The history of environmentalism may be dated back to the 7th century but, Rachel Carson is most widely credited as the originator of the modern environmental movement through the 1962 publication of ‘Silent Spring’. Despite much history, there has not been another time like present when positive environmental attitudes (taken in the broadest sense to include behaviour) are being required for something as fundamental as the survival of human life. Since 1962, a global environmental action movement has emerged and has been active in awareness, advocacy and even militancy. However, our current global crisis, which many have described as apocalyptic, is evidence of a lack of sufficient mobilization of human and other resources in favour of nature. There are various perspectives on the predictions of a pending apocalypse and the fate of humans there after. Perspectives on the apocalypse range from a non-catastrophic renewal of the earth, to a catastrophic end with eventual renewal, to a catastrophic end with no thought of renewal. When human life is perceived to continue beyond the apocalypse, it is seen as occurring either in a place far removed from earth or on a renewed earth. Much of this thinking is influenced by religious doctrines. We hypothesize that there is a predictable relationship between perspectives on an apocalypse and life there after and environmental attitudes to the extent that persons who anticipate an apocalypse and a life there after in a place other than earth will be least likely to have positive environmental attitudes. We have tested this hypothesis with a study of a sample of the highly religious Guyanese population focusing mainly on university educated individuals using an online and paper based tool. We have analysed eight first order environmental attitude factors using principle component analysis with Equamax Rotation. We have found a relationship between religion and a diversity of views on an apocalypse and life there after both across within religions. Also, views on an apocalypse, religion and religiosity have shown some potential for predicting environmental attitudes.

1. Religion,
an Apocalypse
and, the Environment
Bernard, Calvin R.; Seecharran, Diana; Thomas, Troy;
and, Maharaj, Gyanpriya
Religion, Science and Environment Research Group
Faculty of Natural Sciences

2. Overview
• Introduction of the RSERG
• Background to study
• History of Environmentalism
• Religion and views on an apocalypse
• Guyana as a study case
• Study Question and Hypothesis
• Methods
• Findings of study
• Future work

3. Introduction to the RSERG
Interdisciplinary research for the creation of more sustainable future
http://uog.edu.gy/rserg
Members of ISSRNC - http://www.religionandnature.com

4. Background to study
• ISSRNC 5th Conference ‘Nature and the
Popular Imagination’

5. History of Environmentalism
• St Cuthbert’s laws to protect eider ducks and
sea bird on Farne Island (676)
• Aldo Leopold’s land ethic in ‘The Sand
Country Almanac’ (1949)
• Rachel Carson’s publishing the impact of DDT
in ‘Silent Sprint’ (1962)
• Lynn G White’s ‘The Historical Roots of Our
Ecological Crisis’ (1967)
• Today – Environmental NGOs (Green Wiki)
– 55 International
– 18 Regional
– 258 National (most in the US)
• Shellenberger and Nordhaus argue the death
of environmentalism (2004)

6. • The Global Environment today
– Ecosystem wellbeing and human wellbeing
out of synch
– RIO+20 hailed as a failure
• The greatest positive may be in the
(re)mobilization of civil society with regards to the
environment
– Sustaining the civil society action sparked at
RIO+20 requires a sympathetic population
• Activist no must understand the forces that
influence attitudes and behaviours in relation to the
environment

7. • Many argue that the current global
environmental situation is a crisis
of apocalyptic dimensions.
• Viewing the environmental crisis
as apocalyptic can significantly
influence attitudes and behaviours
on the environment.
– Proven to have negative impacts on
the promotion of environmentalism
– The Climate Challenge pole has
observed that 49% of their
respondents were dismissive of
climate change and another 9% was
either doubtful or disengaged.

8. Religion and views on an apocalypse
• Views on an apocalypse and what happens to
humans life after death are varied
– Religion plays major role in shaping these
• Christianity
• Hinduism
• Islam
– Other views on apocalypse
• UFO religions
• Y2K
• Harold Camping
• Mayan calendar

9. Christian Eschatology
• Based on the writings of a range of
prophets over the ages and the teachings
of Yeshua – Joel, Daniel, Zechariah,
Jeremiah, Isaiah and John
• Predicts a period and series of events
ending in final destruction – Armageddon
• A select group will be saved from the
destruction in a safe place - Heaven
• Many teaching end at the final
destruction, but John records towards the
end of his revelation vision of a new
heaven and a new earth (Revelations 21)
• Predictability and nature varies
– Dispensational premillennialism
– Postmillennialism and Amillennialism

10. Islamic Eschatology
• Great similarities to biblical predictions
• Estimated that 1/3 of the Qur’an focuses on these
prophecies
• Predicts a series of events including Armageddon
referred to as fitnah ("a test") or malāhim
• The end is in judgement of the righteous and
unrighteous on Yaum al-Qiyāmah (The Day of
Judgement/Day of Resurrection)
• Those judged righteous will go to Jannah (Heaven) and
the unrighteous go to Jahannam (Hell)

11. Hindu Eschatology
• Existence is cyclic – the Universe and humans
• The Universe exist in Chatur Yuga lasting 4.3 billion
years
– Satya Yuga
– Treta Yuga
– Dwapara Yuga
– Kali Yuga
• 1 Chatur Yuga completes the existence of the universe
and is characterised by degeneration of human
existence in quality and length of life
• At the end of the Kali Yuga the Universe contracts
backwards and a new Universe is formed
– Thinking on nature of this end may vary
– Most believe that we are in the last phase of the Kali Yuga
• Human existence follows Samsara

12. Guyana as a case study
• Aspiration for a non-traditional path of
development – LCDS
– Premium on the environment
• There is very little empirical data on the
position of Guyanese on the environment
• Guyana is a highly religious society
– 95.7% adherence

13. Study Question and Hypothesis
Hypothesis: There is a predictable relationship
between perspectives on an apocalypse and life
there after and environmental attitudes to the
extent that persons who anticipate an
apocalypse and a life there after in a place other
than earth well be least likely to have positive
environmental attitudes.

14. Methods
• Data collected from the Guyanese population using both
online and Print survey tools
– Effective sample size >200
• 8 1st order factors selected from Milfont and Duckitt
(2010) to measure environmental attitudes/behaviour
– Enjoyment of nature, Conservation Motivated by Anthropocentric
Concern, Support for Interventionist Conservation Policies,
Altering Nature, Personal Conservation Behaviour, Human
Dominance Over Nature, Human Utilization of Nature and Eco-
centric Concern.
• Principal component analysis with Equamax rotation
(where required) was employed with the use of SPSS
20.
• Independent variables
– Views on an apocalypse; views on the after life; Religion;
Religiosity; and, Gender, Age and education.

15. Findings and interpretations

16. Findings and interpretations

17. Findings and interpretations

18. Findings and interpretations

19. Findings and interpretations

20. Findings and interpretations

21. Findings and interpretations

22. Findings and interpretations

23. Findings and interpretations
• Seven factors were usable in the analysis
– Enjoyment of nature
– Conservation Motivated by Anthropocentric Concern
– Support for Interventionist Conservation Policies
– Altering Nature
– Personal Conservation Behaviour
– Human Dominance Over Nature
– Human Utilization of Nature
– Eco-centric Concern
• Some correlations exist among environmental attitude
factors
– 46.4% between enjoyment of nature and support for
interventionist conservation policies
• Items measured religiosity with significant validity
– Low validity for subjective item on importance of religion in life

24. Findings and interpretations
• Religion significantly predicts views on the apocalypse
– Hindus and Muslims are more likely than Christians to say that there
will be no significant alterations than to take any of the other
positions
– those who do not identify with a religion show no significant
differences in view on the apocalypse from Christians
– Explanatory capacity of religion is not high
• Hence no anticipation of problems for inclusion of both (but also tested)
• Seven least square regression models to test relationship
between attitudes to environment and beliefs about the
apocalypse and the afterlife.
– Also includes test the effects of religiosity, religion, age, gender and
education
– We are only concerned about whether or not the independent
variables are significant predictors of the factors

25. Findings and interpretations
• Enjoyment of Nature and Alternation of Nature are not
dependent on the variables included
• Some variables predict Conservation Motivated by
Anthropocentric Concern and Human Utilization of
Nature but should not
– Overall significance of the ANOVA for the models for the factors
are greater than 5% (caveat)
– Religious persons are more favourably disposed to the support
of conservation of nature than economic agendas
– Hindus and Muslims are less likely to do this than Christians and
those without religion
– Other important variables that can predict these attitudes are not
included in the models (Very Low R-Square values)
– There is low prediction capabilities overall but R-squared values
for the models for the other attitudes are reasonable.

26. Findings and interpretations
• View on the apocalypse and religion are significant
predictors Support for Interventionist Conservation
Policies
– Compared those who believe that the earth will be completely
destroyed but not renewed, those who believe that there will be
significant alterations to life but no complete destruction are
more likely to support such policies
– Those who hold one of the other two views on the apocalypse
show no significant difference in this attitude when compared to
those who believe that the earth will be completely destroyed
with no renewal
• Perhaps if you believe that life will continue here you are more
inclined to conserve
– Hindus and Muslims show a lower tendency to support
interventionist conservation policies than Christians

27. Findings and interpretations
• View on the apocalypse, religion and belief about the
afterlife are significant predictors of personal
conservation behaviour
– However, both older people and more religious individuals report
higher levels of personal conservation behaviour
• View on the apocalypse nor belief about afterlife are
significant predictors of the propensity to support human
dominance over nature
• Religion is however a significant predictor of the
propensity to support human dominance over nature
– Hindus report a significantly higher average level of support for
human dominance over nature than Christians, Muslims and
those who have no religion

28. Final words
• Need for a larger data set
– With revision of some items (eco-centric
concern)
– Need to work on higher order environmental
factor
• Views on the apocalypse, religion and
religiosity have shown some potential for
predicting environmental attitudes

29. Future work
• Eschatological doctrines and adherence by
followers
• Other doctrines with environmental implications
• Integration of religious environmental ethic in
religious organizational doctrines and work
• Influence of religion and religious leaders over
followers
• Broad assessment of Guyanese environmental
attitudes and behaviours as a baseline

30. Thank