and wrong actions.
Moral psychologists and behavioral economists such as Jonathan Haidt and Dan Ariely take a different approach: focusing not on some normative ethical framework for moral judgment, but rather on the psychological foundations of moral intuition and on the limitations that our human frailty places on real-world honesty, decency, and ethical commitments.
In this context, write a short essay (minimum 400 words) on what you see as the most important differences between the traditional normative philosophical approaches and the more recent empirical approach of moral psychology when it comes to ethics. As part of your answer also make sure that you discuss the implications of these differences.
Deadline reminder:
this assignment is
due on June 14th
. Any assignments submitted after that date will lose 5 points (i.e., 20% of the maximum score of 25 points) for each day that they are submitted late. Accordingly, after June 14th, any submissions would be worth zero points and at that time the assignment inbox will close.
.
Most healthcare organizations in the country are implementing qualit.docxaudeleypearl
Most healthcare organizations in the country are implementing quality improvement programs to save lives, enhance customer satisfaction, and reduce the cost of healthcare services. Limited human and material resources often undermine such efforts. Zenith Hospital in a rural community has 200 beds. Postsurgical patients tend to contract infections at the surgical site, requiring extended hospitalization. Mr. Jones—75 years old—was admitted to Zenith Hospital for inguinal hernia repairs. He was also hypertensive, with a compromised immune system. Two days after surgery, he acquired an infection at the surgical site, with elevated temperature, and then he developed septicemia. His condition worsened, and he was moved to isolation in the intensive care unit (ICU). A day after transfer to the ICU, he went into ventricular arrhythmia and was placed on a respirator and cardiac monitoring machine. Intravenous fluids, antibiotics, and antipyretics could not bring the fever down, and blood analysis continued to deteriorate.
The hospital infection control unit got involved. The team confirmed that postsurgical infections were on the increase, but the hospital was unable to identify the sources of infection. The surgery unit and surgical team held meetings to understand possible sources of infection. The team leader had earlier reported to management that they needed to hire more surgical nurses, arguing that nurses in the unit were overworked, had to go on leave, and often worked long hours without break.
Mr. Jones’ family members were angry and wanted to know the source of his infection, why he was on the respirator in isolation, and why his temperature was not coming down. Unfortunately, his condition continued to deteriorate. His daughter invited the family’s legal representative to find out what was happening to her father and to commence legal proceedings.
Then, the healthcare manager received information that two other patients were showing signs of postsurgical infection. The healthcare manager and care providers acknowledged the serious quality issues at Zenith Hospital, particularly in the surgical unit. The healthcare manager wrote to the Chairman of the Hospital Board, seeking approval to implement a quality improvement program. The Board held an emergency meeting and approved the manager’s request. The healthcare manager has invited you to support the organization in this process.
Please address the following questions in your response:
What are successful approaches for gaining a shared understanding of the problem?
How can effective communication be implemented?
What is a qualitative approach that helps in identifying the quality problem?
What tools can provide insight into understanding the problem?
In quality improvement, what does appreciative inquiry help do?
What is a benefit of testing solutions before implementation?
What is a challenge that is inherent in the application of the plan, do, study, act (PDSA) method?
What .
More work is necessary on how to efficiently model uncertainty in ML.docxaudeleypearl
More work is necessary on how to efficiently model uncertainty in ML and NLP, as well as how to represent uncertainty resulting from big data analytics.
Pages - 4
Excluding the required cover page and reference page.
APA format 7 with an introduction, a body content, and a conclusion.
No Plagiarism
.
Mortgage-Backed Securities and the Financial CrisisKelly Finn.docxaudeleypearl
Mortgage-Backed Securities and the Financial Crisis
Kelly Finn
FNCE 4302
Mortgage-Backed Securities (MBS) are “pass-through” bundles of housing debt sold as investment vehicles
A mortgage-backed security, MBS, is a type of asset-backed security that pays investors regular payments, similar to a bond. It gets the title as a “pass-through” because the security involves several entities in the origination and securitization process (where the asset is identified, and where it is used as a base to create a new investment instrument people can profit off of).
Key Players involved in the MBS Process
[Mortgage] Lenders: banks who sell mortgages to GSE’s
GSE: Government Sponsored Entities created by the US Government to make owning property more accessible to Americans
1938: Fannie Mae (FNMA): Federal National Mortgage Assoc.
1970: Freddie Mac (FHLMC): Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corp.
Increase mortgage borrowing
Introduce competitor to Fannie Mae
1970: Ginnie Mae (GNMA): Government National Mortgage Assoc.
US Government: Treasury: implicit commitment of providing support in case of trouble
The several entities involved in the process make MBS a “pass-through”. Here we have 3 main entities that we’ll call “Key Players” for the purpose of this presentation which aims to provide you with a basic and simple explanation of MBS and their role in the financial crisis.
GSE’s created by the US Government in 1938
Part of FDR’s New Plan during Great Depression
Purpose: make owning property more accessible to more Americans
GSE (ex. Fannie Mae) buys mortgages (debt) from banks, & then pools mortgages into little bundles investors can buy (securitization)
Bank’s mortgage is exchanged with GSE’s cash
Created liquid secondary market for mortgages
Result:
1) Bank has more cash to lend out to people
2) Now all who want to a house (expensive) can get the money needed to buy one!
Where MBS came from & when
Yay for combatting homelessness and increasing quality of life for the common American!
Thanks Uncle Sam!
MBS have been around for a long time. Officially in the US, they have their origins in government. During the Great Depression in the 1930s, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt signed into creation Fannie Mae that was brought about to help ease American citizen’s difficulty in becoming homeowners. The sole purpose of a GSE thus was to not make profit, but to promote citizen welfare in regards to housing. Seeing that it was created by regulatory government powers, it earned the title of Government Sponsored Entity, which we will abbreviate as GSE. 2 other GSE’s in housing were created in later decades like Freddie Mae, to further stimulate the mortgage market alongside Fannie, and Ginnie which did a similar thing but only for certain groups of people (Veterans, etc) and to a much smaller scale.
How MBS works: Kelly is a homeowner looking to borrow a lot of money
*The Lender, who issued Kelly the mor.
Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg developed six stages to mora.docxaudeleypearl
Moral Development:
Lawrence Kohlberg developed six stages to moral behavior in children and adults. Punishment and obedience orientation, interpersonal concordance, law and order orientation, social contract orientation, and universal ethics orientation. All or even just one of these stages will make a good topic for your research paper or you could just do the research paper on Kohlberg.
.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...
Research an AAPI Project Overview Final AssignmentYou will nee.docx
1. Research an AAPI Project Overview Final
Assignment
You will need to write a brief biography of their life in your
own words, apply course texts to specific aspects of their life
and career, and argue for their contributions to and/or influence
on Asian America. Your project should also include at least one
picture of the person(s) you’re researching. Other visual aids,
such as PowerPoints, are optional, but may enhance the
presentation of your project.
Research and Sources
EVERYONE needs to do research for this project.
Required Sources (at least 4 total):
· at least two sources from readings on our syllabus
-at least one must be from KAAS
· at least two outside sources
-at least one should be a scholarly article from an academic,
peer-reviewed journal. The scholarly article does not need to
necessarily address your figure directly, but must be applicable
to an aspect of their life.
Word Limit, Format, etc
The entire assignment should be 1000-1250 words (4-5 pages).
You should maintain objectivity in your project and write in the
third person (he, she, they). You should cite the sources when
you paraphrase or directly quote material. I prefer MLA citation
and formatting; MLA information is available on Canvas in the
“Course Information” module. Please include a Works Cited
page, or you may include the Works Cited entries below the last
line of content.
2. Student: ____________________
Project Grade: /150
Criteria for Evaluation—Research Project Strong Satisfactory
Needs
Improvement
Comments
TOPIC: The project is about a significant Asian
American or Pacific Islander figure, historical
or contemporary.
/5
BIOGRAPHY: The project provides a brief
biography of the figure in the student’s own
words. This biography covers personal and
professional aspects of the figure’s life, and
provides enough relevant information and
context for someone unfamiliar with this
3. person.
/20
RESEARCH: The project uses appropriate,
relevant, and reputable sources (syllabus,
scholarly, creative, etc).
/20
APPLYING SOURCES & ANALYSIS: The project
thoughtfully applies the sources to and
analyzes aspects of the figure’s life. The
application of sources and analysis is
deliberate and appropriate, and
demonstrates strong and original insights.
/20
SIGNIFICANCE: The project effectively argues
for the figure’s contributions to and/or
influence on Asian America; this argument is
well-supported by the biography and previous
analysis.
/20
CONTEXTS: The project demonstrates a clear
and strong understanding of historical, social,
intellectual, and/or cultural contexts.
/40
GRAMMAR, etc: The project is coherent and
well-organized, free of grammatical and
mechanical mistakes, maintains a tone that is
4. appropriate for an academic paper, avoids
plagiarism by paraphrasing and quoting
accurately, uses MLA in-text citations
correctly, and includes a Work Cited page.
/20
VISUAL AID(S): The project provides at least
one picture of the figure.
/5
AAST-A101: Research an AAPI Rubric AAPI
Keywords for Asian American Studies
2
Keywords for Asian American
Studies
Edited by Cathy J. Schlund-Vials, Linda Trinh Võ, and K. Scott
Wong
NEW YORK UNIVERSITY PRESS
New York and London{~?~ST: end chapter}
3
7. Nhi T. Lieu
8 Community
Linda Trinh Võ
9 Coolie
Kornel Chang
10 Cosmopolitanism
Lucy Mae San Pablo Burns
5
11 Culture
Robert G. Lee
12 Deportation
Bill Ong Hing
13 Diaspora
Evelyn Hu-DeHart
14 Disability
Cynthia Wu
15 Discrimination
8. John S. W. Park
16 Education
Shirley Hune
17 Empire
Moon-Ho Jung
18 Enclave
Yoonmee Chang
19 Entrepreneur
Pawan Dhingra
20 Environment
Robert T. Hayashi
21 Ethnicity
Rick Bonus
22 Exclusion
Greg Robinson
23 Family
6
9. Evelyn Nakano Glenn
24 Film
Jigna Desai
25 Food
Anita Mannur
26 Foreign
Karen Leong
27 Fusion
Mari Matsuda
28 Gender
Judy Tzu-Chun Wu
29 Generation
Andrea Louie
30 Genocide
Khatharya Um
31 Globalization
Robyn Magalit Rodriguez
32 Health
10. Grace J. Yoo
33 Identity
Jennifer Ho
34 Immigration
Shelley Sang-Hee Lee
35 Incarceration
Lane Ryo Hirabayashi
7
36 Labor
Sucheng Chan
37 Law
Neil Gotanda
38 Media
Shilpa Davé
39 Memory
Viet Thanh Nguyen
40 Militarism
11. Vernadette Vicuña Gonzalez
41 Minority
Crystal Parikh
42 Movement
Daryl Joji Maeda
43 Multiculturalism
James Kyung-Jin Lee
44 Multiracial
Rebecca Chiyoko King-O’Riain
45 Nationalism
Richard S. Kim
46 Orientalism
Sylvia Shin Huey Chong
47 Performance
Josephine Lee
48 Politics
8
12. Janelle Wong
49 Postcolonialism
Allan Punzalan Isaac
50 Queer
Martin F. Manalansan IV
51 Race
Junaid Rana
52 Refugee
Yến Lê Espiritu
53 Religion
David Kyuman Kim
54 Resistance
Monisha Das Gupta
55 Riot
Edward J. W. Park
56 Sexuality
Martin Joseph Ponce
57 Terrorism
13. Rajini Srikanth
58 Transnationalism
Lan P. Duong
59 Trauma
Cathy J. Schlund-Vials
60 War
K. Scott Wong
9
61 Yellow
Robert Ji-Song Ku
Bibliography
About the Contributors
10
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, we want to publicly thank all the
contributors to this
Keywords for Asian American Studies volume, whose work
renders visible
the capaciousness, strength, and growth of the field. They
14. patiently worked
with us through our requests for revisions to make this a
cohesive project
and it is through their immense scholarly contributions to the
field that we
are able to produce this collection.
We likewise owe much to Eric Zinner, who had the foresight to
envision
the need for such a volume; without hesitation and with
considerable
consistency, he provided indefatigable support and offered
invaluable
advice from the planning stage to the production phase. Alicia
Nadkarni at
NYU Press in comparative fashion ushered us through all facets
of the
process. This volume benefits greatly from anonymous readers,
who
productively pushed us to reconsider and reevaluate the overall
scope of
the project.
In a more local vein, Keywords for Asian American Studies
would not
be possible without the careful eyes of Laura A. Wright, who
vetted
citations and kept the project on track in its first phase; we are
also
appreciative of Patrick S. Lawrence, who made sure the
manuscript was
thoroughly prepared for final submission. Last, but certainly not
least, we
want to acknowledge those who make what we do possible via
their hourly
and daily support:
15. Cathy is thankful to her parents, Charles and Ginko Schlund,
along with
her twin brother, Charles; they have offered unfaltering support
and
guidance. She is forever indebted to Christopher Vials, who is a
true
partner in all respects.
Linda appreciates her parents, Thuy and Bob, and sister,
Christine, and
her family for their constant sustenance and encouragement. She
is
thankful for her children, Aisha and Kian, and partner, John,
and his
children, Bronson and Carly, who bring her immeasurable
enjoyment and
fulfillment.
Scott is grateful for the wonderful support he has received over
the years
from his parents, Henry and Mary Wong, his brothers, Kenny,
Keith, and
Christopher, and his wife, Carrie, and daughter, Sarah, as well
as his
friends and colleagues who sustain him with love,
companionship, good
food, and music.
Finally, it is to our students, mentors, and colleagues that we
dedicate
this collection for enriching our pedagogical capacities and
reminding us
11
16. of the vitality of Asian American studies.
12
Introduction
Cathy J. Schlund-Vials, Linda Trinh Võ, and K. Scott Wong
Born out of the civil rights and Third World liberation
movements of the
1960s and 1970s, Asian American studies has grown
considerably over the
past four decades, both as a distinct field of inquiry and as a
potent site of
critique. In the late nineteenth century, most of what was
written about the
Asian presence in America was by those who sought to impede
the
immigration of Asians or to curtail the social mobility of Asians
already in
the country. This tendency in the literature of the time, and
subsequent
scholarship on Asians and Asian Americans that appeared into
the late
1960s, led Roger Daniels to observe, “Other immigrant groups
were
celebrated for what they had accomplished, Orientals were
important for
what had been done to them” (1966, 375). As the field
developed starting
in the late 1960s, more emphasis was placed upon the lived
experiences of
17. Asian Americans, in terms of what they have endured,
accomplished, and
transformed. In the early stages of the development of Asian
American
studies as an academic field of inquiry, more attention was paid
to the
history and experiences of Chinese, Japanese, and to some
extent,
Filipinos in the United States.
Among the first foundational texts in Asian American studies
were
edited collections that included contributions by an eclectic
group of Asian
American activists, artists, and academics. Roots: An Asian
American
Reader (Tachiki et al. 1971) was intent on going to the “root” of
the issues
facing Asians in America and included three sections—
“Identity,”
“History,” and “Community”—focusing on the “imperative that
their
voices be heard in all their anger, anguish, resolve and
inspiration” (vii).
Counterpoint: Perspectives on Asian America (Gee 1976)
questioned the
“self-image of America as a harmonious, democratic, and open
society,”
calling for a reexamination of the mistreatment of Asian
Americans to
deepen “their understanding of their own past and present
political,
economic, and social position in American society” (xiii).
While some of
the authors in these two collections, published by the Asian
American
18. Studies Center at the University of California, Los Angeles, had
established careers, many of them were emerging community
activists,
writers, and academics who would become the important first
generation
of noted Asian Americanists. Although they came from different
backgrounds, they were committed to bringing the Asian
American
experience to the foreground, in order to stress how they had
been
13
marginalized in the dominant narrative of our nation’s history,
society, and
culture. The articles and essays in these two publications
represent themes
that would dominate the field for years: labor exploitation,
immigration
policies, racial stereotypes and oppression, community
development,
gender inequalities, social injustices, U.S. imperialism in Asia,
struggles of
resistance, and the formation of Asian American identities. The
Immigration Act of 1965 and the end of the Vietnam War in
1975
drastically changed the demographics of the Asian American
population,
bringing ethnic Chinese from the diaspora as well as expanding
the
number of Filipinos, Koreans, and Asian Indians and adding
refugees from
Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam, and these ongoing shifts have
created new
19. scholarly directions for the field.
In private and public institutions across the country, Asian
American
studies courses, emanating from these tumultuous histories of
struggles,
are now an identifiable and often integral part of university and
college
curricula. Most notable was the creation of the only College of
Ethnic
Studies at San Francisco State College (now San Francisco State
University) in 1969, which incorporated Asian American
studies.
Currently, some courses in Asian American studies are offered
by
traditional departments, while others are in American studies or
ethnic
studies, with some campuses creating Asian American programs
or centers
and others establishing Asian American studies departments.
The
expansion of the field led to the creation of the Association for
Asian
American Studies in 1979, whose first conference was held the
following
year. Faculty and scholarship that focus on Asian Americans are
found in a
range of fields including anthropology, art, communications,
economics,
education, history, literature, political science, psychology, law,
public
health, public policy, religion, sociology, theater, urban studies,
and
women’s and gender studies. This has created a robust
discipline that has
broadened its scope in ways that were unimaginable when the
20. field first
began to take form, but it has also generated varying
pedagogical
directions and competing theoretical frameworks. The nature
and tenor of
Asian American studies have shifted dramatically since student
strikes and
undergraduate demand instigated its formation.
As recent scholarship underscores, Asian American studies is
presently
characterized by transnational, transpacific, and trans-
hemispheric
considerations of race, ethnicity, migration, immigration,
gender,
sexuality, and class. On the one hand, the pervasiveness of
“trans” as a
legible methodological prefix highlights the ways in which
scholars in the
field divergently evaluate the intersections between politics,
histories, and
14
subjectivities. On the other hand, such interdisciplinary
approaches, ever
attentive to past/present histories of racialization, social
formation,
imperialism, capitalism, empire, and commodification, engage a
now-
familiar set of what cultural critic Raymond Williams famously
defined as
“keywords.” These terms, which constitute “the vocabulary of a
crucial
21. area of social and cultural discussion” (1976, 24), serve as a
foundation for
Keywords for Asian American Studies.
Some of the essays included in Keywords for Asian American
Studies
demarcate the origins of the field as well as critique its
scholarly
development. Certainly essays on “education” and
“incarceration” speak to
what has happened to Asian Americans as well as address
critical
transformations in the field. Essays on “diaspora” and
“community”
examine how Asian Americans have navigated their way around
the world
and established themselves in the United States, indirectly
reshaping the
field in the process. As significant, essays about “memory,”
“terrorism,”
and “postcolonialism” signal the field’s intimate yet
nevertheless
expansive engagement with U.S. imperialism and American war
making.
Like Keywords for American Cultural Studies (edited by Bruce
Burgett
and Glenn Hendler) and the other volumes in the series,
Keywords for
Asian American Studies is not an encyclopedia. Instead,
Keywords for
Asian American Studies is repeatedly guided by Williams’s
provocative
assertion that such a vocabulary “has been inherited within
precise
historical and social conditions” that nevertheless must “be
22. made at once
conscious and critical” (1985, 24). Expressly, the keywords
included in
this collection—central to social sciences, humanities, and
cultural studies
—reflect the ways in which Asian American studies has, in
multidisciplinary fashion, been “shap[ed] and reshap[ed], in real
circumstances and from profoundly different and important
points of
view” (1985, 25). Attentive to the multiple methodologies and
approaches
that characterize a dynamic field, Keywords for Asian American
Studies
contains established and emergent terms, categories, and themes
that
undergird Asian American studies and delineate the contours of
Asian
America as an imagined and experienced site. On one level,
such
“imagined” and “experienced” frames highlight what Sucheng
Chan
evocatively characterized in Asian Americans: An Interpretive
History
(1991) as distinctly racialized modes of hostility via “prejudice,
economic
discrimination, political disenfranchisement, physical violence
immigration exclusion, social segregation, and incarceration”
(45). On
another level, Chan’s use of “interpretive” as a disciplinary
modifier
functions as a theoretical touchstone and methodological
foundation for
15
23. Keywords for Asian American Studies.
As field interpreters, the collection’s contributors
contextualized and
situated their keywords according to their disciplines, points of
entry, and
critical engagement, while being simultaneously attuned to the
fluidity and
trajectories of the field. Determining the selection of keywords
has been an
organic progression. In terms of structuring the collection, we
initially
envisioned and prioritized keywords that capture the contours of
multiple
scholarly disciplines and that resonate with our pedagogical
methodologies. As editors, we established few parameters for
the
contributors; however, we had the difficult task of assigning
varying
lengths to each keyword, recognizing that spatial limitations
would be the
major challenge for all authors, most of whom have written
books related
to their respective keywords. Strategically, we did not inform
the
contributors of the other entries, with the intent of allowing
them to
develop their keywords unencumbered, although as editors we
suggested
revisions so that the collection would be comparative in scope
and
tangentially cohere.
Additionally, we were interested in exploring core terms that
suggestively demarcated distinctive Asian American histories,
24. curricula,
and pedagogies. While some of these keywords, such as
“assimilation,”
“citizenship,” and “trauma,” may be universal terms applied to
immigrants
in general, our contributors were observant to their specific
application in
Asian American studies, and mindful of the need to shift
dominant
paradigms that have been exclusionary. As the project moved
from
proposal to completed manuscript, our original purview grew to
encapsulate divergent approaches, nomenclatural shifts, and
disciplinary
variations. For example, while “internment” remains a
recognizable term
within the field, it nevertheless fails to contain (as Lane Ryo
Hirabayashi
productively notes) the racial, gendered, and classed dimensions
analogously associated with present-day understandings of
“incarceration.” Armed with the editorial desire to represent
spheres of
knowledge and diverse methodologies, we deliberated over
terms such as
“capitalism,” “democracy,” and “prostitution,” which are
fundamentally
subsumed or embedded within other terms (hence, their
omission in this
iteration). We were similarly attentive to parsing out keywords
that are
often considered synonymous (for example, “gender,”
“sexuality,” and
“queer”). At the same time, we recognized the need to include
terms that
are foundational to the field, such as “labor,” “exclusion,”
“identity,”
25. “ethnicity,” “immigration,” and “war.” Last, but certainly not
least, we
encouraged contributors to engage the heterogeneity of Asian
Americans
16
in their respective essays, so analyses were not limited to one
ethnicity or a
singular historical moment.
This capaciousness frames the overall collection, which features
interconnected references between keywords, includes
overlapping
examples, and involves reiterated events (such as the Chinese
Exclusion
Act, the incarceration of Japanese Americans, the civil rights
movement,
the Vietnam War, and the ongoing War on Terror). The derived
meaning
or relevance and justifications or reasons for these events have
transformed
over time for both the populations they have impacted as well as
for the
critical scholarship they have generated. Although there may be
repetitions
of some concepts or events in these essays, they are illuminated
by
differing perspectives and contextualized through varying
lenses. The
transforming demographics of the involved populations continue
to
contribute to fundamental debates regarding the racial
positioning of Asian
26. Americans and this has impacted the crucial terms and concepts
in the
field. In some instances, the emergence of a particular keyword
within the
field (e.g., “genocide” and “refugee”) is due to history and
policy more
closely tied to a specific ethnic group (for example, Southeast
Asian
Americans). Yet we encouraged authors to move beyond the
expected
boundaries of ethnic containment and address how their
keywords are
historically, ideologically, or empirically interconnected to
various
groupings. Following suit, the collection’s contributors
demonstrate the
ways these diverse groups, in the face of colonial histories and
imperial
structures, have resisted cumulative pressures by creating their
own
dynamic identifications.
Although directed to consider the field’s expansiveness,
contributors
were purposely provided latitude in analyzing the formulation
and tone of
their keywords to more aptly represent the genealogies in which
ideas and
ideologies traverse theoretical and disciplinary insularities.
Even with
these intentional coherences, each essay illustrates variations in
approach
and relevancy in articulating the significance or utilization of a
keyword.
Correspondingly, while Asian American studies remains an
interdisciplinary field, its practitioners nevertheless bear the
27. mark of their
respective disciplines with regard to terminology and emphasis.
Rather
than serve as a limitation, these disciplinary linkages make
visible new
ways not only of seeing established fields but also of rethinking
seemingly
familiar topics.
Set adjacent to this editorial context, two terms that admittedly
do not
appear as specific entries in this collection serve as an implicit
point of
entry for each contributor: “Asian” and “American.”
Encompassing
17
geographical sites, political affiliations, and ethnoracial
categories, both
“Asian” and “American” are incontrovertibly qualified terms
that
syntactically operate as modifiers (e.g., adjectives) and subjects
(specifically, nouns). As John Kuo Wei Tchen previously
argued in
Keywords for American Cultural Studies, “Asian” (along with
“Asia” and
—more problematically—“Asiatic”) is necessarily “loaded with
particular
spatial orientations rooted in temporal relationships” that are
anthropological, geopolitical, and cartographic in scope (2007,
22). These
concepts have been constructed as antagonistic to or in
competition with
28. one another, evidenced by the political conflicts in the Pacific,
or in the
cultural juxtapositions of the oppositional identifiers
“traditional” and
“modern” associated with each. Concomitantly, “American,” as
an
analogously overburdened concept, encompasses cultural,
social, and
political understandings of citizenship. Within the dominant
U.S.
imagination, these senses of belonging—fixed to
characterizations of the
United States as a “nation of immigrants”—correspond to
assimilative and
euphemistic claims of e pluribus unum (“out of many, one”)
selfhood.
Notwithstanding the encumbered nature of each word, the term
“Asian
American” (which pairs continent and country) upholds Yuji
Ichioka’s
intent when he coined it to replace such derogatory labels as
“Asiatic” and
“Oriental” and envisioned its politicized possibilities. On one
level, the
adjectival use of “Asian” as a descriptor for “American”
accentuates the
degree to which the field reflects multiple coordinates (in East,
South, and
Southeast Asia, and the United States). On another level, “Asian
American” as an identifiable ethnoracial category underscores
the
migration histories of variegated peoples whose experiences
divergently
involve overt exclusion, aversive discrimination, and
paradoxical
incorporation.
29. In sum, this collection is a gathering of scholarship by those
who have
dedicated their careers to creating what is now an established
field of
knowledge, which has been remarkably dialogic in nature and
fostered
meaningful collaborations. The field emerged under conditions
of
contestation and resistance and it has generated controversies
regarding its
epistemological legitimacy, direction, and purpose. The essays
are not
intended to be definitive, but to encourage readers to creatively
engage
with the multilayered historical and contemporary debates and
the vexing
contradictions that reflect the shifting and evolving terrain of
Asian
American studies. Our expectation is that this collection will
provide
intellectual stimulation for the seasoned scholar and activist as
well as a
critical tool for those initially encountering the field to further
their inquiry
and research.
18
1
Adoption
Catherine Ceniza Choy
30. In Asian American studies, the word “adoption” is increasingly
significant
for elucidating the breadth and depth of Asian American
demographics,
cultural expression, contemporary issues, and history. In the
late twentieth
and early twenty-first centuries, the sight of an Asian child with
white
American parents has become a new social norm. Between 1971
and 2001,
U.S. citizens adopted 265,677 children from other countries,
and over half
of those were from Asian countries. In 2000 and 2001, China
was the
leading sending country of adoptive children to the United
States. South
Korea, Vietnam, India, Cambodia, and the Philippines were
among the top
twenty sending countries (Evan B. Donaldson Adoption Institute
2013).
Thus, the terms “international adoption,” “intercountry
adoption,” and
“transnational adoption” are used to describe the global
dimensions of
Asian adoption in the United States (Volkman 2005; Eleana
Kim 2010).
A related keyword is “diaspora,” which acknowledges the
broader
histories of Asian international adoption across time and space.
Since the
end of the Korean War, approximately two hundred thousand
Korean
children have been sent to the United States for adoption and an
additional
fifty thousand have been sent to Europe (Yuh 2005). Because
31. white
Americans predominantly adopt these children, the words
“transracial”
and “cross-cultural” are additional key modifying terms for
describing this
phenomenon (A. Louie 2009; Davis 2012). However, Asian
Americans
have also adopted children from Asia. The phenomenon of
“transethnic”
and “multiethnic” adoption (wherein one or both of the parents
is Asian
American) thus deserves further study.
American adoptive parents and adult Asian American adoptees
have
made a mark on American national culture by spearheading
organizations,
such as Families with Children from China and Also-Known-As,
that
expand the traditional boundaries of kinship and community.
They have
created specialized virtual networks, print media, and heritage
camps,
which provide resources and support to other adoptive families
and
potential adoptive parents. In doing so, they participate in
“global family
making,” the process through which people create and sustain a
family by
19
consciously crossing national and often racial borders (Choy
2013). These
32. “global families” are well known to the general public through
mainstream
news stories about celebrities as well as ordinary Americans
adopting
children from Asia. These narratives typically portray the
phenomenon as
a virtuous example of contemporary U.S. multiculturalism and a
desirable
way to create a family.
The international and transracial adoption of Asian children is
also
highly controversial. Since the late 1990s, anthologies,
documentary films,
and memoirs by Korean American adoptees about their
upbringing
emphasize the themes of American racism and alienation
(Bishoff and
Rankin 1997; Borshay Liem 2000; Borshay Liem 2010; Trenka
2003;
Trenka 2009). The popularity of the seemingly positive
stereotype of
Asian Americans as “model minorities” in relation to negative
“less than
model” stereotypes of African Americans adds further
complexity to
issues of race in Asian international adoption. Some scholars
have argued
that these stereotypes undergird a racial preference for Asian
children over
African American children (Dorow 2006).
Furthermore, the decreasing supply of white babies in the
United States
that began in the second half of the twentieth century—a result
of factors
33. including the creation of the birth control pill, the legalization
of abortion,
and the increasing social legitimacy of single parenting—
contributes to the
commodification of Asian children for an international adoption
market.
Charges of “baby selling” and child abduction have resulted in
suspensions
of international adoptions from Vietnam and Cambodia. Some
scholars
have strongly criticized international adoption, characterizing it
as a global
market that transports babies from poorer to richer nations and
likening it
to a form of forced migration and human trafficking (Hubinette
2006).
These controversies have a longer history rooted in the post–
World War
II and Cold War presence of the U.S. military in Asia.
Americans adopted
Japanese and Korean war orphans, but their adoption of mixed-
race
Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese children (popularly known as
Amerasians), a population fathered by U.S. servicemen with
Asian
women, captured the hearts and minds of the general public.
The
distinctive racial features of these mixed Asian-and-American
children
made them visible targets for abuse. And the lack of U.S. and
Asian
governmental support, and desertion by their American fathers,
influenced
their mothers’ decisions to abandon them, creating a group of
children
34. available for adoption.
International adoption from China is popularly conceived as a
recent
history, beginning in the late 1980s and early 1990s with the
emergence of
20
China’s “one-child policy” and its increasing standardization of
international adoption. While the policy may have eased the
pressure of
rapid population growth on Chinese communities, it has been
widely
criticized for motivating Chinese families, living in a
patriarchal society
with a marked cultural preference for boys, to relinquish baby
girls for
adoption. However, an earlier period of Chinese international
adoption
took place in the 1950s and 1960s under the auspices of the
“Hong Kong
Project,” through which Chinese American and white American
families
adopted hundreds of Chinese boys and girls who had been
relinquished by
refugee families fleeing communist mainland China.
Individual advocates who had themselves adopted children
internationally—most notably Oregon farmer Harry Holt,
Pulitzer Prize–
winning writer Pearl S. Buck, and Hollywood actress Jane
Russell—and
international social service agencies, such as the International
35. Social
Service–United States of America (ISS-USA) branch,
popularized and
facilitated Asian international adoption in the United States.
While
Russell’s WAIF (World Adoption International Fund) worked
with the
ISS-USA, Harry Holt organized the Holt Adoption Program
(now known
as Holt International) and Pearl S. Buck founded Welcome
House, which
continues to facilitate international adoptions. In the 1950s and
1960s,
competition between social service agencies and individuals
over who
should oversee international adoption processes, and the
controversy over
proxy adoptions—through which adoptive parents adopted a
child “sight
unseen” through a third party abroad—dominated their
interactions. In
later years, more cooperative relations would prevail.
Until recently, the history of Asian international adoption was a
topic
markedly absent from Asian American studies. In the past
decade,
however, a critical mass of scholarship has emerged. The
leadership of
Korean adoptee artists and scholars has been pivotal in making
Asian
adoptee concerns integral to the field. Under the executive
directorship of
filmmaker and producer Deann Borshay Liem, NAATA
(National Asian
American Telecommunications Association, now the Center for
36. Asian
American Media) showcased films about Asian international
adoption.
The Association for Asian American Studies (AAAS) features
an Asian
Adoptee section, which Kim Park Nelson founded in 2007. At
the groups’s
annual meetings, scholarly panels regularly feature recent
research on
Asian international adoption.
Finally, the keyword “adoption” has enabled political as well as
scholarly projects that are critical of the dominant narrative
about Asian
international adoption, which casts the phenomenon as the
humanitarian
21
rescue of Asian children by white American families. Scholars
and
activists have called attention to the global inequities that
persist in Asian
international adoption, the significance of birth families, the
social reality
of adult adoptees, and the historical and political ties that bind
international adoptees to immigrants. They emphasize that
Asian
international adoption is a unique phenomenon deserving of
scholarly
attention on its own terms as well as a generative lens through
which we
can view our increasingly global society.
37. 22
2
Art
Margo Machida
Whereas all human societies have developed visual idioms, the
idea of Art
(with a capital “A”) is elusive, much debated, and often closely
entwined
with social and class hierarchies, and subjective matters of
value, taste, and
sensibility. Its historic application as a cultural category and
definitions of
what constitutes visual art have varied significantly from
culture to culture,
across different historic periods, and according to the
background,
position, and perception of the viewer. Especially in the modern
West,
distinctions have typically been drawn between “high” or “fine”
art, and
crafts or applied arts. “Fine” art has been conceived as a
specialized,
elevated focus of aesthetic activity with its own intellectual
history,
professional principles, standards of judgment, and notions of
individual
“genius.” By contrast, crafts, design, and vernacular practices
deemed as
“tribal,” “primitive,” “folk,” or “outsider” art were often treated
as lesser.
While the Western tradition of visual art once referred mainly
38. to painting,
sculpture, drawing, and graphics, the invention of
groundbreaking
technologies—photography, film, television, the computer—and
the
appearance of new practices including video, digital, mixed
media, web-
based, conceptual, installation, performance, body, land, and
earth art have
repeatedly enlarged and complicated the ways in which visual
artistic
activity is understood and utilized. Moreover, as distinctions
continue to
erode between the realms of the “fine” arts, visual and material
culture,
and everyday life, it is more commonplace for artists to draw
upon and
integrate methods and materials from a range of sources,
including craft,
commercial, and industrial processes.
The term “Asian American art,” like “Asian American,” first
came into
general usage as a discrete subject of interest in the late 1960s
and 1970s
with the contemporaneous rise of the Asian American movement
and
establishment of ethnic studies as an academic field, beginning
on the
West Coast. Fueled by broad-based protest, identity, and
counterculture
movements, this turbulent moment witnessed the potent
convergence of
heightened ethnic awareness, cultural activism, and politically
inspired
cultural production. Activist scholars and writers published the
39. first critical
writings that sought to frame constituent elements of a distinct
Asian
23
American identity and culture. This emergent panethnic
formulation was
premised on the belief that despite their many differences and
longstanding
antagonisms, Asian groups shared common struggles and
aspirations to
establish themselves in the face of a difficult domestic history
marked by
racism, discrimination, exclusion, and economic exploitation.
Exposure to ethnic studies programs also galvanized members
of this
generation to use art to promote social change. Consequently,
the 1970s
witnessed the nationwide formation of grassroots organizations
by loose
groupings of artists, writers, scholars, college students, and
cultural
activists that played a foundational role in the Asian American
community
arts movement (Wei 1993; Louie and Omatsu 2001). Pioneering
organizations were established with a strong visual arts
component like
Basement Workshop in New York, and Kearny Street Workshop
and
Japantown Art and Media Workshop in San Francisco. Activist
artists
produced large-scale public murals, silk-screened posters,
40. prints, and
illustrations intended to impart clear messages that could be
apprehended
by the broadest possible audience (Cockcroft, Weber, and
Cockcroft
1977). Cuban graphics, Cultural Revolution–era Chinese
political posters,
the Chicano art movement, and Mexican murals influenced these
efforts as
expressions of solidarity with liberatory struggles against
racism and
imperialism in the U.S. and the Third World (Machida 2008).
Similarly, in
the early 1970s, visual art regularly appeared in the Asian
American
alternative press—including periodicals such as Aion and Gidra
in
California, and Bridge magazine in New York—as illustrations,
comics,
photography, and portraits of people and community life.
During the early years of the Asian American movement, a
highly
politicized approach to cultural development influenced by
writings such
as Mao Zedong’s 1942 “Talks at the Yan’an Forum on
Literature and Art”
prevailed. Its advocates conceived of art as a force for
revolutionary
transformation and emphasized the artist’s social and political
responsibility to produce work of relevance to a community
identified
chiefly with the Asian American working class and immigrants.
In
conjunction with highlighting social problems, and crafting
empowering
41. images to counter distortive representations imposed by the
dominant
culture, activist artists sought to envision a distinctive Asian
American
culture. However, their efforts to articulate a definitive
aesthetic and, by
extension, something that could legitimately be called “Asian
American
art” proved problematic. The issue would lead to perennial
debates over
whether the term “Asian American art” refers to the background
of the
maker or to a particular subject matter—that is, work that
directly
24
addresses some historic, social, or political aspect of Asian
American
experience. With conceptions of Asian American art shifting
substantially
after the 1970s, a wide spectrum of opinion subsequently arose
about how,
or if, an Asian American visual aesthetic should be defined (A.
Tam
2000). Reflective of a variety of ideological and intellectual
orientations,
these views have ranged from prescriptive formulations
inflected by
political doctrines to deconstructive critiques of the term itself.
The intensifying interest in Asian American artists likewise led
to the
emergence of Asian American arts writing, critical discourse,
42. curatorial
projects, and archival efforts in the 1970s. Such developments
converged
with wider efforts by activist scholars and critics, under the
umbrella term
“multiculturalism,” to challenge the strictures of Eurocentric art
historical
and aesthetic canons and bring forward art by nonwhite groups
in U.S.
society (Lippard 1990). These allied practices would contribute
to the
gradual formation of Asian American art history over the
ensuing decades.
Such ventures, in which seminal community-based Asian
American arts
organizations played a generative role, understandably
associated Asian
American art with the groups that comprised the largest
domestic Asian
populations of the period: peoples of East, Southeast, and South
Asian
descent. The imprint of that era, as manifested in many
exhibitions
throughout the 1980s, would exert a significant influence on
extant
discourses about what constitutes Asian American art. The
1990s
witnessed an unprecedented number of museum and gallery
exhibitions
organized under either an Asian American frame or ethnic-
specific rubrics
such as Japanese American, Chinese American, Korean
American,
Filipino American, and Vietnamese American art. Many of these
shows
centered on identity, sociopolitical, and historic issues related
43. to the
transpacific trajectory of U.S. involvement in Asia, including
the
pervasive, multigenerational effects on U.S. Asian communities
of war in
Korea and Southeast Asia, the colonization of the Philippines,
and the
World War II internment of Japanese Americans (Machida
2009).
Yet by the late 1970s, conceptions of Asian American art were
ripe for a
radical realignment due to the demographic transformation of
the U.S.
Asian population, resulting from changes in inequitable federal
immigration laws, and an expanding backlash against
multiculturalism and
identity politics. Due to the 1965 abolition of restrictions that
severely
limited Asian immigration to the U.S., along with refugee
statutes enacted
after the Vietnam War, new entrants had begun to outstrip the
U.S.-born
generations whose forebears had mostly settled by the early
twentieth
century. Beyond the profound impact of this new wave of
immigration and
25
transnational circulation on the internal landscape of Asian
America, the
so-called “culture wars” were also rapidly gaining momentum.
Not only
44. was ethnoracial difference as a defining concept under
widespread attack
in America by the 1980s, but also due to parallel intellectual
challenges to
discourses of identification and strategies of representation,
categories
such as nation, race, ethnicity, and gender, and even unitary
conceptions of
the self were being reconceived as multidimensional, shifting,
contingent,
and discontinuous (Trinh 1992).
Ever more resistant to being labeled as Asian Americans, by the
1990s
younger artists, curators, critics, and scholars perceived that
identity,
especially when filtered through the lens of race and
autobiography, had
virtually become a new delimiting canon for minoritized artists.
In this
move away from rhetorics of race and identity politics,
formulations like
“post-racial” and “post-identity” art gained increasing currency.
As any
interest in cultural specificity and affiliation risked being
associated with a
confining essentialism, those who continued to characterize
their subject as
“Asian American” art inevitably found themselves treading
through a
dense political and intellectual minefield. Moreover Asian
American art,
unlike other disciplines in ethnic studies that were firmly
established
before the 1980s, was still a subject-in-formation when it ran
afoul of this
45. polarizing climate (Elaine Kim 2003).
Visual art, moreover, was largely overlooked as a research
priority in
Asian American studies, unlike other aspects of visual culture
such as film,
television, and print media. The paucity of serious and sustained
Asian
Americanist scholarly writing on the subject is attributed to
conditions
specific to the genesis and ideological roots of a field concerned
with
ongoing struggles with racism and marginalization (G. Chang
2008). The
role of visual art in the everyday lives of Asian communities
was seldom
mentioned until the 1990s, given Asian American scholarship’s
emphasis
on bottom-up approaches to social history and labor studies.
Indeed the
subject was often viewed with ambivalence, due to its
presumptive links to
elite and elitist interests with no relevance to the lives and
circumstances
of the Asian American masses. Visual representation was also
scrutinized
for its function in providing dominant culture with a means to
negatively
stereotype and suppress Asian efforts to claim a place for
themselves in
this nation.
Another powerful influence in repositioning Asian American art
and
cultural criticism—as framed through an array of scholarly and
curatorial
46. projects—has come via the accelerating influx of Asian artists
and
intellectuals to the U.S. during the post-1965 era, which has
increasingly
26
placed Asian American art and artists in dynamic conversation
with art
and ideas emerging from Asian nations and global overseas
Asian
communities (A. Yang 1998). As identity- and nation-based
rhetorics are
relativized by discourses of diaspora, transnationality, and
globalization,
the idea of diaspora, while sometimes criticized for its links to
nationalism,
provides a basis for the comparative study of distinct yet
multivalent
identifications that transcend dichotomous notions of domestic
identity
(DeSouza 1997). By utilizing a diasporic lens, and by positing
an
“aesthetics of diaspora,” visual art by Asians in the U.S. was
reconceived
as part of a broad continuum of Asian and Asian diasporic
artistic
production. These included interstitial frames like
“transexperience” and
“intersecting communities of affinities” that were respectively
applied to
jointly position work by overseas Chinese artists residing in
three Western
nations (the United States, Australia, and France) (M. Chiu
47. 2006), and to
trace the formation and artistic production of mixed Asian
American and
Asian artist collectives in New York and Tokyo (A. Chang
2008). More
recent pandiasporic exhibitions organized both domestically and
abroad
would similarly emphasize international connections by
juxtaposing artists
in Asia with their ethnic counterparts in Asian diasporas, among
them a
Korean biennial that brought together works by Korean and
Korean
diasporic artists from the U.S., Kazakhstan, China, Brazil, and
Japan (Y. S.
Min 2002).
Overall, the past two decades have proved to be an especially
fertile
period, distinguished by an upsurge of publications, research
initiatives,
and thematic and survey exhibitions on and of Asian American
art,
including projects by scholars in Asia and the Pacific. Much as
the
foundational work in this field has simultaneously proceeded
inside and
outside the academy, it is due to the combined efforts of
curators, critics,
artists, academics, art museums, alternative spaces, community
arts and
artist-run groups, and historical societies that the scope of the
contemporary discourse on Asian American art continues to
expand.
Tracing individual artists’ creative and personal trajectories,
these projects
48. variously reveal intricately configured circuits of cultural
production and
differing contexts in which artistic work is produced, displayed,
interpreted, and marketed. Amid these expansive conceptions of
contemporary Asian American participation in ongoing flows of
artists,
ideas, and cultural influences between Asia, Oceania, the
Americas,
Europe, Africa, and the Caribbean, there is rising interest in
artists of
mixed ancestry (Kina and Dariotis 2013), and in artistic efforts
that
occurred prior to the 1960s (Chang, Johnson, and Karlstrom
2008; Johnson
2013). Recent publications shed fresh light on works by Yun
Gee, Miné
27
Okubo, and Yasuo Kuniyoshi (A. Lee 2003; Robinson and
Tajima Creef
2008; S. Wang 2011). These explorations allow for a clearer
understanding
of the continuum of concerns and standpoints that have engaged
visual
artists of Asian heritages working in the U.S., including their
historic
contributions to the development of an internationalized
modernism.
As this area of inquiry continues to evolve, some cultural critics
are also
revisiting the value of framing and promoting art as “Asian
American.”
49. While they may harbor reservations about “bounded” notions of
identity
associated with such a term, they also acknowledge the
potential elasticity
of the rubric in broadly delineating positions that arise from a
common
presence in this nation. Moreover, they continue to grapple with
how to
account for the significance of conceptions of race and the
particular
effects of domestic racialized exclusion on Asians and other
nonwhite
groups. To the extent, they argue, that the experiences,
histories, and
cultural contributions by Asian groups in the U.S. society
remain
obscured, neglected, or even actively denied, platforms for
collective
representation remain strategically necessary (S. Min 2006).
With contemporary Asian American visual artists embracing
virtually
every medium, stylistic exploration, and intellectual current,
and drawing
upon the full range of representational and critical strategies, no
single
discourse, critical perspective, ideological stance, or theme can
be taken as
definitive. Approached this way, the use of the umbrella term
“Asian
American art”—like the heterogeneous construct of Asian
America itself
—maintains its utility as an angle of view that allows for the
work of
artists of diverse Asian heritages to be situated and compared,
irrespective
50. of visual idiom, formal approach, or subject matter.
28
3
Assimilation
Lisa Sun-Hee Park
The definition of “assimilation” and its subsequent usage has
long been a
contentious issue in American scholarship. Fundamentally,
assimilation
raises difficult questions about the social composition of a
society or
culture. More specifically, the debates around the term address
the
adaptation of those populations or individuals understood as
outside or
different from mainstream society. The New Oxford American
Dictionary
defines “assimilate” as a verb meaning to “take in (information,
ideas, or
culture) and understand fully” and “absorb and integrate.”
The dispute over the meaning of assimilation follows the
intertwined
history of racial formation, immigration politics, and national
identity in
the United States. In 1897, W.E.B. Du Bois published “The
Conservation
of Races,” in which he argued against assimilation. Du Bois
pushed for the
substantive retention of racial difference, beyond that of
51. physical
difference, in acknowledgment of distinct, racial experiences
and their
particular contributions to society. In this way, to assimilate
was
understood as meaning to absorb into white America, which
requires the
negation of black experience and knowledge. He asked, “Have
we in
America a distinct mission as a race—a distinct sphere of action
and an
opportunity for race development, or is self-obliteration the
highest end to
which Negro blood dare aspire?” (1897, 12). Du Bois’s
argument rests on
the assertion that African Americans were already Americans;
thereby
raising the question of “assimilation into what?” If one is
already an
American, then assimilation efforts are normative measures to
center
whiteness as the national identity during a historic era of
transnational
migration that brought significant racial and national
challenges. With
substantial agreement in political ideals and social engagement,
Du Bois
saw no need for assimilation: “there is no reason why, in the
same country
and on the same street, two or three great national ideals might
not thrive
and develop, that men of different races might not strive
together for their
race ideals as well, perhaps even better, than in isolation”
(1897, 13). In
other words, racial difference was not the problem; it was the
52. racism, or
the assumption of racial inferiority, that marginalizes African
Americans
which was the problem.
29
Later, Robert E. Park further solidified the connection between
racial
anxiety and assimilation. However, unlike Du Bois, Park viewed
assimilation as a solution to racial difference, which he
understood as a
social problem. Park’s views were more in line with those of
another
important African American figure of the time, Booker T.
Washington, for
whom Park worked as press secretary for seven years at the
Tuskegee
Institute in Alabama (see H. Yu 2001, 38). Park would later
become the
most prominent member of the Chicago School of sociology and
the
influence of his time with Washington and their framing of
assimilation as
a solution is evident within sociology generally. Park and
Ernest Burgess’s
canonical 1921 work, Introduction to the Science of Sociology,
established
Park’s theory of interaction, according to which two different
social
groups follow a cycle of progressive stages of interaction. This
was
understood as a universal, natural process that begins with
competition and
53. ends with assimilation. Assimilation, then, was understood as
inevitable,
though there were significant barriers to achieving this
outcome. Park and
his protégés went on to produce studies of these barriers—
prejudice and
isolation in particular—that would define the foundations of
U.S.
sociology in general and research on immigrants specifically.
Since then, sociology has fluctuated in its usage and acceptance
of the
term. More recently, Richard Alba and Victor Nee have argued
for the
continued legitimacy of assimilation as a social scientific
concept by
“reformulating” the term apart from some of the most
disagreeable
elements of the past. They write, “As a state-imposed normative
program
aimed at eradicating minority cultures, assimilation has been
justifiably
repudiated” (1997, 827). In addition, they acknowledge the
limitation of
this concept as a universal outcome measure but contend that
assimilation
remains the single best theoretical framework from which “to
understand
and describe the integration into the mainstream experienced
across
generations by many individuals and ethnic groups” (1997,
827).
Parallel to this social scientific progression, the concept of
assimilation
has been interrogated in other ways. Building upon new
54. knowledge of
power and the role of the state, scholars have criticized the
continued
assumption of assimilation as a taken-for-granted process of
immigrant
incorporation in which the state holds a universal and implicitly
benign
presence. As DeWind and Kasinitz note in their review of
immigrant
adaptation, whether this concept of assimilation is “segmented”
(see Portes
and Zhou 1993) or encounters other “bumps in the road,” “[t]he
world may
well be more complicated than the straight line model of
assimilation
implies” (1997, 1099). Alba and Nee and others continue to
treat
30
assimilation as a natural (meaning spontaneous and
unintentional)
occurrence derived from interpersonal interaction, largely
devoid of state
interference. Implicit in this assumption is an understanding of
the state as
a top-down, readily observable social force. But, as scholarship
on power
has shown, the state has multiple faces, many of them hidden. A
“state-
imposed normative program aimed at eradicating minority
cultures” can
come in multiple forms in the age of hegemonic
governmentality, in which
55. the domination and subordination of particular classes take
place on a
“multiplicity of fronts” (Gramsci 1971, 247) and bureaucratic
forms of
recognition and identification enforce “the way in which the
conduct of
individuals or groups might be directed” (Foucault 1982, 21).
This is particularly so within neoliberal conditions in which the
state
maintains both a fluid and pervasive presence. And while Alba
and Nee
are careful to note that their definition “does not assume that
one group
must be the ethnic majority; assimilation can involve minority
groups
only, in which case the ethnic boundary between the majority
and the
merged minority groups presumably remains intact” (1997,
863), their
analysis lacks an understanding of multiple forms of power.
Assimilation
is not a haphazard event. Governmental programs, with the
enforcement of
controlling images, are structured in specific ways to promote
assimilation
into a particular citizen subject (see L. Park 2011).
It is an aspirational process and, as such, the point or value of
assimilation is not necessarily to achieve it. Its usefulness
resides in its
nebulous state as a distant goal rather than as a reality. In this
regard, the
main issue of contention with respect to assimilation is not its
definition
but its intention. A critical perspective, derived from an
56. interdisciplinary
analysis that combines the theoretical and methodological tools
of
feminist/queer, ethnic, transnational, and postcolonial studies,
approaches
assimilation or, more to the point, the wish to assimilate as a
powerful
normative, disciplinary tool. This perspective is based in an
analysis of
power that moves away from a state-centric approach. It is an
effort to
decenter normative or dominant understandings of migration,
which often
unquestioningly mimic the goals of national economic and
political
rationalities.
A case in point is the model minority myth, which is
assimilation
exemplified. The idea of Asian Americans as the “model
minority” is a
myth—meaning, untrue. However, the myth remains strongly
entrenched
in the U.S. narrative of its national origins as a liberal
democracy with
equal opportunity. It holds up Asian Americans as models for
other
minorities based on measures of income, education, and public
benefit
31
utilization rates (see Cheng and Yang 2000; L. Park 2008). Just
recently,
57. the myth was promoted in a Pew Research Center publication
(P. Taylor et
al. 2012). Disregarding data that shows vast variations in
income and
employment experiences across Asian immigrant groups in the
U.S., the
Pew report in question states that Asian Americans have made
tremendous
progress from a century ago, when most were “low-skilled, low-
wage
laborers crowded into ethnic enclaves and targets of official
discrimination” (P. Taylor et al. 2012, 1). And, now, these same
immigrants are “the most likely of any major racial or ethnic
group in
America to live in mixed neighborhoods and to marry across
racial lines.”
As an example, the report states, “When newly minted medical
school
graduate Priscilla Chan married Facebook founder Mark
Zuckerberg last
month, she joined the 37% of all recent Asian-American brides
who wed a
non-Asian groom” (P. Taylor et al. 2012, 1).
According to this report, Asian Americans are models of
assimilation,
enjoying high educational achievement, good (white)
neighborhoods, and
interracial marriages to whites. On its face, the model minority
myth is a
seemingly positive image of personal success and social
integration that
promotes a moral narrative of “pull yourself up by your
bootstraps.”
Absent from this progress narrative are the many Asian
Americans who
58. live in poverty and experience intense and direct racism. The
murder of six
Sikhs in Milwaukee by a white supremacist two months after the
Pew
report’s publication is just one graphic reminder. In addition,
this
assimilationist narrative focuses on just six of the largest and
wealthiest
subgroups (Chinese, Filipino, Indian, Vietnamese, Korean, and
Japanese
Americans), which obscures not only the composition of the
poverty that
exists within Asian American communities but the history of
Asian
migration to the United States. The privileged Asian Americans
of today
are not the same Asian Americans of a century ago. They are
not the
generations descended from the low-wage laborers, in keeping
with a
simplistic individual progress narrative of assimilation. Instead,
today’s
Asian Americans represent a dramatically bifurcated
immigration system
that separates the “high skilled” from the “low,” and success or
lack
thereof in the U.S. is, in no small part, indicative of one’s
access to
Western education and other forms of human capital prior to
migration
(see Park and Park 2005 and Hing 1993 for detailed discussions
of
immigration policy). However, the significant role of the state
in
structurally determining who gets ahead remains hidden within
a linear,
59. ahistorical progression toward cultural assimilation.
A critical assessment, then, brings the state to the fore by
asking,
32
“assimilation into what?” Similar to “capitalist discipline” as
defined by
Aihwa Ong, assimilationist narratives promote the “enforced
and induced
compliance” of Asian Americans with specific political, social,
and
economic objectives (1987, 5). According to Yến Espiritu, the
objective is
a well-rehearsed patriotic drama of American rescue, cleansed
from the
messy realities of conquest and colonization (2003, 208). These
narratives
represent a double-edged sword for Asian Americans. Lisa
Lowe explains
that Asians in the U.S. hold an impossible position in which
they are
simultaneously projects of inclusion and exclusion (1996, 4).
She argues
that this contradiction is rooted in the paradoxical nature of
American
citizenship, in which the state presents itself as a democratic,
unified body
where all subjects are granted equal access, while it also
demands that
differences—of race, class, gender, and locality—be
subordinated in order
for those subjects to qualify for membership (1996, 162).
60. Assimilation,
then, is required for inclusion. But assimilation into what? For
Asian
Americans, it is the position of the perpetual foreigner/victim
who must be
rescued, welcomed, and domesticated (i.e., assimilated) again
and again
(see Tuan 1999). The logic is paradoxical by design. Asian
Americans, as
a marginalized racial minority, are compelled to adapt their
history to fit
into an Orientalist drama that requires they play the outsiders
repeatedly,
all in an effort to establish their legitimate role as insiders. In
essence,
Asian Americans must be foreign in order to fit into the United
States (see
L. Park 2005).
Some of the most influential work on Asian America illustrates
how the
notion of a model minority does not imply full citizenship rights
but,
rather, a secondary set of rights reserved for particular
minorities who
“behave” appropriately and stay in their designated subsidiary
space
without complaint (see Y. Espiritu 2003; L. Lowe 1996; Glenn
2004; Ong
1999; Palumbo-Liu 1999). This subsidiary space is a socially
marginal one
in which Asian Americans despite their legal citizenship
continue to hold
foreigner status (see C. Kim 2000). In this way, assimilation
actually
reinforces established racial inequalities and imposes on even
61. subsequent
generations of Asian Americans born in the U.S. a precarious
defensive
dilemma in which they must constantly prove their worth as
“real”
Americans.
The foundational disputes regarding racial formation,
immigration
politics, and national identity associated with assimilation
continue. For
example, Nadia Kim’s (2007) contemporary critique of
assimilation as a
form of racialization into whiteness is strongly reminiscent of
Du Bois’s
more than a century ago. Over the years, scholarly contestations
regarding
33
assimilation as a measurement of Americanization conveyed the
fluctuating composition of social citizenship and its deeply
intertwined
connection to historical formations of racial difference. It
remains to be
seen whether assimilation as a concept can be convincingly
recuperated
from its imperial tendencies. As Iris Marion Young has argued,
this would
require the transformation of institutions and norms to no longer
express
dominant interests but function according to neutral rules that
do not
disadvantage those deemed “different” (1990, 266). What is
62. clear,
however, from these many years of contemplation is that
assimilation is
neither simple nor “natural.”
34
4
Brown
Nitasha Tamar Sharma
“Brown” is a term from 11th-century Old English (brun) and
Middle
English (broun) referring to a color, meaning “duskiness,
gloom.” With
regard to people, the Oxford English Dictionary describes a
brown person
as “having the skin of a brown or dusky colour: as a racial
characteristic.”
“Brown”’s work as an adjective (“brown bird”), verb (“to
brown”), and
noun parallels its references to multiple groups of people,
including those
from Africa, Asia, Europe, the Pacific, and Latin America.
Given that
many people have “brown” skin, “Brown” of course refers to
much more
than skin color and phenotype: like the terms “Black” (used to
refer to
people of African descent), “Yellow” (often referring to East
Asians), and
“Red” (indigenous peoples of the Americas), it refers not to a
thing or
63. person as much as to the processes through which these are
given
meaning.
The unsettled and untethered uses of “Brown” illustrate the
ambiguity
and contestation that define its history. “Yellow” is often the
expected
terminology with which to discuss Asian Americans, as it has
long been
the American referent for the “Yellow peril” formerly known as
“Orientals.” The U.S. conflation of Asia with East Asia arises
from
immigration histories and geopolitical relations. The Chinese
and Japanese
were the first to arrive in substantial numbers, followed by
Filipinos and
South Asians, who were also considered “Asiatics,” albeit
Brown ones.
Under the umbrella of “Brown,” members of various ethnicities
(e.g.,
Filipinos, Indians, Pakistanis) arrived with distinct colonial and
military
histories and cultures that shaped their ethnic politics and
experiences in
the United States. For instance, Vijay Prashad highlights how
Orientalists
developed a dominant conception of South Asians, or desis—the
“Brown”
in his title The Karma of Brown Folk—as neither White nor
Black others
who are viewed by Americans through the lenses of spirituality
and culture
vis-à-vis British colonization. The direct colonial and military
history of
U.S.-Philippine relations, on the other hand, shaped Filipinos’
64. distinct
earlier legal status as U.S. nationals (rather than as aliens
ineligible for
citizenship) who were viewed as a sexual-economic threat.
Brown and
Yellow Asians, therefore, have been racialized as perpetual
foreigners,
35
outsiders to the nation. Their social locations are to be
understood in
relation to the foundational Black-White binary rooted in U.S.
slavery and
to indigeneity. As a racial category forged through racialist
ideologies and
colonization, Brown often reflects the intermediary hierarchal
position of
those who are neither Black nor (fully) White.
The institutions of science and law have defined who and what
is Brown
through categorizing and fixing populations to justify
colonialism abroad
and exclusion at home. At the turn of the 19th century, race
scientists such
as Johann Friedrich Blumenbach referred to people from
Southeast Asia
and the Pacific, including Filipinos, as belonging to the
“Malay” or
“Brown” race. During the 1900s, White colonialists
distinguished
themselves from their Filipino and Indian subjects. Filipinos in
the
65. Philippines and the U.S. were bestialized as “Brown monkeys”
and South
Asians were patronized, as they were by the British, as “little
Brown
brothers” and “Brown cousins.” U.S. courts used Blumenbach’s
taxonomy
of five races when they added “Malay” to the list of races
prohibited from
marrying Whites, further distinguishing Brown Malays from
Yellow
Mongolians. Yet law and science have often disregarded one
another. The
Supreme Court case United States v. Thind (1923) shifted the
categorization of South Asians from “Caucasian” (and therefore
legally
“White”) to non-White (and thus Brown), upon which they
became “aliens
ineligible for citizenship.”
The ambiguous and shifting nature of this term continues to
reveal
tensions and alliances across groups. Some populations that fall
within the
umbrella of “Asian American” identify with “Brown” to
distinguish
themselves from Whites as well as East Asians and yet they may
be
misrecognized as Latino or assumed to be Muslims. In late-
20th-century
U.S. popular representations, “Brown” referred to Latinos and
more
specifically to Mexicans in the Southwest. Hernandez (2010)
proposes
“Mexican Brown” as a conceptual and rhetorical tool that
reflects the
racial lumping of a denigrated caste of Mexican migrants who
66. have been
constructed as “illegal” noncitizens. Since 9/11, both the Wars
on Terror
and the Arab Spring have shifted yet again the always-under-
construction
lines of “Brown,” so that it now refers to people from the
Middle East and
North Africa and more broadly to the religion of Islam. That
these multiple
populations representing transnational geographies identify with
the same
word does not mean they identify with each other as belonging
to a single
“race.” Thus, “Brown” as a reference to a people’s phenotype,
like
“Black,” is not merely descriptive or U.S. based—it is political
and global.
The rise of subfields in Asian American studies has led to an
36
interrogation of the heterogeneity and hierarchies of knowledge
production
within the field. Since the 1990s, Filipino American (Tiongson
et al.
2006), Southeast Asian (Schlund-Vials 2012a), South Asian
American
(Prashad 2000; Prashad 2002), and Pacific Island studies
(Camacho 2011)
scholars have expanded Asian American studies. These
subfields highlight
the deeply local yet diasporic formations of Brownness and the
relational
67. dynamics among communities of color across territorial
boundaries.
Events since the millennium have encouraged these scholars to
consider
the locations and intersections of Asian Americans with Arab
and Muslim
Americans as fellow subjects of U.S. empire and militarization
(Maira and
Shihade 2006). Other scholars have drawn intellectual and
ethnographic
links between Brown and Black populations that illustrate
models of
interminority solidarity. Scholars in Asian American studies
have
expanded upon Paul Gilroy’s (1993) diasporic notion of the
Black Atlantic
in their attention to queer and female subjectivity formation
(Gopinath
2005) and racio-religious terror (Rana 2002) within South Asian
diaporas.
Critical histories (Fujino 2005; Fujino 2012) have articulated
the impacts
of Black struggles (e.g., Brown v. BOE, 1954) and racial
models of
Blackness upon Asian American identity and political formation
(Wang
2006).
“Brown” at the turn of the 21st century is not simply an
imposed
identity; it also reflects the racial consciousness of those who
self-identify
with the term. Various groups in the U.S. have taken to
claiming “Brown
pride” as a politicized expression of non-Whiteness, akin to
Black pride.
68. Post-9/11, “Brown” (Sharma forthcoming) operates as a
political and
diasporic identity among people across the globe in response to
the Wars
on Terror and changing U.S.–Middle East relations. This
expression of
Brownness as a political concept and identity in the 21st
century is
evidenced in communities that have arisen through global social
networks
and in hip hop music that discusses surveillance and oppression
that links
Arabs, South Asians, North Africans, and Muslims—and those
mistaken
for them—in their homelands and across diasporas.
“Brown” is both part of and expands beyond Asian America.
Referring
to Latinos, Filipinos, South and Southeast Asians, Arabs,
“Muslim-
looking” people, and others, its flux reminds us to question the
seemingly
fixed boundaries of all racial categories. Racial formation is an
always
incomplete process of contestation and negotiation, of
hegemony and
resistance, and of imposition and adoption. This category,
crafted by racial
scientists to impose (their) order upon the world has also been a
self-
selected identity. The identifications of people around the world
as Brown
37
69. —whether racially, politically, or religiously—demonstrate that
Brown
will “stick around” as an expansive and global category infused
with
power relations.
38
5
Citizenship
Helen Heran Jun
“Citizenship” has been a key foundational term within modern
liberal
definitions of rights since the 18th century. In the most basic
sense,
citizenship is a legal status accorded to subjects of a nation that
confers to
its members a host of rights, protections, and obligations.
Citizenship is the
institution through which states may grant or deny such rights
and duties to
the inhabitants of a national territory, and thereby positions the
state as the
ultimate arbiter and guarantor of equality and justice. With the
rise of the
nation-state form, citizenship became a necessity for realizing
what had
been imagined as inalienable human rights, insofar as these
rights could be
practically claimed and administered only if recognized by a
nation-state
70. entity (Arendt 1968).
At the very heart of the modern idea of citizenship is a
universality that
is both its emancipatory promise and limit. For example, all
subjects who
have secured U.S. citizenship status, regardless of the specific
particulars
of their economic standing, gender, race, religion, national
origin, etc.,
have equal standing before the law and are formally equivalent
to one
another. Hence, all U.S. citizens can participate in electoral
politics,
operating as if they were equivalent to one another. Critiques of
citizenship
maintain that this universalism is a false abstraction since
citizens
participate in an imaginary political sphere of equality and
formal
equivalence, while their material lives are in fact constituted by
substantive inequalities that define the economic and social
spheres. In
other words, political emancipation via citizenship replaces and
displaces
possibilities for actual emancipation. Marx noted how the
elimination of
religion and property ownership as preconditions for citizenship
did not
eliminate the power of these institutions over people’s everyday
conditions, but rather, intensified the reach of religion and class
position,
which were now falsely bracketed as private matters so that the
citizen-
subject can emerge as an imaginary “universal.” While the
liberal position
71. maintains that this abstract equality is the grand substance of
citizenship,
critics maintain that this imaginary universalism is designed to
offer
merely abstract equality—the law will treat you as if you were
all equal to
one another—to ensure the reproduction of vast existing
inequality.
39
Ethnic studies scholars have observed that the Marxist critique
of
citizenship as abstract and illusory does not adequately account
for the
contradictions that inhere to racialized citizenship. For
nonwhites in the
United States, historical processes of racialization are not easily
confined
to the privatized domain of an individual “particular” and racial
difference
institutionally emerges in contradiction to the universality
promised by
political emancipation through citizenship. Lisa Lowe notes that
while
Marx regarded abstract labor in the economic sphere as
underwriting
abstract citizenship, “capital has maximized its profits not
through
rendering labor ‘abstract,’ but precisely through the social
production of
‘difference,’ marked by race, nation, geographical origins, and
gender”
(1996, 27–28). In other words, the classical Marxist critique has
72. not
accounted for modalities of differentiation as being crucial to
the
development of capitalism. Like other racialized minorities
within the
United States, Asians have neither been abstract labor nor
abstract citizens,
“but have been historically formed in contradiction to both the
economic
and the political spheres” (L. Lowe 1996, 28). This point might
seem a
familiar one for students of Asian American studies, but it is
crucial to
contextualize the stakes of this intervention, which is not a
simple negation
of the Marxist critique of citizenship but rather a deepening of
that critique
through an understanding of how racialization can produce a
productively
antagonistic contradiction to the institution of citizenship.
Citizenship has been a primary analytic of Asian American
discourse
(and within ethnic studies, generally), with an emphasis on both
its denial
and negation. The early history of Asian American racial
formation has
been a history of the incorporation of Asian labor in the West
while those
workers were rendered more exploitable through the systematic
denial of
citizenship status through legislation that deemed Asian
immigrants
ineligible for citizenship. From the 1790 Naturalization Act,
which
deemed only “free white persons” eligible for naturalized
73. citizenship, to
the systematic exclusion of new Asian emigrants (Chinese in
1882, Asian
Indians in 1917, Japanese and Koreans in 1924, and Filipinos in
1934),
and finally to Alien Land laws that prohibited Asians already in
the United
States from owning property, these acts of legislation are
concrete
manifestations of how Asians were constituted as not only
nonwhite but as
antithetical to the U.S. citizen. The history of Asian Americans
is indeed,
generally narrated as the denied access to U.S. citizenship. For
those born
to Asian immigrants in the United States and therefore U.S.
citizens by
birth (what Mai Ngai [2000] refers to as “alien citizenship”), we
can
observe the practical irrelevance and disregard of that legal
status, such as
in the mass internment of Japanese American citizens.
40
We understand this history of exclusion from citizenship as the
product
of competing interests and institutions, including capital (which
has
historically embraced Asian immigrant labor), white labor
interests (which
has historically organized to prohibit Asian immigrant labor),
Asian
nation-states with varying degrees of geopolitical influence, and
74. the U.S.
state, which both passes and reverses exclusionary legislation in
the effort
to manage the political crises that have arisen due to the threat
(or
alternately, the “promise”) of Asian labor in the United States.
In many
ways, the 19th-century exclusion of Asian immigrant workers
from
citizenship was also a reaction to the formal inclusion of
African
Americans into citizenship in 1868 following the abolition of
slavery, a
political concession that capital, labor, and the U.S. state were
not eager to
repeat (Saxton 1975; Du Bois 2008).
After World War II, however, the needs of the U.S. labor
market,
geopolitical ideological demands, and mass civil rights
mobilization led by
African Americans and others brought an eventual end to
exclusionary
legislation directed against Asian immigrants (Melamed 2011;
L. Lowe
1996; S. Chan 1991). One feature of the post–civil rights era
has been
Asian American incorporation into U.S. citizenship via
liberalized
immigration policies resulting from the Immigration and
Naturalization
Act, or Hart-Celler Act, of 1965 (Ngai 2000). Indeed, with the
passage of
civil rights legislation that same year, African Americans (who
were
formally granted U.S. citizenship via the 14th Amendment
75. almost a
century earlier) and all other racialized groups also finally
experienced full
formal equality and equal rights, that is, full equality in the
realm of the
law. However, as the Marxist critique of citizenship
underscores, legal
equality and political emancipation (as if we were equal) will
necessarily
fail to resolve the brutal racialized inequality that constitutes
our social
formation. The ethnic studies critique of Marx’s inability to
account for the
imbrication of race and class retains this crucial understanding
that under
liberal capitalism, citizenship is constituted in relation to the
sanctity of
property rights that the political state is founded to protect.
While an ethnic
studies critique of citizenship recognizes the historical
racialization of
citizenship in the United States, it also simultaneously
recognizes that
citizenship and the achievement of rights can never abolish the
exploitative
systems that they were in fact designed to protect and reify.
Rather, the
charge for a critical ethnic studies analytic has been to better
understand
how the imbrication of race and class yields an entire range of
contradictions for racialized subjects who can be situated in
contradictory
antagonism to the mandates of both the state and capital.
41
76. For Asian Americans who have been racialized as alien to the
national
body, but who have been otherwise incorporable as exploited
workers, as
bourgeois professionals, and as capitalists, it is crucial to
clarify the
multiple implications of how Asian American racial difference
emerges in
contradiction to citizenship. Bearing out the materialist critique,
we can
see, since 1965, that securing civil rights instantiated racial
equality in the
United States, but only in the legal realm of abstract formal
equivalence.
While such legal equality enabled partial socioeconomic
mobility on the
part of U.S. racial minorities, institutionalized racial
exploitation continues
to materialize in racialized ghettoization, uneven mortality rates
and
unequal access to functioning public education, a racialized,
gendered
labor market, and subjection to state violence and detention.
One aspect of contradiction that has been familiar terrain within
Asian
American discourse underscores how, despite access to
citizenship, Asian
Americans continue to signify within the national imaginary as
racially
particular and as foreign to the national culture. We can see
how Asian
American racial difference is a particularity that does not
simply dissolve
77. into the universality promised by political representation
through the
institution of citizenship. Hence, even economically privileged
Asian
Americans are read not as “universal” U.S. citizens, but
regarded through
the laudatory terms of their racial difference as model
minorities. While
members of the educated Asian American professional class
may continue
to signify as culturally foreign despite their citizenship and
economic
status, such examples of exclusion do not negate or displace the
vast
differences in life opportunities that radically distinguish the
lives of the
Asian American poor from those of their economically mobile
professional counterparts.
Therefore, what is often referred to as the construction of the
Asian as
the “forever foreigner”—the deferred promise of full inclusion
into the
national body that Asian Americans are yet to enjoy—cannot be
interpreted as the ultimate crisis and horizon of what Asian
Americans
must both claim and aspire to. Such a positioning situates the
Asian
American critique as a perpetual lament of never being
recognized as a
“true” American, a grievance that one is continually
(mis)recognized as a
foreigner rather than citizen. For the Asian American poor, the
consequences of such Othering can mean the naturalization of
violence
and exploitation of, say, immigrant garment workers or the lack
78. of
resources for displaced Southeast Asian refugees after Katrina,
while for
the Asian American elite, it can manifest as a bittersweet night
of winning
the Miss America pageant or the difficulty of securing political
office in a
42
non-Asian district. While all of these instances can be taken up
as yet
another sign of the enduring “disenfranchisement” of Asian
Americans,
there is much at stake for Asian American studies in
recognizing that full
inclusion for the latter group—that is, when professional Asian
Americans
can unquestionably be regarded as representative of America—
will not
resolve the violent material deprivation of the Asian American
poor.
Given the history of Asian American studies and its
commitment to
critiquing the exploitation of 19th- or 21st-century
Asian/American
workers, opposing imperialist wars waged in Asia (and beyond),
or waging
antieviction campaigns on the behalf of the Asian American
elderly, there
is strong reason to believe that despite the institutionalization
of Asian
American studies, it is possible that in the distance or
79. disruption produced
by Asian American racialization, something other than the
lamenting
desire for inclusion into existing institutions might emerge to
interrupt the
endless loop of denial and desire constituted by citizenship. In
other
words, even middle-class or elite Asian American
disaffection/alienation
can potentially be the basis for a critique of citizenship with
different
political horizons that would be transformative of the brutal
conditions
endured by the racialized poor in this country and beyond. Race
is the
locus in which multiple contradictions—economic, gender,
sexual—
variously cohere and assemble in specific contexts, and hence it
is a locus
of myriad tensions that must be kept in productive relation with
a critical
understanding of global capitalism (Hall 1980; L. Lowe 1996).
As with other racialized immigrants, citizenship is one of the
most
crucial mediating institutions in the formation of Asian
Americans,
irrespective of specific legal statuses. Whether as U.S.-born
citizens,
green-card holders, H-1B workers, or those granted refugee
status, the
institution of citizenship dictates the terms of access to the
labor market
and to a host of state-regulated resources, including housing,
healthcare,
and education. In this context, we can recognize the clear
80. importance of
pressuring the state to make good on its promises of abstract
rights,
whether in the instance of challenging state surveillance of U.S.
Muslim
communities, seeking benefits for Filipino World War II
veterans, or
securing safer housing for Southeast Asian refugees. At the
same time, it is
critical to simultaneously recognize how a rights-based
discourse narrows
the parameters and terms of what can be claimed and imagined
as
politically possible.
Predictably for the most privileged under globalized capitalism,
Asian
American displacement from national culture may cease to even
resonate
as crisis, particularly for the members of a bourgeois Asian
cosmopolitan
43
class less invested in signifying as “American” so long as they
have the
access secured by multiple passports and dual citizenship (Ong
1999;
Appadurai 2000; Miyoshi 1993). The globalization of capital
has
significantly altered the meaning of citizenship as neoliberal
rhetoric and
economic policies have dismantled the welfare state and the
very notion
81. that citizenship entails “entitlements”; there is, instead, an
obsessive
trumpeting of a discourse of “individual responsibility” that
works to
displace any traditional notion of the social. Stuart Hall and
David Held
contend that, while traditional critics might have regarded
citizenship
rights as a kind of “bourgeois fraud” in the post-
Thatcher/Reagan era,
there are renewed stakes to working out “the individual vs. the
social
dimensions of citizenship rights,” the latter of which is negated
by a
neoliberal rhetoric that asserts that the common good can be
realized only
by private individuals engaging in a capitalist free market,
unencumbered
by state intervention (Hall and Held 1989). As Thatcher
famously
declared, “there is no such thing as society, only individual men
and
women and their families,” an extraordinary call that seeks to
obliterate the
very notion of a larger social good or collective beyond the
heteronormative nuclear family.
This neoliberal emphasis and recognition of the normative
“family” as
the only legible social unit also suggests that the dominant
construction of
Asian Americans since 1965 as hardworking, self-reliant, and
family-
oriented subjects is part of a neoliberal rhetoric that has
refashioned the
modern discourse of citizenship of entitlements and state
82. obligations—to
provide access to housing, public education, health care, and
employment
—into an individuated narrative of private competition in the
free market
and diminished state capacity (with the exception of policing
and the
military). In other words, in the post–civil rights era, discourses
of Asian
American racial difference are consistently in the service of
constituting a
new conception of citizenship defined through both normativity
and
individual competition, while explicitly undermining and
eroding
principles of reciprocity, obligation, and social contract that
have
constituted the most compelling social dimensions of
citizenship.
44
6
Class
Min Hyoung Song
The meaning of “class” in Asian American studies formed in
conversation
with Marxism, with the former building on the latter’s insights
while
seeking to find ways to exceed its perceived limitations. For
instance, Lisa
Lowe starts her groundbreaking book Immigrant Acts: On Asian
83. American
Cultural Politics by insisting, “Understanding Asian
immigration to the
United States is fundamental to understanding the racialized
foundations
of both the emergence of the United States as a nation and the
development of American capitalism” (1996, ix). In the equally
groundbreaking Everybody Was Kung Fu Fighting: Afro-Asian
Connections and the Myth of Racial Purity, Vijay Prashad
observes,
“White supremacy emerged in the throes of capitalism’s
planetary birth to
justify the expropriation of people off their lands and the
exploitation of
people for their labor” (2001, x–xi). In both these examples,
race plays a
larger role in the development of capitalism than Marx himself
ever
considered. This is so because, for Marx, capitalism could best
be
explained as a process of valorization produced by the
inequality between
those who own the means of production and those who own only
their
ability to work. To keep this discussion as simple as possible,
we can refer
to these two fundamental socioeconomic classes as capitalists
and workers.
While other classes did exist for Marx, he understood them as
having
become less relevant as capitalism replaced preexisting
economic
arrangements. For scholars like Lowe and Prashad, such a claim
has been
significantly supplemented by an acknowledgement of the
importance of
84. race, as well as gender, sexuality, and other markers of
difference, in
sustaining unequal access to wealth, and indeed to the very
means of
sustaining life itself.
As Marx was quite aware, history does not unfold with the
dialectical
neatness that his insistence on the primacy of capital and labor
suggests.
Moments of revolutionary possibility do not always, or often,
lead to
changes that directly benefit workers. The outcome of any
struggle is
intrinsically unpredictable. There are at least two major ways in
which the
capitalist class can keep the working class in check regardless
of the
historic circumstances, frustrating or even foiling what might
have turned
45
into a revolution. First, it can deploy what Louis Althusser
calls—in an
essay that has been widely quoted and critiqued in Asian
American studies
circles (J. Ling 1998, 159–60; V. Nguyen 2002, 144; M. Chiang
2009, 27)
—a “repressive state apparatus,” which is a combination of
laws, courts,
police, and military that work more or less in concert against
the interests
of the working class. Unfortunately for the capitalist class,
85. relying on
repression alone is expensive and inefficient. Being nakedly
repressive
also leaves capitalists unable to keep workers, such as
individual police
officers, serving in roles that require them to inflict physical
harm on
others of the same class. Before long, such workers can begin to
think of
themselves openly as part of the working class and join the very
people
they are supposed to keep in line. Under such circumstances,
capitalists
have no choice but to employ the lumpenproletariat, a subclass
of loafers
who neither have any access to the means of production nor care
to use
their labor to perform any useful work. They are as a result
more inclined
to crime and other unproductive behavior than anyone else.
Employing the
lumpenproletariat as hired thugs is a dangerous move, however,
because
by definition they are untrustworthy and might easily decide to
turn their
weapons of repression on their employers with the hope that
they can
usurp their position.
Hence, finding an alternative way to prevent workers from
engaging in
revolutionary activity is of paramount importance if the
capitalist class
wants to maintain its dominance. The most significant method
involves
confusion, via what Althusser called the “ideological state
86. apparatus.” For
instance, workers may be convinced by various means that what
truly ails
them are undocumented workers whose illegal presence in their
country
steals jobs away from those like themselves, who are law
abiding. In this
way, such workers may be convinced that their real enemies are
not the
owners of the means of production but a subgrouping within
their own
class who reap unmerited rewards, who unfairly hog resources,
and who
are somehow a threat to their way of life. As this example
suggests, the
task of confusion is easier to accomplish if workers are divided
along
racial, ethnic, gendered, and national lines, and taught to feel
superior
because they are not the Other. Hence, for those who study
Asian
Americans, a keen awareness of how race coincides with the
interests of
capital might stress, as Mae Ngai does, how this concept “is
always
historically specific. At times, a confluence of economic, social,
cultural,
and political factors has impelled major shifts in society’s
understanding
(and construction) of race and its constitutive role in national
identity
formation” (2004a, 7).
46
87. Given how essential this second method of social control is, we
might
say that there are two levels of relationships that organize
capitalist
societies. There is the “base” or “infrastructure,” which refers
specifically
to the relationship between capital and labor that forms “the
economic
conditions of production” (Marx 1978, 5). It is necessarily
structured by
inequality, without which wealth would not be possible and
capitalist
societies would fall apart. Overlaid on top of this all-important
structure of
inequality are the efforts capitalists employ to confuse workers
and make
them unable to band together into a revolutionary force. We can
call this
layer of misinformation, deception, and trickery the
“superstructure,” an
epiphenomenon of ideological manipulation that actively
frustrates
workers’ attempt to make sense of their real interests even as it
may also
act as a crucial domain for these same workers to grasp
intellectually
changes occurring to the base that can lead them to revolt. The
fact that the
superstructure can simultaneously obfuscate and provide insight
suggests
that while the base is ultimately what drives history forward,
there remains
a fluid and heuristic relationship between the two. Despite
Marx’s tacit
recognition that the base is not always and only determinant,
88. many leftists
have conceived of the cultural work they should engage in as
tantamount
to showing how what we believe to be important is an illusion, a
part of
the superstructure, that inhibits us from firmly making sense of
what is
actually important, the base.
As Asian American studies scholars have pointed out, many of
the
activists who first considered themselves Asian Americans in
the early
1970s modeled their struggles on black power (Maeda 1999;
Omatsu
2000; Fujino 2005). This means that while they often employed
the
language of Marxism, they were also engaged in a sharp
departure from its
preoccupation with class, especially when it privileges this
category of
analysis over all others. There were of course several prominent
activists
who maintained the centrality of class in their thinking, such as
Grace Lee
Boggs (although she did so specifically with an attention to the
experiences of an African American working class), but others
who turned
explicitly to race as a basis of organizing tended to be skeptical
of such
privileging. Some, for instance, turned to the Black Panther
Party for
inspiration, and in doing so adopted the very un-Marxist view
that the
lumpenproletariat was revolution’s “vanguard” (Pulido 2006,
142).
89. In general, most early self-conscious Asian Americans
understood
revolution less as the overturning of a class relation and more
as a struggle
against inequalities of many kinds. It was only by coordinating
such
struggles, they reasoned, that a broad coalition could be built to
help upset
47
the status quo into social forms more respectful of the
complexities of
peoples’ actual lives. This kind of thinking had little room to
grant class
the kind of primacy it once enjoyed, and has instead led to
understandings
of class and race, alongside gender, sexuality, and increasingly
disability,
as dynamically intersectional concepts (Hong 2006, xxvi). In
their
foundational book Racial Formation in the United States: From
the 1960s
to the 1990s, Michael Omi and Howard Winant state this view
with
unequivocal clarity: “Racial dynamics must be understood as
determinants
of class relationships and indeed class identities, not as mere
consequences
of these relationships” (1994, 34). Other thinkers such as
Chandan Reddy
(2011, 33–34), Junaid Rana (2011, 157), and Lisa Marie Cacho
(2012, 99–
90. 100) have since turned to Foucault, who in “Society Must Be
Defended”
suggests that class may be an epiphenomenon of race: “After
all, it should
not be forgotten that toward the end of his life, Marx told
Engels in a letter
written in 1882 that ‘[y]ou know very well where we found our
idea of
class struggle; we found it in the work of the French historians
who talked
about the race struggle’” (2003, 79).
For the most part, debate about the importance of class has
largely been
settled in Asian American studies in favor of intersectional
thinking. Class
is now widely understood to be one of several important forms
of
inequality around which we understand how modern American
society, as
well as societies in general, are structured. Indeed, anyone who
advocates
for giving primacy to class at the expense of attention to these
other forms
is likely to stir suspicion, as such an approach is a sure sign that
one is not
taking the struggles of racial minorities, women, queers, and the
disabled
seriously enough. This view also conjures past working-class
movements
that have defined the worker explicitly as white, male,
heteronormative,
and able-bodied.
One consequence of this consensus is the discomfort it has
generated for
91. those who insist that class must remain at the center of all
socially
responsible thought. The prominent American literature scholar
Walter
Benn Michaels exemplifies this discomfort when he writes, “we
like the
difference between black people and white people or between
whites and
Asians much more than we like the difference between the rich
kids and
the poor ones” (2011, 1023). As this quotation suggests, when
class is
understood as the primary social relationship around which all
others are
of secondary importance, attention to racial difference, gender,
sexual
orientation, the disabled, or the nation can be easily understood
as a
sideshow. Worse, becoming fixated on anything other than class
can mean
that one has become a counterrevolutionary, someone so blinded
by the
48
buzz of the superstructure that one ends up preventing others
from
engaging in meaningful political struggle. Indeed, so blind has
Asian
American studies been in its commitment to everything but
class, it has,
according to Michaels, become focused on fostering “a world in
which the
fundamental conflicts have less to do with wealth than with