Res60102 slides

RES 60102 Research
Methodology

189
Here you can find relevant indicators about articles
published in several prominent scientific journals in the
field of tourism according to the following main topics:
tourism and theory, research and education; tourism and
economy; tourism market; tourism and society; tourism
and space; tourism policy and organization; statistics
and forecasting in tourism; types of tourism.
ANATOLIA (ISSN 1300-4220)
ACTA TURISTICA (ISSN 0353-4316)
ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH (ISSN 0160-7383)
CHINA TOURISM RESEARCH (ISSN 1812-688X)
EVENT MANAGEMENT (ISSN 1525-9951)
ESTUDIOS Y PERSPECTIVAS EN TURISMO (ISSN 0327-5841)
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY
& TOURISM ADMINISTRATION* (ISSN 1525-6480)
JAHRBUCH FÜR FREMDENVERKEHR (ISSN 0075-2649)
JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY
& LEISURE MARKETING* (ISSN 1050-7051)
JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY, LEISURE, SPORT
AND TOURISM EDUCATION (ISSN 1473-8376)
JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL HOSPITALITY,
LEISURE & TOURISM MANAGEMENT* (ISSN 1092-3128)
JOURNAL OF QUALITY ASSURANCE
IN TOURISM & HOSPITALITY* (ISSN 1528-008X)
JOURNAL OF TRAVEL RESEARCH (ISSN 0047-2875)
JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING* (ISSN 1054-8408)
JOURNAL OF TEACHING IN TRAVEL & TOURISM* (ISSN 1531-3220)
PROBLEMS OF TOURISM (ISSN 1230-1035)
TOURISM ANALYSIS (ISSN 1083-5423)
TOURISM ECONOMICS (ISSN 1354-8166)
TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT (ISSN 1330-7533)
TOURISMUS JAHRBUCH (ISSN 1434-5676)
TOURISM MANAGEMENT (ISSN 0261-5177)
TOURISM REVIEW (ISSN 1332-7461)
TOURISM RECREATION RESEARCH (ISSN 0250-8281)
TRAVEL AND TOURISM ANALYST (ISSN 0959-6186)
TOURISM : visâo e açâo (ISSN 1415-6393)
*copies are available from: HAWORTH DOCUMENT
DELIVERY CENTER; The Haworth Press, Inc.:
10 Alice Street; Binghamton, NY 13904; USA
Bibliographic description is given in this form:
* detailed descriptions
Title / Author(s) // Journal’s name. Volume (year), No.,
pages from-till
Tourism -
selected bibliography
B i b l i o g r a p h yB i b l i o g r a p h yB i b l i o g r a p h yB i b l i o g r a p h yB i b l i o g r a p h y
TOURISM AND THEORY, RESEARCH
AND EDUCATION
*employees*internalorganizationofcateringenterprise*Austra-
lia and Oceania
An agency theory perspective on the owner/manager
relationship in tourism-based condominiums / Chris
Guilding... [et al.] // Tourism management : research -
policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 3, 409-420
* guides, interpreters * East Asia and the Pacific
Human resources development in China / Abby Liu, Ge-
offrey Wall // Annals of Tourism Research : a Social Scie-
nces Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 3, 689-710
TOURISM AND
ECONOMY
* cruising * catering - nonaccommodation facilities
The McDonaldization thesis and cruise tourism / Adam
Weaver // Annals of Tourism Research : a Social Sciences
Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 2, 346-366
* cruising * perceptions * satisfaction
The role of affective factors on perceived cruise vaca-
tion value / Teoman Duman, Anna S. Mattila // Tourism
management : research - policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005),
No. 3, 311-323
* efficiency of catering enterprise * hotel industry
Measuring efficiency in the hotel sector / Carlos Pestana
Barros // Annals of Tourism Research : a Social Sciences
Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 2, 456-477
* employees
Investigating structural relations affecting the effe-
ctiveness of service management / Inwon Kang... [et
al.] // Tourism management : research - policies - practice.
Vol. 26 (2005), No. 3, 301-310
* management of catering enterprise
Knowledge management and tourism / Chris Cooper //
Annals of Tourism Research : a Social Sciences Journal.
Vol. 33 (2006), No. 1, 47-64
* tourism and regional development * state and tourism - general
and implementation * sustainable tourism
Collaborative policymaking : local sustainable projects /
Jon Vernon... [et al.] // Annals of Tourism Research : a Social
Sciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 2, 325-345

190
*tourismandregionaldevelopment*sustainabletourism*South
Africa
Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the
Okavango Delta, Botswana / Joseph E. Mbaiwa // Touri-
sm management : research - policies - practice. Vol. 26
(2005), No. 2, 157-172
* tourism and regional development * tourism and culture, arts
* host population attitudes
Heritage, local communities and economic develop-
ment / Mark P. Hampton // Annals of Tourism Research
: a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 3, 735-759
* tourism and social aspects
Tourism and amenity migration : a longitudinal analy-
sis / Walter F. Kuentzel, Varna Mukundan Ramaswamy //
Annals of Tourism Research : a Social Sciences Journal. Vol.
32 (2005), No. 2, 419-438
* tourism satellite account (TSA) * East Africa and Indian Ocean
islands
Tourism satellite accounts : implementation in Tanza-
nia / Amit Sharma, Michael D. Olsen // Annals of Tourism
Research : a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No.
2, 367-385
TOURISM MARKET
* consumer behaviour * tourism destination - diverse aspects
Destination appraisal : an analysis of critical incidents /
Mark P. Pritchard, Mark E. Havitz // Annals of Tourism
Research : a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 33 (2006), No. 1,
25-46
* consumer safety and security
Risk and responsibility in tourism: promoting sun-
safety / Sue Peattie, Philip Clarke, Ken Peattie // Tourism
No. 3, 399-408
* marketing in tourism - instruments * tourist supply - general
and characteristics * sustainable tourism
Eco-resorts vs. mainstream accommodation providers:
an investigation of the viability of benchmarking envi-
ronmental performance/ Jan Warnken, Melanie Bradley,
Chris Guilding // Tourism management : research -
* tourism destination - diverse aspects
Destination stakeholders : exploring identity and
salience / Lorn R. Sheehan, J. R. Brent Ritchie // Annals
of Tourism Research : a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 32
(2005), No. 3, 711-734
* tourist demand - general and characteristics * factors of tourist
demand
Factors affecting bilateral tourism flows / Bruce Pride-
aux // Annals of Tourism Research : a Social Sciences Jour-
nal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 3, 780-801
Factors affecting bilateral tourism flows / Bruce Pride-
aux // Annals of Tourism Research : a Social Sciences Jour-
nal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 3, 780-801
* tourist demand - general and characteristics * tourism statistics
- theory and methodological problems * world
Modelling multivariate international tourism demand
and volatility / Felix Chan, Christine Lim, Michael Mc-
Aleer // Tourism management : research - policies - prac-
tice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 3, 459-471
* tourist expenditure - general and characteristics * outbound
tourism * United Kingdom
Interventions on UK earnings and expenditures overse-
as / John Coshall // Annals of Tourism Research : a Social
TOURISM AND SOCIETY
* decisions * market research
A grounded typology of vacation decision-making /
Alain Decrop, Dirk Snelders // Tourism management :
research - policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 2, 121-
132
* image * mega-events * East Asia and the Pacific
Change of images of South Korea among foreign tou-
rists after the 2002 FIFA World Cup / Samuel Seongseop
Kim, Alastair M. Morrsion // Tourism management :
research - policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 2, 233-
247
* motivations * tourist demand - general and characteristics
* East Asia and the Pacific
Marketingimplicationsarisingfromaacomparativestudy
of international pleasure tourist motivations and other
travel-relatedcharacteristicsofvisitorstoKorea/Samuel
Seongseop Kim, Bruce Prideaux // Tourism management :
research - policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 3, 347-357
* psychology of tourism * surveys
The managementof emotion in collaborative tourism
research settings / Lisa Beesley // Tourism management :
research - policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 2, 261-275
* sociology of tourism
Sociological impressionism in a hospitality context /
Paul A. Lynch // Annals of Tourism Research : a Social

191
* tourism and philosophy
Reconceptualizing object authenticity / Yvette Reisin-
ger, Carol J. Steiner // Annals of Tourism Research : a So-
cial Sciences Journal. Vol. 33 (2006), No. 1, 65-86
* tourism and social aspects * sociology of tourism * volunteer
tourism
Social change, discourse and volunteer tourism / Nancy
Gard McGehee, Carla Almeida Santos // Annals of Tourism
760-779
TOURISM AND
SPACE
* climate * recreation
Weather, climate and tourism : a geographical perspec-
tive/BelenGomezMartin//AnnalsofTourismResearch:a
Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 3, 571-591
* historic parks, gardens * United Kingdom
Managing gardens for visitors in Great Britain: a story
of continuity and change / Joanne Connell // Tourism
No. 2, 185-201
* host population * East Asia and the Pacific
Community decisionmaking : participation in develop-
ment / WenJun Li // Annals of Tourism Research : a Social
* national parks and specific categories of protection * destination
marketing * United Kingdom
Relationships, networks and the learning regions: case
evidence from the Peak District National Park / Gunjan
Saxena // Tourism management : research - policies - pra-
ctice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 2, 277-289
* national parks and specific categories of protection * satisfac-
tion* East Asia and the Pacific
The relationship among tourists’ involvement, place
attachment and interpretation satisfaction in Taiwan’s
national parks / Shiuh-Nan Hwang, Chuan Lee, Huei-Ju
Chen // Tourism management : research - policies - practi-
ce. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 2, 143-156
* physical (regional) planning - examples * leisure time * East Asia
and the Pacific
Spatial modeling : suburban leisure in Shanghai / Bihu
Wu, Liping A. Cai // Annals of Tourism Research : a Social
* social environment and pollution (impacts) * urban tourism
* United Kingdom
The local impacts of tourism : a case study of Bath, UK /
A. J. Haley, Tim Snaith, Graham Miller // Annals of Tourism
647-668
* specific attractions * North America
Beer tourism in Canada along the Waterloo-Wellington
Ale Trail / Ryan Plummer... [et al.] // Tourism manage-
ment : research - policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 3,
447-458
TOURISM POLICY AND
ORGANIZATION
* other methods * cruising
A dynamic game model of strategic capacity invest-
ment in the cruise line industry / Byung-Wook Wie //
Tourism management : research - policies - practice. Vol.
26 (2005), No. 2, 203-217
* sojourn taxes * elasticity of tourist demand * Spain
The short-term price effect of a tourist tay through a
dynamic demand model. The case of the Balearic
Islands / Eugeni Aguilo, Antoni Riera, Jaume Rossello //
26 (2005), No. 3, 359-365
* state and tourism - general and implementation * Australia
and Oceania
Tourism policy in the making : an Australian network
study / Christof Pforr // Annals of Tourism Research : a
* taxation * East Africa and Indian Ocean islands
Economics of tourism taxation : evidence from Mauri-
tius / Nishaal Gooroochurn, M. Thea Sinclair // Annals of
Tourism Research : a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 32
(2005), No. 2, 478-498
STATISTICS AND
FORECASTING
IN TOURISM
*socialandeconomicalplanningandforecasting,trends-general
* employees
Tourism and glocalization : “local” tour guiding / Noel
B. Salazar // Annals of Tourism Research : a Social Sciences
Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 3, 628-646

192
* tourism and informatics - other * surveys * Austria
Determinants of response to customer e-mail enquiries
to hotels: evidence from Austria / Kurt Matzler... [et
al.] // Tourism management : research - policies - practice.
Vol. 26 (2005), No. 2, 249-259
TYPES OF TOURISM
* adventure tourism * consumer safety and security * United
Kingdom
Scoping the nature and extent of adventure tourism
operations in Scotland: how safe are they? / Stephen J.
Page, Tim A. Bentley, Linda Walker // Tourism manage-
ment : research - policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 3,
381-397
* adventure tourism * terrorism * South and Central Asia
Tourism, terrorism and turmoil in Nepal / Keshav Bhat-
tarai, Dennis Conway, Nanda Shrestha // Annals of Tou-
rism Research : a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005),
No. 3, 669-688
* heritage tourism * host population attitudes * sustainable
tourism * Central America and the Caribbean
Hospitality and reciprocity : working tourists in Do-
minica / Daniel Heuman // Annals of Tourism Research :
a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 2, 407-418
* heritage tourism * image * Eastern Europe * Central Europe
Cultural tourism in Central and Eastern Europe: the
views of ‘induced image formation agents’ / Howard
Hughes, Danielle Allen // Tourism management : research
- policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 2, 173-183
* heritage tourism * perceptions * the Netherlands
Heritage management : motivations and ecpectations /
Yaniv Poria, Arie Reichel, Avital Biran // Annals of Tourism
162-178
* heritage tourism * tourism and culture, arts * North America
Coconstructing heritage at the Gettysburg storyscape /
Athinodoros Chronis // Annals of Tourism Research : a
* heritage tourism * urban tourism * North America
Streetscape improvements in an historic tourist city a
second visit to King Street, Charleston, South Carolina /
Stephen W. Litvin // Tourism management : research -
* mass tourism * summer-holiday tourism * sustainable tourism
The persistence of the sun and sand tourism model /
Eugeni Aguiló, Joaquín Alegre, Maria Sard // Tourism
No. 2, 219-231
* mega-events * sports * Australia and Oceania
Event business leveraging : the Sydney 2000 Olimpic
Games / Danny O’Brien // Annals of Tourism Research : a
* mountain tourism * destination marketing * North America
The responsible marketing of tourism: the case of Cana-
dian Mountain Holidays / Simon Hudson, Graham A.
Miller // Tourism management : research - policies - prac-
tice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 2, 133-142
* rural tourism * market research * United Kingdom
A benefit segmentation of tourists in rural areas: a Scot-
tish perspective / Isabelle Frochot // Tourism mana-
gement : research - policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005), No.
3, 335-346
* senior citizens’ tourism * tourism destination - diverse aspects
* tourism publicity and information - forms and instruments
Destination advertising : age and format effects on
memory / Kelly J. Mackay, Malcolm C. Smith // Annals of
(2006), No. 1, 7-24
* sustainable tourism * carrying capacity
Development of a tourism sustainability assessment
procedure: a conceptual approach / Tae Gyou Ko // Tou-
rism management : research - policies - practice. Vol. 26
(2005), No. 3, 431-445
* sustainable tourism * social costs * West and Central Africa with
islands
Community-based ecotourism : the significance of soci-
al capital / Samantha Jones // Annals of Tourism Research
* sustainable tourism * tourism and social aspects * Central
America and the Caribbean
Social adaptation : ecotourism in the Lacandon Forest /
Rosa E. Hernandez Cruz... [et al.] // Annals of Tourism
610-627
* sustainable tourism* tourism and social aspects* tourism and
culture, arts
Conceptualizing yield : sustainable tourism mana-
gement / Jeremy Northcote, Jim Macbeth // Annals of
(2006), No. 1, 199-220
* sustainable tourism
Comprehensive and minimalist dimensions of eco-
tourism / David B. Weaver // Annals of Tourism Research

193
* tourism for the handicapped
Personal and societal attitueds to disability / Pheroza
Daruwalla, Simon Darcy // Annals of Tourism Research :
a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 3, 549-570
*urbantourism*touristexpenditure-generalandcharacteristics*
East Asia and the Pacific
Preferences and trip expenditures - a conjoint analysis of
visitors to Seoul, Korea / Yong Kun Suh, Leo McAvoy //
26 (2005), No. 3, 325-333
* youth tourism* East Asia and the Pacific
Backpacking Southeast Asia : strategies of “looking
local” / Hamzah Muzaini // Annals of Tourism Research
* youth tourism* perceptions
The mutual gaze / Darya Maoz // Annals of Tourism
221-239
* youth tourism* tourism and culture, arts
A postcolonial analysis of backpacking / Peggy Teo,
Sandra Leong // Annals of Tourism Research : a Social
T. Hitrec, K. Tokić
T. Hitrec, K. Tokić

ECOTOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE
TOURISM GUIDELINES
AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Written by Dave Twynam, Margaret Johnston, Bob Payne,
and Steve Kingston of Lakehead University,
Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada
Funded by
Royal Caribbean International
and Celebrity Cruises’
Ocean Fund
Prepared for The Ecotourism Society, Marine Ecotourism
Guidelines Project © 1998
PO Box 755 North Bennington, VT USA
Tel: 802-447-2121, Fax: 802-447-2122,
Email: ecomail@ecotourism.org; URL: http://www.ecotourism.org

Ecotourism and Sustainable Tourism Guidelines:
An Annotated Bibliography
i
Introduction
This annotated bibliography contains information about published literature and other
sources with relevance to Caribbean ecotourism and sustainable tourism guidelines. The
general theme of the bibliography is the management of tourism through sustainable tourism
frameworks with a focus on references applicable to the Caribbean guidelines project
coordinated by The Ecotourism Society and funded by Ocean Fund in 1998. The practical
element of sustainable tourism, which involves moving from theoretical constructs to
application in particular situations, has spurred a number of initiatives to define, to
encourage and to monitor sustainability. These approaches to application can be divided into
three groups: principle-based, managerial and scientific.
Principle-based approaches in sustainable tourism/ecotourism require all activities,
regardless of their scale, to respect the principles and to follow guidelines or codes of
conduct where they exist. The Charter on Sustainable Tourism is an example of this kind
of approach. The bibliography identifies several relevant examples and also collections
which contain examples of environmental principles, guidelines and codes of conduct. While
principles are the foundational statements of belief about what tourism should be, guidelines
indicate expectations about behaviour and codes of conduct set out specific actions that
should be taken to comply with the principles. Given that The Ecotourism Society intends
to develop a set of guidelines for marine ecotourism in the Caribbean, with potential for
wider applications, this bibliography highlights the principle-based approach.
Managerial initiatives comprise those that focus upon standards of practice which, if
followed, will assure achievement of sustainable tourism/ecotourism goals. The focal point
of all managerial initiatives is the individual organization which is expected to manage its
environmental impact throughout all of its activities. Examples discussed in the bibliography

ii
include industry standards, environmental audits and “best practices” management.
The scientific perspective recognizes that if sustainability is to be a policy or legislative goal,
it will require not only a definition, but also an understanding of cause and effect
relationships in ecosystems. This category is covered least in this bibliography and appears
in references to sustainability indicators.
Also included are other items of relevance generally to questions about controlling
environmental and social costs of tourism, and environmental management in the Caribbean.
While most of the sources cited have been published in traditional formats, the bibliography
also includes several Web sites.
The authors wish to thank Steve Kingston for his assistance in compiling records, and
Elizabeth Halpenny of The Ecotourism Society and Peter Mason of Massey University, New
Zealand for their careful reviews of the document. Also Royal Caribbean International and
Celebrity Cruises should be acknowledged for their financial sponsorship of this project via
Ocean Fund.

1
Reference Anderson, E. M. (1994). Towards Self-regulation for
Sustainable Tourism. Proceedings from the Ecodollars
Management Industry. Association of Australia, Queensland,
1994.
Key Words tourism, sustainable, regulation, code of practice
Purpose C to discuss the role of the tourism industry in providing
environmental protection through a regulatory practice
shared between industry and government
Content C a list of the Principles of Environmental Management
published by the Business Council of Australia
C a discussion of the systematic approach to
environmental management, with the major focus on
best practice environmental management, specification
for environmental management systems, and
accredited licensee
C a discussion of the challenge this presents for the
tourism industry
Other

2
Reference Beck, P. J. (1990). Regulating one of the last tourism
frontiers: Antarctica. Applied Geography 10, 343-356.
Key Words tourism, regulation, Antarctica
Purpose C to provide an outline of the current regulations for and
management of tourism and the debates over
approaches to future tourism guidelines in Antarctica
Content C a discussion of the current Antarctic regulations and
guidelines for tourist activities
C an outline of the weaknesses of the existing code of
behaviour
C a discussion of the respective merits of either the
adoption of more comprehensive national legislation
or the introduction of an international Antarctic
tourism regime
Other

3
Reference Boo, E. (1994). The Ecotourism Boom: Planning for
Development and Management. Wildlands and Human Needs
Technical Paper Series (Paper #2). Washington D.C., U.S.A.:
World Wildlife Fund.
Key Words ecotourism, guidelines, management
Purpose C to review general issues and components of
ecotourism
C to create an ecotourism strategy for protected areas to
better manage tourists
Content C a review of ecotourism to date
C a description of potential benefits and costs of
ecotourism
C an outline of the role of conservationists in ecotourism
C a description of guidelines to assist park managers
develop an ecotourism strategy
Other

4
Reference Borja, J.F.C. and Sanchez, M.M. (1993). Geoecodynamic
assessment to improve the landscape tourist resources in
Cancun, Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. In P.P. Wong, Tourism
vs Environment: The Case for Coastal Areas (pp. 55-65).
Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Key Words coastal zone, planning
Purpose C to examine the coastal environment of Cancun in order
to present opportunities and barriers for tourism
planning
Content C a description of the development of tourism and the
regional setting of Cancun
C an examination of the features of the coastal
environment
C a discussion of the proposed master plan and policies
to protect the environment from tourism
Other

5
Reference Bottrill, C. G., and Pearce D. G. (1995). Ecotourism:
Towards a key elements approach to operationalising the
concept. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 3(1), 45-54.
Key Words ecotourism
Purpose C to operationalize the concept of ecotourism
Content C a classification based on a set of measurable key
elements covering the participant, operator, and
resource management perspectives
C a description of the survey of 22 nature-based tourism
operators in British Columbia
C the results and highlights from the study (eg. only five
of the 22 ventures surveyed were classified as
providing ecotourism; the majority of ventures were
excluded based on a protected area criterion)
Other

6
Reference Brandon, K., and Margoluis R. (1996). Structuring
ecotourism success: Framework for analysis. Plenary paper
presented at “The Ecotourism Equation: Measuring the
Impacts” International Society of Tropical Foresters, Yale
University, New Haven, Connecticut, April 12-14, 1996.
Key Words ecotourism, conservation, benefits
Purpose C to argue that the distinguishing feature of ecotourism
should be that it benefits biodiversity conservation
Content C an outline of five benefits to conservation which
should be evident in any tourism activity which claims
to be ecotourism
C an outline of steps which need to be undertaken during
project design which help identify links between
project design and project evaluation
Other

7
Reference Briassoulis, H. (1995). The environmental internalities of
tourism: Theoretical analysis and policy implications. In H.
Coccossis, and P. Nijkamp, Sustainable Tourism Development
(pp.25-39). Brookfield, U.S.A.: Avebury.
Key Words tourism policy, sustainable tourism
Purpose C to conceptualize the issue of tourism’s internalities
C to offer a theoretical analysis of the tourism-
environment relationship
C to suggest appropriate planning and policy approaches
to achieve sustainable tourism development
Content C a discussion of tourism’s features and its differences
from other economic sectors
C an analysis of the tourism-environment relationship
and clarification of the distinction between the
environmental externalities and internalities of tourism
C an outline of public and private sector policies needed
for effective tourism planning and management
C a discussion of future research directions
Other

8
Reference Buhalis, D., and Fletcher J. (1995). Environmental impacts on
tourist destinations: An economic analysis. In H. Coccossis,
and P. Nijkamp, Sustainable Tourism Development (pp.3-24).
Brookfield, U.S.A.: Avebury.
Key Words tourism, impacts, sustainable development
Purpose C to argue that environmental impacts of tourism can be
generated within sectors directly or indirectly related
to the tourism industry
C to assess the environmental impacts of tourism with an
input-output model
Content C a discussion of the relationship between tourism and
the environment
C an illustration of the major factors which affect the
environmental assets at a destination level, namely
local people, tourists, local enterprises, tour operators,
and national tourist organizations
C an outline of the major economic factors which
influence the environment in the tourism destination
C an outline of some of the major tourism trends and
strategies worldwide
Other

9
Reference Cater, E., and Lowman, G. (1994). Ecotourism: A
Sustainable Option? Toronto, Canada: John Wiley & Sons.
Key Words ecotourism, sustainable development
Purpose C provide a compilation of papers mainly from the
proceedings of a Royal Geographical Society
conference on ecotourism
Content C definitions of ecotourism and sustainability
C a description of the four possible outcomes (win-win,
win-lose, lose-win, and lose-lose) between
environmental and developmental interests
C several papers on the state of ecotourism in the world
C a paper on environmentally responsible marketing of
tourism
C several papers on ecotourism in various destinations
around the world, including the Caribbean basin
(chapter 10)
Other C description of contributors

10
Reference Conlin, M.V. (1996). Revitalizing Bermuda: Tourism policy
planning in a mature island destination. In L.C. Harrison and
W. Husbands, Practicing Responsible Tourism: International
Case Studies in Tourism Planning, Policy and Development
(pp. 80-102). Toronto, Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Key Words planning, policy, tourism growth, Bermuda
Purpose C to examine planning and policy issues related to small
island destinations
Content C a discussion of a variety of planning theories and
C a history of tourism development and policy in
Bermuda, including the work of the Tourism Planning
Committee
C a discussion of future growth strategies and the
potential for inclusive community planning
Other

11
Reference Consulting and Audit Canada (1996). What Tourism
Managers Need to Know: A Practical Guide to the
Development and Use of Iindicators of Sustainable Tourism.
Madrid, Spain: World Tourism Organization.
Key Words tourism, indicators, sustainable tourism
Purpose C to facilitate the development of practical indicators for
the sustainable management of tourist destinations
C to guide managers and administrators in the use of
indicators in decisions regarding tourism and the
environment
Content C a description of core indicators of sustainable tourism
(site protection, stress, use intensity, social impact,
development control, waste management, planning
process, critical ecosystems, consumer satisfaction,
local satisfaction, tourism contribution to local
economy, carrying capacity, site stress, and
attractivity)
C a short description of supplementary of destination-
specific indicators, including ecosystem-specific
indicators and site-specific management indicators
Other C supplementary indicators of sustainable tourism
C summaries of pilot studies
C key barriers to sustainable tourism
C glossary of indicator types

12
Reference D’Amore, L. J. (1993). A code of ethics and guidelines for
socially and environmentally responsible tourism. Journal of
Travel Research 31,64-66.
Key Words ecotourism, code of ethics
Purpose C to describe efforts at the global scale, and particularly
in Canada, to develop guidelines and codes of ethics to
shape ecotourism
Content C general data on global environmental changes
C a description of responses of the world tourism
industry and Canada to the challenge outlined by the
Brundtland Commission
C examples of realized benefits to companies
demonstrating environmental responsibility
Other C contact address for Tourism Industry Association of
Canada

13
Reference Davis, P. B. (1995). Antarctic visitor behaviour: Are
guidelines enough? Polar Record 31(178), 327-334.
Key Words tourism, guidelines, visitor management, Antarctic
Purpose C to provide results from a visitor survey on tourists’
assessments of their own behaviour and that of other
tourists
C to discuss the effectiveness of voluntary visitor
guidelines developed by an industry association
(International Association of Antarctic Tour
Operators)
Content C a general discussion of visitor management in the
Antarctic
C a description of the effects of sex, age, educational
level, and cruise trip on guideline violation or
adherence
C a discussion of the management challenges presented
by potential passenger violations of guidelines
Other

14
Reference Dickinson, G. (1995). Environmental impacts in the Loch
Lomond area of Scotland. In H. Coccossis, and P. Nijkamp,
Sustainable Tourism Development (pp.159-168). Brookfield,
U.S.A.: Avebury.
Key Words tourism, impacts, case study, management
Purpose C to examine the nature of recreational impacts, their
role in overall environmental change in the area, and
resource management strategies for the Loch Lomond
region
Content C an examination of recreation and tourism in the Loch
Lomond area, environmental impacts, recreation and
other factors causing environmental degradation, and
recreation and conservation management strategies
and systems
Other

15
Reference Driml, S. and Common, M. (1996). Ecological economics
criteria for sustainable tourism: Application to the Great
Barrier Reef and Wet Tropics World Heritage Areas,
Australia. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 4(1), 3-16.
Key Words tourism, sustainable, Australia
Purpose C to examine the extent to which tourism in the Great
Barrier Reef and Wet Tropics World Heritage Areas is
sustainable
Content C definitions of sustainable tourism and protected areas
C an outline of principles and characteristics of
sustainable tourism
C a description of tourism and its management in the
two heritage areas
Other

16
Reference Eagles, P. F. J. (1995). Management in parks: The experience
in Australia. Paper presented to State of Western Australia
Annual Tourism Conference on June 9, 1995: Perth,
Australia.
Key Words ecotourism, issues, management
Purpose C to discuss the most important issues regarding existing
management structure of nature-based tourism in
parks
Content C an outline of travel motives and motivations of
Canadian tourists
C a discussion of limits of acceptable change and park
zoning, management of tourist use, allocation of
tourism access, market specialization, management of
recreation conflict, enforcement and monitoring of
policies and programmes, consumer assurance of
quality, facility design, community development,
financial viability, and public and private sector
cooperation
Other C list of references

17
Reference Eagles, P. F. J., and Nilsen P. (1997). Ecotourism: An
Annotated Bibliography for Planners and Managers. (4th
edition) North Bennington, Vermont: The Ecotourism
Society.
Key Words ecotourism, bibliography, planning, management,
development, infrastructure, economics, conservation,
marketing
Purpose C an annotated bibliography reflecting growing interest
in ecotourism as a global conservation and sustainable
development tool
Content C list of 384 ecotourism related publications and
presentations
Other

18
Reference Edwards, F., editor, (1988). Environmentally Sound Tourism
in the Caribbean. Proceedings of the Workshop on
Environmentally Sound Tourism Development, April 1987,
Barbados. Calgary, Alberta: The University of Calgary Press.
Key Words environmentally sound tourism, Caribbean, management
Purpose C objectives of the conference were to identify and
strengthen strategies for intergrating tourism and the
environment and to promote better coordination
between tourism development and management of the
environment
Content C nine chapters plus an introduction (not annotated
separately)
C an emphasis on understanding tourism patterns in the
Caribbean and the planning challenges faced in the
region
Other C list of conference participants
C report on a related conference (1985)
C synthesis of workshop findings

19
Reference Edwards, J. (1996). Visitor management and the sustainable
tourism agenda. In L. Briguglio, B. Archer, J. Jafari, and G.
Wall, Sustainable Tourism in Islands and Small States:
Issues and Policies (pp. 137-147). New York, U.S.A.:
Pinter.
Key Words sustainable tourism, visitor management
Purpose C to discuss the role of visitor management in
ameliorating the undesirable impacts of tourism and
the potential for moving tourism towards a more
sustainable approach
Content C a brief discussion of the concept of sustainability
C a review of various visitor management approaches
from a range of clearly-defined destinations
C a discussion of the balance between the needs of the
visitor and the needs of the resource
C a discussion of managing tourists on islands
Other

20
Reference Farrell, T. (1995). A research framework to assess the
biophysical impacts of nature-based tourism: A thesis
project. In Proceedings of the 1995 Northeastern Recreation
Research Symposium (General Technical Report NE-218,
pp.267-273). Saratoga Springs, New York: United States
Department of Agriculture.
Key Words ecotourism, impacts, management
Purpose C to propose a general research framework to set
nature-based tourism industry standards, influence
policy decision making, and establish linkages
between biophysical impacts and the activities of
nature tour operators, guides, and tourism
Content C a discussion of the positive and negative biophysical
impacts linked to tourism activities
C a description of the general research framework
design
C an examination of a case study in Belize, Central
America, to determine the availability of research
related resources and consider factors affecting the
proposed framework’s ability to establish linkage
between impacts and activities
C recommendations for the general research framework

21
Reference German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation. (1997).
Biodiversity and Tourism: Conflicts on the World’s Seacoasts
and Strategies for their Solution. Berlin, Germany: Springer-
Verlag.
Key Words biodiversity, tourism protocol, sustainable development
Purpose C to outline problems associated with tourism
development along seacoasts and to present solutions
to these problems
Content C case studies examining tourism uses and solutions to
problems
C a discussion of legal aspects and the need for
regulations
C a review of the global situation regarding tourism and
coastal biodiversity
C a focus on European marine and coastal ecosystems
Other C Appendices include tourism statistics for the
Caribbean (Appendix E) and several relevant
documents

22
Reference Harris, R., and Leiper, N. (1995). Sustainable Tourism: An
Australian Perspective. Newton, U.S.A.: Butterworth-
Heinemann.
Key Words ecotourism, sustainable development
Purpose C to examine how tourism industry businesses and
organizations are responding to the challenge of
linking development, environment, and society to
promote the goal of sustainable development
C to provide examples of how selected tourism industry
associations, government departments, and
conservation bodies have facilitated this response
Content C an overview of sustainable development within the
tourism industry
C a description of 19 case studies to detail how selected
firms and organizations have responded to the
challenge of sustainable tourism development
C case studies were selected to represent either a natural
attraction and management authority, organization,
accommodation provider, or tour operator
Other C a suggested reading list on sustainable development
and tourism

23
Reference Holder, J.S. (1996). Maintaining competitiveness in a new
world order: Regional solutions to Caribbean tourism
sustainability problems. In L.C. Harrison and W. Husbands,
Practicing Responsible Tourism: International Case Studies in
Tourism Planning, Policy and Development (pp. 145-173).
Toronto, Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Key Words carrying capacity, waste disposal, coastal pollution, Caribbean
Purpose C to examine issues related to the sustainability of
tourism in the Caribbean
C to address sustainability in a regional framework
Content C a description of the history of tourism in the Caribbean
region
C an outline of current issues and perspectives
C a discussion of product quality, profitability, regional
promotion, transportation, security and linkages
Other

24
Reference Hunter, C. (1997). Sustainable tourism as an adaptive
paradigm. Annals of Tourism Research 24(4), 850-867.
Key Words tourism, sustainable, principles and practices
Purpose C to show that the concept of sustainable tourism has
evolved in isolation from that of sustainable
development, resulting in the emergence of a simplistic
and inflexible paradigm of sustainable tourism which
fails to account for specific circumstances
Content C a discussion of reconnecting the concerns of
sustainable tourism with those of sustainable
development
C a review of the foundations of sustainable
development and a discussion of the implications for
the principles and practice of sustainable tourism
Other

25
Reference Hunter, C. and Green, H. (1995). Tourism and the Environment. New
York, NY: Routledge.
Key Words tourism, environment, sustainability, management
Purpose C to provide an analysis of the relationship between tourism
development and environmental quality, with sustainable tourism
development as the central theme
C to review relevant tourism and environmental management
literature and discussions held at international conferences
Content C a review of the impacts of tourism on the quality of the natural,
built, and cultural resources which support tourism
C a discussion of sustainable development and the principles and
implications of sustainable tourism development
C an outline of appropriate policy directions for sustainable tourism
development
C a discussion of land use planning and Environmental Impact
Assessment as instruments in putting the principles of sustainable
tourism development into practice
Other

26
Reference International Fund for Animal Welfare, Tethys Research
Institute, and Europe Conservation (1996). Report of the
Workshop on the Scientific Aspects of Managing Whale
Watching in Montecastello di Vibio, Italy 30 March - 4th th
April 1995. East Sussex, United Kingdom: International Fund
for Animal Welfare.
Key Words whale watching, management
Purpose C to develop a framework to guide the process of
defining new rules and modifying existing rules for
whale watching
C to provide a list of recommendations for further
research
Content C an outline of the variables associated with whale-
watching impacts
C a list of parameters that can be used to measure the
impacts of whale watching
C a description of short-term and long-term impacts of
whale watching and possible causal links
C rules and recommendations for whale watching
Other C list of workshop participants

27
Reference Johnston, M. E. (1997). Polar tourism regulation strategies:
Controlling visitors through codes of conduct and legislation.
Polar Record 33(184), 13-20.
Key Words tourism, visitor management, Arctic, Antarctic
Purpose C to summarize several approaches to visitor regulation
in polar regions in order to illustrate the ways in which
concerns about tourist impacts are being addressed
Content C a description of tourist behaviour regulation and
general issues of strategy effectiveness
C an examination of the approaches to visitor regulation
used in the Antarctic and on Svalbard as examples that
may be of use in the further development of strategies
in the Arctic
C a discussion of an evolving strategy for control in the
Northwest Territories, Canada
Other

28
Reference Lake Superior Bi-National Program (1995). Ecosystem
Principles and Objectives: Indicators and Targets for Lake
Superior. Discussion Paper.
Key Words ecosystem, principles, indicators, Lake Superior
Purpose C to expand the broad objectives of ‘A Vision for Lake
Superior’ into more specific principles and objectives
C to facilitate progress towards a set of information
ecosystem indicators with quantitative targets
C to provide guidance for land and water management in
Lake Superior ecosystems
Content C a description of the general objectives and targets of
the Lake Superior Work Group
C a detailed outline of indicators and targets to meet the
objectives for terrestrial wildlife, habitat, human
health, sustainability, social infrastructure, and cultural
values
Other C list of contributors

29
Reference Leon, C., and Gonzalez M. (1995). Managing the
environment in tourism regions: The case of the Canary
Islands. European Environment 5, 171-177.
Key Words tourism, environment, management, Canary Islands
Purpose C to focus on the main environmental problems in the
Canary Islands resulting from the development process
and to show how local authorities are dealing with
these problems
Content C a list of the local and regional sources of
environmental problems with respect to social,
economic, geographical, and ecological aspects
C a discussion of the main environmental issues faced by
managers within the Canary Islands (e.g., waste
management, water resources, water management,
water legislation, land resources, land regulation,
tourism act, and energy and transportation demands)
C an outline of the Canary Islands Environmental Action
Plan
Other

30
Reference Lindberg, K., and Hawkins D.E. (1993). Ecotourism: A
Guide for Planners and Managers. North Bennington,
Vermont: The Ecotourism Society.
Key Words ecotourism, principles, planning, management
Purpose C to fill the void in the practical aspects of ecotourism
planning and management
Content C an outline of challenges in the field of ecotourism and
advice on addressing them, including the tools to look
at demand, use and impact, income distribution,
resource inventory, policy formulation, planning,
management, training, and local participation
Other C list and description of editors and contributors
C country and site index

31
Reference Mason, P. (1994). A visitor code for the Arctic. Tourism
Management 15(2), 93-97.
Key Words tourism, codes of conduct, visitor management, Arctic
Purpose C to investigate the use of visitor codes as a technique in
tourism management
Content C a discussion of the development of ecotourism in the
context of the use of codes
C a discussion of the nature and use of visitor codes in a
number of developed and developing countries,
including a critique of the use of the codes
C a suggested draft of visitor codes for the Arctic that
includes some ideas obtained from the author’s own
experiences and from the World Wide Fund for Nature
Arctic Programme Director
Other

32
Reference Mason, P. (1997). Tourism codes of conduct in the Arctic and
Sub-Arctic Region. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 5(2), 151-
165.
Key Words tourism, codes of conduct, Arctic
Purpose C to investigate the nature and use of tourism codes of
conduct in the Arctic and sub-Arctic region within the
context of the Arctic Environmental Protection
Strategy and the recently created Arctic Council
C to consider tourism codes in relation to the World
Wide Fund for Nature’s initiative to develop Arctic
tourism guidelines
Content C a discussion of the scale and nature of tourism
activities in the region and the environmental and
socio-cultural impacts of tourism
C a review of Arctic and sub-Arctic tourism codes of
conduct with particular reference to aims, authorship,
audience, and content
C a discussion of issues in relation to the use, limitations,
and potential for codes of conduct; including
suggestions on overcoming problems
Other

33
Reference Mason, P., and Mowforth, M. (1996). Codes of conduct in
tourism.
Progress in Tourism and Hospitality Research 2 (2), 151-166.
Key Words tourism, codes of conduct
Purpose C to outline the types of organizations which have
produced codes of conduct for use in the tourist
industry
Content C a discussion of codes of conduct aimed at the tourist,
industry, and hosts
C a presentation of the essential elements of each type of
code
C a disacussion of issues
C essential elements include: monitoring and evaluation
of codes of conduct, use of codes as a form of
marketing, the regulation or voluntary self-regulation
of the use of codes, and the variability between codes
and the resulting need for coordination
Other

34
Reference Mihalic, T. (1996). Ecological labeling in tourism. In L.
Briguglio, B. Archer, J. Jafari, and G. Wall, Sustainable
Tourism in Islands and Small States: Issues and Policies (pp.
197-205). New York, U.S.A.: Pinter.
Key Words tourism, marketing, label
Purpose C to discuss labelling of the tourist product from the
ecological view point
Content C definitions of the nature of the tourist product and the
meaning of ecological labels
C a description of the distinction between labels used for
industry and those used for tourism
C a discussion of the importance of labelling to small-
island states
Other

35
Reference Nitsch, B., and Straaten J. (1995). Rural tourism
development: Using a sustainable tourism development
approach. In H. Coccossis, and P. Nijkamp, Sustainable
Tourism Development (pp.169-185). Brookfield, U.S.A.:
Avebury.
Key Words tourism, case studies, sustainable tourism
Purpose C to investigate the implementation of sustainable
tourism in La Sierra in La Rioja in Spain, and in the
Northern Pennines in the United Kingdom
Content C a description of previous field studies undertaken in La
Sierra and the Northern Pennines in 1992 and 1993
C an investigation of how effectively sustainable tourism
could be realized in these regions, the initiatives of
regional authorities, and the role of the European
Union in these regions
C a discussion of the obstacles and barriers for attaining
sustainable tourism in these regions
Other

36
Reference Orams, M. B. (1995). Towards a more desirable form of
ecotourism. Tourism Management 16(1), 3-8.
Key Words ecotourism, definition
Purpose C to review definitions of the term ecotourism and
present them as a continuum where, at one pole, all
tourism can be viewed as ecotourism and, at the other,
no tourism can be viewed as ecotourism
Content C a discussion of the origins and definitions of the term
ecotourism
C an outline of a conceptual framework describing the
transition and form that ecotourism should take
C a description of indicators which can be used to
measure progress towards a more desirable state of
ecotourism
Other

37
Reference Orams, M. B. (1996). Using interpretation to manage nature-
based tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 4(2), 81-94.
Key Words tourism, impact, management
Purpose C to provide an argument for educating tourists as an
effective means of reducing negative impacts on
nature-based tourism
Content C a discussion of the rapid growth of nature-based
tourism and outline of concerns being expressed over
the impacts of this industry
C arguments for interpretation-based management
strategies
C an outline of several specific educational techniques
C a list of questions for empirical research in the area of
tourism management
Other

38
Reference Parks Canada (1996). Best Practices for Parks Canada Trails:
A Spectrum of Appropriate Trail Activities, Services, and
Facilities. Canada: Parks Canada.
Key Words parks, trails, best practice, guidelines
Purpose C to provide a snapshot of appropriate visitor activities
and services under the jurisdiction of Parks Canada
that must be supported by trails and their associated
facilities
Content C an analysis of information on trail-related visitor
activities, services, and facilities in National Parks,
Historic Sites, and Canals
C a description of guidelines for existing trail standards
and for future trail installations and recapitalization of
older trails
C a presentation of a spectrum of best practice examples
and standards that reflect harmony among protection
of heritage values, public safety, visitor activity
requirements, and aesthetics (such as scale, form, and
texture) in ways that are appropriate to the setting
Other

39
Reference Place, S.E. (1998). How sustainable is ecotourism in Costa
Rica?. In C.M.Hall and A.A. Lew, Sustainable Tourism: A
Geographical Perspective (pp. 107-118). New York, U.S.A.:
Longman.
Key Words ecotourism, parks, impacts, local people
Purpose C to explore whether ecotourism is playing a role in
economic development and providing benefits to local
people
Content C a description of ecotourism, park-based tourism and
tourism generally in Costa Rica
C a case study of the development of tourism in
Tortuguero, on the Caribbean coast
C an assessment of the sustainable tourism potential of
Tortuguero
Other

40
Reference Saleh, F., and Karwacki J. (1996). Revisiting the ecotourist:
The case of Grasslands National Park. Journal of Sustainable
Tourism 4(2), 61-80.
Key Words ecotourism, profile, Grasslands National Park
Purpose C to define the demographic, sociographic, and
psychographic attributes of ecotourists, especially
those who travel independently
C to provide insight into travel motivations, preferences,
and satisfaction pertaining to the ecotourist
C to develop recommendations for ecotourism planners
and managers
Content C a review of recent literature on ecotourists
C a summary of the results of two studies conducted in
Grasslands National Park and comparison to existing
knowledge on attributes of ecotourists
C a discussion of the managerial implications that
emerge from the two studies
Other

41
Reference Sirakaya, E. (1997). Attitudinal compliance with ecotourism
guidelines. Annals of Tourism Research 24(4), 919-950.
Key Words ecotourism, guidelines
Purpose C to examine the compliance attitudes of ecotourism
operators with industry codes of conduct delineated in
The Ecotourism Guidelines for Nature Based Tour
Operators
Content C a discussion of positive and negative influences of
ecotourism
C a discussion of the regulations, guidelines, and
compliance of ecotourism operators including a
summary of The Ecotourism Society’s Ecotourism
Guidelines for nature tour operators
C a description of compliance theory and the research
methodology
Other

42
Reference Sirakaya, E. And Muzaffer, U. (1997). Can sanctions and
rewards explain conformance behaviour of tour operators
with ecotourism guidelines? Journal of Sustainable Tourism
5(4), 322-11.
Key Words ecotourism, guidelines, compliance
Purpose C to explore the value of sanctions and rewards as
potential predictors of compliance behaviour among
ecotourism operators
Content C a discussion The Ecotourism Society guidelines for
nature based tour
C a description of utility theory, rewards and sanctions
and their application to ecotourism operators
C a discussion of the implications of results for
management and policy options
Other

43
Reference Splettstoesser, J. and Folks, M. C. (1994). Environmental
guidelines for tourism in Antarctica. Annals of Tourism
Research 21(2), 231-244.
Key Words tourism, impact, guidelines, Antarctica
Purpose C to discuss the need for and the current environmental
guidelines for tourism in Antarctica
Content C a discussion of the history of tourism in Antarctica
C a discussion of the need for tourism guidelines
C an outline of guidelines for Antarctic Tour Operators,
Antarctic Visitors, and Conservation
Other

44
Reference Stabler, M. J., and Goodall, B. (1996). Environmental
auditing in planning for sustainable island tourism. In L.
Briguglio, B. Archer, J. Jafari, and G. Wall, Sustainable
Tourism in Islands and Small States: Issues and Policies (pp.
170-196). New York, U.S.A.: Pinter.
Key Words sustainable tourism, planning, case studies
Purpose C to examine how sustainable tourism might contribute
to the introduction of environmental auditing by the
industry in small island destinations, including the
procedures for its conduct and the subsequent
monitoring of its effects
Content C a discussion of the role of planning in pursuing
sustainable development and tourism’s relationship to
it
C an outline of the tourism base and examination of
environmental auditing within the context of small
islands
C examples to illustrate the current situation and the
potential for implementing environmental auditing
within existing planning structures
C the identification of the organization and structure for
developing auditing and the required private sector
responses to ensure sustainable tourism development

45
Reference Sweeting, J. (n.d.). Marine Ecotourism Information Package.
North Bennington, U.S.A.: The Ecotourism Society.
Key Words ecotourism, marine, coral reefs
Purpose C to present guidelines for responsible marine
ecotourists
Content C a description of coral reef and ecosystem destruction
and the challenge facing marine ecotourism
C an outline of general rules a responsible marine
ecotouist should follow for wildlife viewing,
recreational boating, and snorkeling/scuba diving
C a description of how ecotourists can help ameliorate
the problem of marine ecosystem degradation
Other C list of marine organizations

46
Reference The Ecotourism Society (n.d.). A Collection of Ecotourism
Guidelines. North Bennington, U.S.A.: The Ecotourism
Society.
Key Words ecotourism, travel ethics, code of conduct/ethics, principles
and practices
Purpose C to provide a collection of papers outlining general
guidelines and ethics with respect to travelers, tour
operators, wildlife watchers, and people participating
in ecotourist activities
Content C lists of codes of conduct and ethics for ecotourists
C an outline of principles and practices of ecotourism
C guidelines for viewing wildlife, with specific papers on
birding and protecting manatees
C guidelines for specific ecotourist activities
(recreational boating, diving, plant collecting, hiking
and camping)
C case studies of guidelines and codes of conduct in
Antarctica and Gwaii Haanas/South Moresby National
Park
Other

47
Reference The Ecotourism Society (n.d.). The Ecotourism Society Fact
Sheet Collection. Vermont, U.S.A.: The Ecotourism Society:
North Bennington.
Key Words ecotourism, ecotourist profile
Purpose C to provide general ecotourism information and
increase the understanding of patterns of ecotourism
Content C a fact sheet on the importance of ecotourism in the
global market
C a profile of the general ecotourist
C an outline of criteria helpful in seeking a responsible
ecotourism operator
C a list of rules to follow when participating in marine
ecotourism activities
C an inventory of ecotourism or nature-based tourism
courses offered by universities in the U.S.A. and a
description of the educational format and focus of
these courses
Other

48
Reference Thomlinson, E., and Donald G. (1996). The question of scale
in ecotourism: Case study of two small ecotour operators in
the Mundo Maya region of Central America. Journal of
Sustainable Tourism 4(4), 183-200.
Key Words ecotourism, scale, case study, Central America
Purpose C to address the issue of scale in ecotourism with
specific reference to the costs and benefits of large
versus small-scale development, tour groups, and tour
operators
Content C a case study of two small ecotourism businesses
operating in the Mundo Maya region of Central
America
C a discussion of comparisons based on organization,
tours offered, owners’ opinions, impacts, and issues
pertaining to the Mundo Maya business environment
C discussions of important policy, planning and
marketing questions related to ecotourism and
sustainable development in this destination, and on the
general issue of scale
Other

49
Reference Todd, S. E., and Williams P. W. (1996). From white to green:
A proposed environmental management system framework for
ski areas. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 4(3), 147-173.
Key Words tourism, management, code of conduct, sustainable tourism
Purpose C to describe the evolution of sustainable tourism from
its concept to practice
Content C a description of three phases to the evolution of
sustainable tourism: development of principles,
translation of principles into practice, and creation and
implementation of environmental auditing or
monitoring programmes
C a discussion of the need for a systematic approach to
managing the ski area industry in a sustainable fashion
C a description of how managers may achieve an
environmental management system
C reports on the findings of a survey of Canadian and
United States ski area managers concerning
environmental management system activities in their
operations
Other

50
Reference United Nations Environment Programme (1995).
Environmental Codes of Conduct for Tourism: Technical
Report NE29. Paris, France: United Nations Environment
Programme.
Key Words tourism, codes of conduct
Purpose C to make available to governments, industry, and other
parties a summary of tourism codes, and to provide
those who wish to create new codes some guidance as
to how this is best done
Content C a review of existing codes of conduct at the national
and international levels which relate to the industry as
a whole and to particular sectors of the industry
C a review of codes related to tourists and to host
populations
C suggestions of the key areas to be covered in
developing codes of conduct for the industry and
examples of clauses from existing codes which cover
these areas
C examples of programmes and initiatives carried out by
governments, industry associations, companies, and
Non-Governmental Organizations in support of
sustainable tourism practices
Other C list of references, useful addresses, and abbreviations
C appendix on the World Tourism Organization’s
tourism bill of rights and tourist code

51
Reference Wahab, S. and Pigram, J.J. (1997). Tourism Development and
Growth:The Challenges of Sustainability. London, England:
Routledge.
Key Words sustainable tourism
Purpose C to examine the concept of sustainability as related to
tourism
Content C 16 chapters discussing sustainability and tourism
C sections on trends in tourism and limits to growth;
balancing growth with sustainability; opportunities and
challenges; and perspectives on sustainable tourism
Other

52
Reference Wilkinson, P.F. (1996). Graphical images of the
Commonwealth Caribbean: The tourist area cycle of
evolution. In L.C. Harrison and W. Husbands, Practicing
Responsible Tourism: International Case Studies in Tourism
Planning, Policy and Development (pp. 16-40). Toronto,
Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Key Words cycle, destination, graphical images
Purpose C to explore the usefulness of the cycle approach in
understanding tourism patterns in the Commonwealth
Caribbean
C to use graphical images as illustration of the cycle
concept
Content C an outline of three models of tourist area cycle of
evolution and a discussion of problems associated with
these
C a description of six case studies using data such visitor
expenditures, stay over visitor numbers, total visitor
arrivals and annual tourist nights
C a discussion of the issues for destinations based on the
data exploration
Other

53
Reference Williams, P. W. (1992). Tourism and the environment: No
place to hide. World Leisure and Recreation 34(2), 12-17.
Key Words tourism, sustainable development
Purpose C to outline some of the current environmental issues
with an effect on the tourism industry and tourism’s
role in these
C to recommend policy actions for the tourism industry
to move toward a strategy of sustainable development
Content C a discussion of the major environmental problems of
today (i.e., atmospheric pollution, water pollution,
deforestation, wildlife depletion, and soil erosion)
C a discussion of policy and principles of environmental
planning and management for tourism development
Other

54
Reference World Tourism Organization (1995). Strategy for survival:
Agenda 21 for the travel and tourism industry. World Tourism
Organization News 5, 9-12.
Key Words tourism, sustainable development, principles, goals
Purpose C to provide an in-depth look at travel and tourism’s
new approach to implementing the environmental
action plan of the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 (i.e.
Agenda 21)
Content C an outline of three basic approahces to developing
sustainable tourism (introduction of new regulations,
use of free-market mechanisms, and industry-led
voluntary programmes)
C an outline of 12 principles of sustainable development
C a discussion of the nine priorities for governments,
NTAs and trade associations to follow in drafting and
implementing their sustainable tourism programme
C a discussion of ten priority action areas for private
enterprises in the travel and tourism industry
Other C information on obtaining a copy of the 78 page
booklet of Agenda 21 for the Travel & Tourism
Industry

55
Reference Ziffer, K. A. (1989). Ecotourism: The Uneasy Alliance.
Conservation International: Ernst & Young.
Key Words ecotourism, policy, strategies
Purpose C to provide background for an evaluation of
ecotourism’s viability in promoting and financing
conservation and economic development in less
developed countries
C to focus on the market for nature-based travel in the
U.S. and the variables which determine the impact of
travel on the destination
Content C a definition of ecotourism
C a description of markets for ecotourism
C an outline of ecotourism market size and growth
C a profile of ecotourists
C a discussion of promoting and financing both
conservation and economic development
C a list of key success factors for an ecotourism program
Other C bibliography

56
Reference Azkarate, T. (1995). One Europe Magazine: World
Conference on Sustainable Tourism [WWW page]. URL
http://www.informatic.rwth-aachen.de/AEGEE/articles/oe8/t-
worldc.html
Key Words sustainable tourism
Purpose C to describe highlights from the First World Conference
on Sustainable Tourism in Lanzarote Island
Content C general facts on world tourism industry
C a description of the main objectives of the conference
(i.e., draw up bases for sustainable tourist
development - with regard to natural resources,
natural and cultural heritage and socio-economic
development - and to promote the search for
alternatives and new tourist products which respects
the environment and cultural heritage)
C a discussion of the charter, conclusions, and
recommendations from the conference
Other

57
Reference Conservation International (n.d.). Conservation International
Field Reports: Ecotourism [WWW page]. URL
http://www.conservation.org/web/fieldact/c-
c_prog/Ecotouri.htm
Key Words ecotourism, web site links
Purpose C to promote ecotourism through education on
conservation and sustainable development
Content C discussions on ecotourism as a tool for conservation,
history of Conservation International (CI), and CI’s
commitment to ecotourism as a tool for ecosystem
conservation
C examples of CI involvement in world conservation
projects (e.g., Guatemala, Brazil, Indonesia,
Philippines, Papua New Guinea)
C a list of web site links (e.g., ecotourism highlights)
Other C link to Conservation International home page

58
Reference The Earth Pledge Foundation (n.d.). Sustainable Tourism:
What is it? [WWW page]. URL
http://www.earthpledge.org/about/tourism.html
Key Words sustainable tourism, web site links
Purpose C to promote sustainable tourism
Content C a discussion of what sustainable tourism is
C web site links to various sustainable tourism articles
(e.g., Overview of sustainable tourism, Regional
solutions to Caribbean tourism, Marketing sustainable
tourism, etc.)
Other C Earth Pledge Foundation discussion on books about
sustainable tourism

59
Reference Educational Communications (n.d.). Project Ecotourism
[HOME page]. URL
http://home.earthlink.net/~dragonflight/ecotour.htm
Key Words ecotourism, responsible travel
Purpose C to increase awarness of Project Ecotourism, an
organization that promotes ecotourism to conserve
ecosystems and wildlife and to assist local
communities through responsible travel that preserves
cultures and natural environments
Content C a definition of ecotourism and description of the
organization’s goals and services
C a description of ways to be responsible and ecological
including a list of DOs and DON’Ts and questions for
consumers to ask a tour company
Other C link to the Educational Communications home page

60
Reference The Ecotourism Association of Australia (n.d.). The
Ecotourism Association [LORENZ page]. URL
http://lorenz.mur.csu.edu.au/ecotour/EAAHome.html
Key Words ecotourism, codes of conduct, association, Australia, web site
links
Purpose C to provide an opportunity for members to get involved
in all aspects of ecotourism and to develop an
understanding of the ecotourism industry and of
natural and cultural area management needs
Content C a discussion of reasons why organizations should join
the Ecotourism Association of Australia, the
association’s aim, goals of the association, donations
and sponsorships, and services provided by the
association
C web site links to newsletters, codes of practice,
conferences and workshops, contacts, research trends
and case studies, and others
Other

61
Reference Great Outdoor Recreation Pages (n.d.). Ecotourism:
Achieving a Balance [WWW page]. URL
http://www.gorp.com/gorp/features/misc/ecotour.htm
Key Words ecotourism, guidelines, web site links
Purpose C to promote ecotourism and provide seven principles of
ecotourism that illustrate the foundation required for
ecotourism to reach its potential for travelers,
indigenous peoples, local business, and the community
Content C a description of the seven principles developed by Kirk
Hoessle (i.e., remote and relatively unaltered natural
environments, low impact on the natural environment,
educational emphasis, benefit to the local economy
and local inhabitants, development must willingly
subject limitations, contribute to local non-profit
efforts for environmental protection, and have spirit of
appreciation, participation, and sensitivity)
Other C web site links to other GORP pages (e.g., attractions,
activities, locations, books & media, travel)

62
Reference The GreenMoney Journal (1995). Ecotravel: The
Adventurous Journey Towards Sustainability [WWW page].
URL http://www.greenmoney.com/gmj/ecotrav1.htm.
Key Words ecotourism, sustainable tourism, code of ethics, web site links
Purpose C to provide a general information package on global
ecotravel
Content C general information on ecotourism, including
definition, top destinations, monetary value, and
potential impacts
C short descriptions of ecotour operators, travel ideas,
and travel resources
C a description of The Ecotourism Society
C a discussion of ethical travel including an ecotourism
code of ethics for both ecotourists and ecotour
operators
Other C list of numerous links to other ecotravel publications
and resources: recent articles, books and guidebooks,
magazines and newsletters, research expeditions and
volunteer opportunities, ecotravel companies, and
ecotravel organizations

63
Reference Hill, C. (1998). Eco-Source: Information and Services
Regarding Ecotourism and Sustainable Development [WWW
page]. URL http://www.podi.com/ecosource/
Key Words ecotourism, sustainable development, web site links
Purpose C to provide links to sustainable development and
ecotourism for tourists, students, professionals,
professors, researchers, and policy-makers
Content C web site links to the global ecotourism community
(e.g., destinations, ecotours and tour operators),
research and resources (e.g., conservation, design
guidelines, statistics, policy), environmental education
(e.g., the ecotourism industry and marketplace,
environmental issues, biodiversity loss, travelindustry),
eco-related web sites (e.g., ecotourism, eco-
publications, link list sites), job and career information,
and others
Other C web site statistics on the eco-source site

64
Reference Island Resources Foundations (1996). Guidance for Best
Management Practices for Caribbean Coastal Tourism
[WWW page]. URL http://www.irf.org/ir_bmp.html
Key Words tourism, impacts, best practices, Caribbean, web site links
Purpose C to promote action to minimize land-based sources of
pollution caused by the tourism industry which
negatively impact coastal and marine resources
C to determine the level of coastal degradation, the best
approaches and practices available, and effective
public awareness and training activities
Content C an overview of coastal degradation and a three-
dimensional framework for analyzing the
environmental effects of coastal tourism
C a discussion of requirements for management practices
to be addressed by the tourism industry
C guidance for private and public planners, managers,
and policy makers in the Caribbean for the adoption of
best management practices by tourism facilities and
support services
C list of references
Other C guide to using the web to find best management
practices
C web site links
C contact address for Island Resources Foundation

65
Reference The Latin American Alliance (1997). Ecotourism Reference
Links [WWW page]. URL
http://www.latinsynergy.org/ecotourism2.htm
Key Words ecotourism, web site links
Purpose C to promote ecotourism and provide an extensive list of
web site links on ecotourism in Latin America
Content C an extensive list of web site documents on ecotourism
articles and travel information sources in Latin
America
Other C web site link to The Latin American Alliance

66
Reference Lewis, S. (1996). Analysis of ISO 14000 Management
Systems: A Community Environmental Perspective [WWW
page]. URL
http://www.envirolink.org/envlib/orgs/gnp/iso1.html
Key Words environment, management, guidelines, web site links
Purpose C to evaluate the significance of the ISO 14000 standard
from a community environmental perspective
Content C a discussion of the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) and criticisms of the
programme
C an overview of the ISO 14000 series of environmental
management standards
C a discussion of the potential of and limits to ISO
14000 as a stand-alone process, including the value of
a management and auditing process, the shortcomings
of a goal-less management process, lack of public
accountability system, shortcomings of the
certification process, and international preemption
concerns
C a discussion of regulatory system linkages
Other C a description of the author
C web site links

67
Reference Mader, R. (1998). Eco Travels in the Caribbean [WWW
page]. URL
http://www2.planeta.com/mader/ecotravel/carib/carib.html
Key Words ecotourism, Caribbean, web site links
Purpose C to promote ecotourism and review environmental
issues and tourism in the Caribbean
Content C an extensive list of web site links on ecotourism in the
Caribbean including links to specific destinations (e.g.,
Aruba, Bahamas, Bermuda, Belize, Dominican
Republic, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Puerto Rico,
Tobago, and others)
C a list of ecotourism resource links
Other

68
Reference Mader, R. (1998). Sustainable Development and the
Americas: Exploring Ecotourism [WWW page]. URL
http://www.txinfinet.com/mader/ecotravel/etour.html
Key Words ecotourism, sustainable development, Latin America, web site
links
Purpose C to provide specific links to ecotourism materials on the
Eco Travel site and other internet resources of use to
travelers, researchers, and entrepreneurs
Content C a description of ecotourism and its definition
C an extensive list of web site links to conferences and
congresses, environmental travel contacts, ecotourism
surveys, general background on what ecotourism is,
problems with ecotourism, other academic work, etc.
C a list of web site links to specific areas (e.g.,
Honduras, Costa Rica, Mexico, Ecuador)
C a list of web site links to other ecotourism
organizations
Other C link to Eco Travels in Latin America web site
(http://www.planeta.com/)

69
Reference National Audubon Society (1989). The National Audubon
Society Travel Ethic for Environmentally Responsible Travel
[WWW page]. URL
http://www.ecotourism.org/textfiles/audubon.txt
Key Words tourism, ethics, guidelines
Purpose C to encourage all tour operators promoting exploration
in wilderness areas to adopt appropriate guidelines
Content C a general discussion of the potential and actual conflict
between tourism development and the natural
environment
C a list of seven guidelines for tour operators to follow
C a discussion of and examples for each guideline
Other

70
Reference Norman, W. C., Frauman E., Toepper L., and Sirakaya E.
(1997). Green Evaluation Program and Compliance of Nature
Tour Operators [WWW page]. URL
http://www.ecotourism.org/textfiles/sirak.txt
Key Words ecotourism, guidelines, codes of conduct, monitoring
Purpose C to develop and analyze a method for examining
compliance behaviour of nature tour operators with
The Ecotourism Society’s (TES) guidelines
Content C a general discussion of ecotourism’s growth and
development, with a focus on the formation of codes
of conduct, standards, and guidelines to aid in the
management of the ecotourism product
C a description of TES ecotourism guidelines for nature
operators
C a description of an Ecuadorian ecotourism survey: the
specific goals were to develop an evaluation process
for the performance of nature tour operators using
TES guidelines; to provide information enabling TES
to market ecotourism guidelines; and, to implement
the consumer evaluation program in Ecuador
C in-depth results and discussion sections
C outline of the future use of green evaluations and
recommendations
Other

71
Reference Office of National Tourism (1995). Best Practice Ecotourism:
A Guide to Energy and Waste Minimisation [WWW page].
URL
http://www.dist.gov.au/tourism/publications/BPE/Start.html
Key Words ecotourism, best practice, guidelines, web site links
Purpose C to provide a means of assessing energy consumption
and waste generation and offer suggestions for
improving energy and waste management for 25
specific activities
Content C discussions of general issues of energy consumption
and waste generation minimisation (e.g., current
industry practices, towards best practices, assessing
costs and benefits, principles)
C a comprehensive list of guidelines for a variety of
ecotourism activities and waste management
C a list of links for assistance and advice
Other

72
Reference Oostdam, B. L., & Billeter, P. A. (n.d.). Integrated Coastal
Area Management and Public Perceptions in the Caribbean
Islands [WWW page]. URL
http://www.millersv.edu/~ccs/tcontents.html
Key Words tourism, management, perceptions, Caribbean Islands, web
site links
Purpose C to describe public perceptions of the hazards of
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes, floods and
landslides, as well as the human-caused problems of
marine pollution, beach mining, coastal erosion and
degradation of vulnerable coastal environments
Content C a description of the integrated coastal area
management in the Caribbean Islands
C discussion of several major topics: natural hazards,
anthropogenic problems, coastal resources, laws and
regulations of Coastal Area Management (CAM), and
CAM adjuncts
Other C links and other information on separate study projects
and conferences on the Caribbean Islands
C links to additional tourism/ecotourism information

73
Reference Sierra Club (1993). Sierra Club Policy: Ecotourism [WWW
page]. URL http://www.sierraclub.org/policy/722.html
Key Words ecotourism, policy, principles, management
Purpose C to provide principles for ecotourism planning and
management which governmental agencies, planners,
and environmental groups promoting or supporting
tourism should follow
Content C a description of 11 planning and management
principles
Other C link to Sierra Club home page

74
Reference Stringer, L. (1994). Tourism and Costa Rica: Vanguard or old
guard? [Gopher page]. URL
gopher://csf.colorado.edu/00/envir.../ecotourism-Costa-
Rica.LStringer94
Key Words ecotourism, case study, principles, sustainable tourism
Purpose C to present a critical analysis of ecotourism in Costa
Rica
Content C a general description of the problems of the
conventional tourism in order to create a context by
which to view ecotourism
C a description of the ideal of ecotourism
C an examination of some problems that confront
ecotourism in the progress from ideal to reality
C an analysis of the Costa Rican tourist industry toassess
its implementation of the ideals of ecotourism into
practice
Other C listing of 10 principles for sustainable tourism

75
Reference The Ecotourism Society (1997). Ecotourism Explorer: A Site
for Discovery of the Ecotourism Path for Researchers,
Conservationists, and Business People [WWW page]. URL
http://www.ecotourism.org/index.html
Key Words ecotourism, web site links, The Ecotourism Society
Purpose C to promote ecotourism by providing web site links and
other information on ecotourism related issues
Content C an extensive list of web site links to information about
The Ecotourism Society (TES) and other ecotourism
related documents (e.g., about TES, selecting eco-
travel destinations, ecotourism research, TES book
store, TES initiatives, training and education, events,
and many others)
Other

76
Reference Thefox’s Home Page (1998). Hanfox Hospitality Den
Welcomes You to Our Sustainable Tourism Construction
Zone [WWW page]. URL
http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/2634/
Key Words sustainable tourism, web site links
Purpose C to provide a list of web site links and other documents
on sustainable tourism related literature
Content C an extensive list of web site links to information on
sustainable tourism around the world (e.g., definition
of sustainable, code of ethics for tourists, charter for
sustainable tourism, regional land use planning
implementation documents, Canadian initiatives, and
others)
Other C links to web building sites

77
Reference Wallace, G. N. (n.d.). Toward a Principled Evaluation of
Ecotourism Ventures [WWW page]. URL
http://www.ecotourism.org/testfiles/wallacea.txt
Key Words ecotourism, principles, indicators, evaluation
Purpose C to discuss a systematic approach to evaluating
ecotourism operations in a given locale
Content C a general discussion of regulations, codes of conduct,
guidelines, and principles of ecotourism
C an outline of six principles of ecotourism and the
associated indicators
C a description of the methods used for studying
registered ecotourism lodges in Amazonas Brazil and
the ecotourism operations in Cuyabeno Wildlife
Refuge
C comments and suggestions on improving the
systematic approach
C list of references
Other C a short description of George Wallace and contact
addresses for comments on the evaluation process

78
Reference World Travel and Tourism Council. (n.d.) ECoNETT [WWW
page]. URL http://www.wttc.org
Key Words responsible travel, ecotourism, principles, practice
Purpose C to provide coverage of sustainable tourism initiatives
Content C library contains 850 files
C measures/initiatives contains sections on codes of
conduct, awards and eco labels, and good practice
Other

Resource Guide in Extraordinary Experiences: Understanding and
Managing the Consumer Experience in Hospitality, Leisure, Events,
Sport and Tourism
Introduction
One thing that the Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism sectors have in common is
that they all exist to provide consumers with experiences. Figure 1 shows a range of
examples of “experience” products offered, all of which aim to provide something
extraordinary, something which will stand out from everyday life and from all the
competition for people's spare time and disposable income.
Extraordinary
Experiences
Hotels
-boutique
-designer
Food
-gastronomy
-service and presentation
-local/organic distinctiveness
-branding & marketing
Retail
-retail theatre
-leisure shopping
-environments
Attractions
-theme parks
-’experiences’
-interpretation & staging
Catering
-themed bars and
restaurants
-chameleon bars
-design and ambience
MICE
-unusual venues
for confex
-incentive travel
Tourism
-adventure
-wildlife
-cultural
-destination brands
Corporate
hospitality
sponsorship
events
brand experiences
Sports
-spectators & stadia
-sports tourism
-participation
-extreme sports
Events
-special/hallmark
-festivals
Travel
-cruise ships
-heritage trains
-business class
Figure 1
This guide aims to provide teachers and students with key readings and concepts
that will help them analyse these experiences and evaluate the management
activities involved in designing and staging them. It brings together two strands of
literature about experiences, one from management and the other from the consumer
perspective.
Experience Management
It is the growth of these sectors, and the examples of high-profile companies like
Disney and Starbucks, which have led to the concept of the experience economy and
experience management. The latter is seen as an answer to the problems of how to
remain competitive in markets where global competition and internet technology have
turned products and services into commodities, bought and sold on price alone.
Pine and Gilmore (1999) say that sustainable competitive advantage can only be
gained by giving the customer a unique and memorable experience. This is done
Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Network, January 2007 1

through treating 'work as theatre and every business a stage'. As this guide will
show, this draws on Schechner's (1988) Performance Theory and the service-as-
drama metaphor of Grove, Fisk and Bitner (1993). Their approach has led to a
growing number of management books on how to make the customer experience the
centre of the organisation's strategic planning, marketing and operations. (Schmitt
1999, Shaw 2005, Smith and Wheeler 2002). The growth of Experiential Marketing is
also significant for our sectors through the increased use of corporate hospitality and
events, sports and arts sponsorship to associate brands with memorable experiences
involving the senses and the emotions.ne and Gilmore (1999) say that sustainable
competitive advantage can only be gained by giving the customer a unique and
memorable experience.
As an example of the commercial adoption of the concept, Customer Experience
Management (CEM) software systems are being developed to monitor every contact
a person has with the company. As a result, the term CEM is in danger of being
reduced from a potentially revolutionary business philosophy to the narrow sense of
a tool for call-centre management, (just as Customer Relationship Management is
often seen simply as a form of database marketing).
Later work (Holbrook, 2001; Nijs, 2003) Prahalad and Ramaswamy, 2004) has
criticised the emphasis on staging performances as superficial and product-centred.
These writers call for a more strategic approach based on shared values, allowing
the customer to create their own experiences in a search for personal growth. In this
way the management strand is converging with the consumer strand.
Consumer Experience
On the consumer side, a focus on experiences has arisen in response to the
limitations of seeing consumer behaviour purely in terms of cognitive information
processing. As Holbrook and Hirschmann (1982) said, experiences are subjective,
emotional states laden with symbolic meaning. Consumption is hedonic not
utilitarian, particularly in leisure situations.
A distinction is often made between everyday and extraordinary experiences
(Abrahams 1986). Many of the products in Figure 1 involve skilled consumption
(Scitovsky 1976), physical or intellectual challenge and the sharing of experience
with a community of like-minded people (Beard and Ragheb 1983). The desired
effect is the state of absorption in the activity (Csikszentmihalyi 1976) calls Flow.
Motivation is a complex mixture of escapism, socialisation and self-actualisation
(Ryan 1997).
These insights can be used to explain the growing interest in participative and
extreme sports (Arnould and Price 1993), and in new types of cultural, adventure,
sports and creative tourism (Richards and Wilson 2006)
Research implications
Where the managerial and consumer perspectives converge is in their view of
consumer satisfaction as something that emerges over the course of the whole
experience, rather than as a response to individual attributes of the service. This
requires new forms of research such as Experience Mapping (Schmitt, 2003) or
theatrical scripting (Harris et al, 2003) of the critical moments of truth (Carlzon 1987).
Ethnographic and narrative research (e.g. Arnould and Price, 1993) are more likely to
provide insights than quantitative methods.

The common goal
Both strands of literature also come together in seeing the consumer as the product
(Pine and Gilmore) but also the co-creator of the product (Prahalad and
Ramaswamy). The goal of extraordinary experiences is personal growth and
fulfilment (Arnould and Price) leading to transformation (Pine and Gilmore). It is by
providing a stage (Pine and Gilmore) or space (Prahalad) for this to happen that a
company can attract and retain its customers.
Annotated Bibliography
Experience Management: The Evolution of the Concept
Toffler, A (1970) Future Shock. Bantam Books
Toffler predicted that, as one consequence of the accelerating pace of technological
change, people would soon be collecting experiences as consciously and
passionately as they once collected things. This seems to have been borne out by
the rapid growth since then of the leisure and tourism industries.
Schechner, R. (1988) Performance Theory. Routledge
Schechner combines anthropological and literary analysis of Greek drama and tribal
rituals to identify the key elements of all enactments - drama, scripts, theatre and
performance. The drama is the domain of the author, whose idea is then realised
through scripts, directions, sets and actors to become the performance experienced
by the audience. He applies this to any activity where one group of people perform in
front of another - rituals, games, sport, music and dance - and others (e.g. Pine and
Gilmore 1999) have extended it to analyse encounters between service staff and
customers.
Carlzon, J (1987) Moments of Truth Harper Collins
An influential management book based on Carlzon's transformation of Scandinavian
Airline Systems (SAS), through improved staff/customer interaction. The Moments of
Truth are the points in the process of booking, checking-in and travelling where
customers come into contact with employees. To manage these contacts will lead to
an improved customer experience. Carlzon's approach focuses on the Human
Factor, training staff to be aware of their own emotions and how they can influence
the way customers respond to them.
Grove, S.J. Fisk, R.P., Bitner, M.J. (1992) Dramatising the service experience: a
managerial approach in Advances in Services Marketing and Management
(Swartz, T. A. Brown, S. and Bowen, D. eds) Greenwich, CT. JAI Press Inc.
[Reprinted in Gabott, M and Hogg, G. (1997) Contemporary Services Marketing:
a reader. Dryden Press]
They apply 'the drama metaphor' to analyse services management as an encounter
between actors and audience in a setting. They see this as an extension of Booms
and Bitner's extra 3 Ps of services marketing - people, processes and physical
evidence. The practical implications of the metaphor are an increased attention to the
impact of staff performance, settings and scripts on consumer experience and
satisfaction.
Pine, B.J. and Gilmore, J.H. (1999) The experience economy: work is theatre
and every business is a stage. Boston Mass: HBS Press.
With globalisation and the internet turning service markets such as travel, books and
music into commodity markets, the fastest growth in prices and share of GDP has

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