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Allen, A. N. (2017). Do College Police Ruin College Students’
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doi:10.1080/01639625.2016.1197005
Girgenti-Malone, A. A. Khoder, C. Vega, G. Castillo, D.
(2017). College students’ perception of police use of force: do
suspect race and ethnicity matter?. POLICE PRACTICE AND
RESEARCH, 18 (5), 492-506.
Doi:10.1080/15614263.2017.1295244
Lewis, L. M. Wilks, S. E. Geiger, J. R. Barthelemy, J. J.
Livermore, M. M. (2017). A Racial Divide: College Students
Attack Concerning Police in South Louisiana. The Journal of
pan African Studies, 10 (1), 206-224.
Sun, I. Y. Su, M. Wu, Y. (2011). Attitude Toward Police
Response to Domestic Violence: A Comparison of Chinese and
American College Students. Journal of interpersonal Violence,
26 (16), 3289-3315. doi: 10.1177/0886260510393008
Wade, J. Peralta, R. L. (2017). Perceived racial discrimination,
heavy episodic drinking, and alcohol abstinence among African
American and White college students. JOURNAL OF
EHTNICITY IN SUBSTANCE ABUSE, 16 (2), 165-180. doi:
10.1080/15332640.2015.1113152
Aiello, M. F., & Lawton, B. A. (2018). Campus police
cooperation and legitimacy: Extending
the procedural justice model. Deviant Behavior, 39(10), 1371–
1385. Doi: 10.1080/01639625.2017.1410618
Hollister, B. A., Scalora, M. J., Hoff, S. M., Hodges, H. J., &
Marquez, A. (2017). College
student reporting responses to hypothetical and actual safety
concerns. Journal of School Violence, 16(4), 331–348. doi:
10.1080/15388220.2015.1129498
Moore, B. M., & Baker, T. (2018). An exploratory examination

of college students’ likelihood
of reporting sexual assault to police and university officials:
Results of a self-report survey. Journal of Interpersonal
Violence, 33(22), 3419–3438. doi: 10.1177/0886260516632357
Schuck, A. (2017). Evaluating the impact of crime and
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(2016). Policing schools:
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doi: 10.1007/s12103-015-9306-6
The Watermelon Woman
We've seen that queer aesthetics are the materials, methods,
techniques, and effects that support queer
poesis – queer self making and queer social making.
What techniques do the films Watermelon Woman and Nitrate
Kisses use in order to dramatize queer
poesis, and to what ends?
1. Intermediality: relations between media as meaningful as
content within medium.
2. montage: construction requires active viewers putting
together the pieces.
3. Self-naming: “I am a Black, lesbian filmmaker.” Hammer's
reflection in mirror.
4. embodied performance: performing as “Cheryl” in front of
camera; musical

performances included in the film.
5. creation of “historical material” (mockumentary AND mock-
autobiography)
6. use of music and musicality – however off key! - in the
visual image
7. depiction of erotic self and intimate sociality
How do these techniques compare between both films?
1. Both are eminently concerned with historical, personal,
cultural, and sexual memory.
2. One argues that political liberation in the present, for the
future, demands that we FIND the
fragments out of which we can piece these histories together.
3. The other argues that if you cannot find them, that is also a
function of power, and that you
may need to CREATE the history you need to live in your body
and your community.
How many sources of archival memory does Cheryl find (that
is, does Cheryl Dunye invent) in her
search for the “real” Watermelon Woman?
1. video rentals (consumer artifacts)
2. “on the street” or “on campus” interviews with everyday
people or with film students
3. her mom (and her “files” in the basement, that is, boxes of
disorganized personal stuff)
4. Tamara's friend Lee, a collector, with an extensive fan
collection
5. the local library (with several sources potentially helpful, but
an elitist, exclusive attitude)
6. Shirley Hamilton (her mom's old friend, and a member of the
Philadelphia lesbian community)
7. How about the love scenes with Diana (Guinevere Turner)? Is
desire a source of information?

(see clip ending around 44 min.)
8. Camille Paglia, that is, academically-situated “cultural
critics”
9. Performance by “Sistah Sound at Women's Community
Center” (51:28); or the folk singer on
the street after Cheryl misses June but receives her documents
(1:08:52)
10. Family of Martha Page, located by Diana
11. Center for Lesbian Information Technology (also not helpful
- coded as “white”)
12. June (Faye Richards' lover, whom Cheryl doesn't get to meet
because of a health emergency)
What institutions or sites of memory production and recovery
involving sexual memory - besides
industrial Hollywood - does Cheryl discover? Why is recovering
“sexual memory” - that is, memory of
our intimate erotic lives that we can use to locate ourselves in
history and in culture – so difficult?
1. The video store itself
2. the “street” - everyday life itself becomes an archive to the
extent people respond
3. private homes and personal memory communicated orally
4. Informal unorganized archives – like her mom's basement
5. informal organized archives like Lee's
6. formal archives like libraries or CLIT
7. historical jazz clubs pictured in photos
8. local community groups
9. local social events based around music
10. black film production histories

11. NAACP
12. universities (Bryn Mawr)
13. factories or worker communities like the one where Shirley
worked
14. others?
The film's staging of these sources and sites seem to be a
response to Hammer's imperative in Nitrate
Kisses to go out and rediscover your own history: if your own
history doesn't exist, you may have to
invent it. What are some of the implications of such a
comparison of Nitrate Kisses with Watermelon
Woman?
Each says that “self making” and “social making” are also a
matter of “history making” as well as
“making futures.” Sexual “histories” and “genealogies,” in
fragments or in fictive form, are an
important potentiality of queer poesis that becomes material and
knowable through queer aesthetic
practices.
1. self-making
2. social making
3. historical documentation
4. political futurity
Running Head: QUEER AESTHETICS
Queer Aesthetics
Name

Institution
Queer Aesthetics
Queer Aesthetics
Fight for Acceptance
Introduction
Aesthetics: Experience of Sense and Sensation
Same sex marriages or same sex relationships have been around
for as long as someone
can remember. Queer/ same sex has always been viewed as
unorthodox or unacceptable to the
society and that is why the people in this community have
always been shut down or even killed
because they are associated with the wrong side of things such
as bad omen. The Queer
community these are people just like us and it is not their
choice to be something that people
disgrace. It comes from within or rather it is biological as it
will be discussed later. For years the
gay community have been fighting for acceptance and their
rights and they have won the fight
yet up to this moment. There are individuals at this moment still

think that all the sexes present
have been made up and individual wakes up one and decides to
be bisexual or transgender or any
other sex in the gender spectrum. People have always wanted to
define everything and also want
this to happen to this community most conventional leaders still
believe that there are two
genders or gender should be binary; you are either male or
female. But that is not the case as
people in some areas in the world cannot express themselves
because they might be stigmatized
or treated unequal, even not accepted by their family members.
Well looking at this is a struggle
that is the same just as any other struggle like racism, religious
acceptance or even asking your
government to work harder. The most important thing is that
these people want to feel and
Queer Aesthetics
treated as the human beings they because whichever gender they
might identify with, because
they did not ask for it, it is a gift and they accept it fully.
Whereby in past few years the Queer community has such a

sensation that can be
identified as Queer Aesthetics. They have received support,
they have run campaigns, they have
a movement and a month dedicated to the such as pride month;
whereby almost all major
companies supported this movement. Through the years of
suffering and hiding; not coming out
of the closet until your death. Know even teenagers can identify
themselves as early as possible
to take their gender path. This is a step for this community that
powerful people in this
community have used their platforms to make their voice heard
so that the world can accept them
as they are. Technology has their major platforms know through
social media a lot of things can
change. Another channel is art a lot of artist have used their
artistic expertise to push the queer
agenda to the rest of the world like Kehinde Wiley, Langstone
Hughes who will the point of
focus and Andy Warhol among others. These are artist that have
made an impact in the LGBTQ+
community with their contribution. Like for instance Andy
Warhol was a gay icon that had
various gay movements, to the extent that his factory was

termed as degenerate. Langstone
Hughes on the other hand apart from focusing on race equality,
using the poem Café 3 a.m. he
was able to express his concerns about the state of
homosexuality during hat time. whereby it
brought about a lot of controversy especially to the people who
studied this artist. Additionally,
Kehinde Wiley, a renowned artist through his floral themed art
he has also been able to support
the LGBTQ+ movement which he is part of with works such as
the “Third Gender.” All these
people have successfully built the queer aesthetics through their
works among others.
Queer Aesthetics
Key Scholars
The struggle of the LGBTQ+ community has been documented
by a lot of scholars
whom of which will be discussed in the following sections.
Queer Aesthetics has made such an
Impact not because of social media or art it is because the
influential members were brave
enough to pave the way for the future generation of the

LGBTQ+ community. One of the issues
faced and that have caused so much uproar is the fact that
people don’t understand their situation
and what they go through in their daily lives. Rather people be
first to judge not understanding
this actually is a biological occurrence just as a person might be
born blind or dyslexic among
other biological occurrences human beings have. According to
Fausto 2018, sex is not binary
because of biological reasons. Meaning for one to have a gender
different from the norm is
mostly Influenced by the biological aspect of rather than the
cultural aspect which seems to be
what most people think. One might wonder why know is the
queer aesthetic aspect so important,
well since time in memorial there are only two sexes that
describe the human variety that is the
male and the female. This based from the societal rule and
norms set to dictate and eliminate
everything does not conform to what is considered as normal by
the society. Whereby stringent
measure was placed to see that this societal norm is seen
through, for instance the roman empire
killed people with mixed sex as they were seen as bad omen

because they did not conform to the
normal binary sexual classification.
This did not end currently there are forces that also work hard
to bring down the Queer
community, like some governments use model similar to the
roman model to suppress these
groups. Obviously not killing these people because it is not
legal, “but at least deny their
Queer Aesthetics
existence.” Which according to Dr. Fausto is wrong morally and
scientifically and it can be
proven. The Trump administration; “Now the Department of
Health and Human Services wants
to follow suit by legally defining sex as “a person’s status as
male or female based on immutable
biological traits identifiable by or before birth.” This is because
as mentioned before an
individual does not suddenly decide to become a particular
gender; it is a process that starts when
they are still an embryo and the XY chromosomes might not
form normally and that is what
destroys the expected binary sexual expectation. According to

DR. Fausto “By birth, then, a baby
has five layers of sex. But as with chromosomal sex, each
subsequent layer does not always
become strictly binary. Furthermore, the layers can conflict
with one another, with one being
binary and another not: An XX baby can be born with a penis,
an XY person may have a vagina,
and so on.” which is why these Queer aesthetic movement is
basically there for the members to
be accepted into the society.
Jude Bennet on the other hand looks at the life of Langstone
Hughes and his life in the
article: Multiple Passings and The Double Death of Langstone
Hughes. Whereby the main work
of focus in this period will be Café 3 a.m. that Hughes actually
uses it to push the
acknowledgement of the Queer Aesthetics, joining the other
artist who experience sense and
sensation despite the fact that there are some people who are
ready to tear them down. Café 3
a.m. was part of the collection of the poems from the large book
Montage of Dream Deferred.
This poem was explicitly written to deal with the queer aspect
whereby this was in the 1950’s

joining the early pioneer who started the fight for this group to
be recognized. This poem was
mainly inspired by the change of location for Hughes, whereby
he moved to Harlem and made
many gay men and some of them were married. Homosexuality
during this period had not
Queer Aesthetics
garnered the much attention it required, mainly because of
issues like the Aids scare whereby it
was called “their disease.” Therefore, the queer movement was
not as popular as today, the poem
café 3 a.m. was a directly addressing the fact that gay people
need acceptance and understand
which makes it to perfectly fit into this essay. The poem
explicitly looks at the sexual spectrum
and how ambiguous it is, making this the more reason that there
should be acceptance.
According to Bennet the name of the poem, café had a hidden
meaning to the fact that it is open
up to the late night obviously has some hidden meaning. In
addition to the fact that there is a
voice that is incapable of making complete sentences using

vocabulary like “spotting fairies.”
Detectives from the vice squad
With weary sadistic eyes
Spotting fairies
Degenerates,
Some Folks Say.
But God, Nature,
Or somebody
Made them that way.
Police lady or lesbian
Over there?
Where?
Queer Aesthetics
The café is turned into a bar, the act is carried by vice squad
with weary sadistic eyes, day
becomes nights, created multiple points of view. Showing how
people lack consideration and
treat the community as not human beings. They cannot even
address them properly “Degenerates

some folk says” which brings out the common people in the part
they play in making things hard
for the Queer community. This paints a whole image of extreme
homophobia only make a
consideration of where the queer community can get hope “But
God, Nature or Somebody made
them that way.” Here Hughes echoes Dr. Fausto trying to show
the audience that no one really
knows why an individual would want to go against the society
sexual binary norm, knowing that
it will be hard for them. really nobody knows why individuals
would wasn’t to belong to
whatever gender in the spectrum by at least Dr Fausto has tried
to explain the occurrence
biologically which has clearly fallen on deaf ears. Hughes
through this short poem has been able
to express all the aspects of the queer community including the
stereotypes, at the end there is the
line “Police lady or lesbian,” typically up to this point a police
lady is considered a lesbian or any
other who takes a job that society has only designated for men.
Also, this line explains the gender
confusion in place, people are not sure if he is man or she is a
woman, the different forms in

which gender can take. In this case the sexist stereotype clearly
shows how indistinguishable the
policewoman and lesbian are, because they have taken the role
of men that society has set aside.
The queer community always leaves the common people with a
lot of questions and that
is why maybe this poem was filled with questions, to further the
confusion people already have
intended in an artistic manner. Like for example the last
question “where?” it symbolizes the
need most of the common people who want homosexuality to be
defined, that is if not male or
female then what it is then? Additionally, the question acts as a
representation of a common
Queer Aesthetics
reaction to a lot of people; asking the “where the police lady or
lesbian?” is clearly a matter of
spotting more fairies or degenerates which is actually what most
people do for the purpose of
continuing to stigmatize or gossip about the degenerates.
Additionally to draw the “homosexual
panic,” just as his other narrative Hughes does promise or

assure anything in the sense that the
confusion is already created but there is certainty that identities
will be fixed or order be
established, what he does is to further blur the boundaries which
technically represents fully
homosexuality; it is a blur line there is no definition. In this
poem homophobia and
homosexuality are both blurred just as in his other works like
Blessed Assurance (1963). Hughes
can be considered a master in poetry but also in queer aesthetics
because he uses his platform to
experience and make others experience sense and sensation of
the queer culture with just a short
poem, he has been able to address all the homosexuality topics.
Which plays an important role in
the fight for acceptance in gay community in addition to the
other artists or influential people in
history who have used their platforms to bring inform the
common people about what they don’t
understand.
Technology (The Use of Social Media in the LGBTQ+
community)
The fight for acceptance is not left to the influential people; as
know a lot of people come

out of the closet and with large numbers anything can be
achieved. Therefore, queer individuals
don’t need to have big audiences or platform like Langstone
Hughes or Andy Warhol, they just
technology. Something simple like a tweet or an Instagram post
can go long a way in their fight
for acceptance. At this point is clear that being a queer
individual is not an easy task in out
society that is heteronormative, that is based on the groups
around the world that are far-right
Queer Aesthetics
queer individuals feel it more difficult to be themselves which
is the essence of queer aesthetics.
But know with technology everything has become easier,
through the use of technology the
LGBTQ+ community has been able us it as platform to voice
their experience and help spread
their cause. Just as any other cause like #metoo or
#blacklivesmatter the queer community has
been able to use the social media platform to further their cause
just like #pride. This is in the
event of intolerance, discrimination they receive from the

common people in their society,
whereby through social media the queer community can
empower each other using groups,
hashtags, campaigns and maybe pages.
Social Media Platforms
According to Walthman 2018, twitter is considered as one of the
most active social media
platforms for the queer community. Twitter is used as a “brave
Space” that allows queer
individuals to be really themselves, whereby twitter also puts in
efforts such as the Pride Month
movement. Twitter users develop weekly hashtags that trend
globally, here members of the queer
community, members engage in different activities such posting
selfies which helps them to
express themselves in their own comfortable skin. Through such
platforms also helps the queer
community spread positivity, make friends, partners and come
together for the same cause.
Twitter also helps them to grow and develop like figuring out
sexuality or any other related issue.
Which actually proves that social media plays a vital role in
assisting and empowering the

members of the LGBTQ+ community.
Facebook on the other hand is not that popular to the LGBTQ+
community, but there are
pages and groups which use themes based on the queer
community; whereby members can share
Queer Aesthetics
posts, memes and stories that can empower and inspire at the
same time. for instance, a
Facebook page superficial that is a meme page that have
countless interactions because actually
it is a safe place for the young queer individuals.
Instagram on the other hand has been under criticism for
mistakenly removing content
that was LGBTQ+ related. Which basically has not discouraged
the queer individuals to use the
social media space to push their agenda and inspiring more
people. The #pride has also been
used on Instagram together with photos of the rainbow themed
content, whereby celebrities have
shown support in pushing for this culture. Like for instance,
Taylor Swift’s Music Video “You
Need to Calm Down” that was specifically developed to support

the LGBTQ+ community. It
was directed, casted among other various posts was filled by a
queer individual.
Which brings us to YouTube that has also been criticized for
having policies that are
considered to be homophobic, like for instance “anti-LGBTQ+”
ads during the influential Pride
month. This platform has been used to push the agenda of the
queer community, just like Taylor
Swift Music Video; You need to calm down that was used to
garner support for the Equality Act
which would provide the LGBTQ+ community equal
opportunities as anyone else. Just as
Langstone Hughes Taylor Swift has been able to use her huge
fanbase and platform to send a
message to common people who still don’t understand that the
queer individuals need to
accepted. With over 150 million views on YouTube this music
video has clearly brought and
enlightenment with lyrics like “Shade never made anybody less
gay.” Additionally, YouTube has
been used by a lot of Queer individuals who actually are most
influential individuals in this
platform coming up with creative and inspiring content like

their Coming out stories. “Yes, there
Queer Aesthetics
are controversies involved in many of the platforms, but the
number of queer individuals using
them to empower themselves outweighs the defects.”
In conclusion this might be seen as a battle that might not be
worn, the most important
thing is the progress that is made. Everyday the queer
community get a win, and they never shy
to express themselves for who they really are. With the aspects
like gay marriage and maybe the
passing of the Equality Act this will mean that the queer
community is almost there in winning
the fight for acceptance. This is throughout the world, whereby
people united by the same cause
will have to leave like the rest of the common people without
fear of being judged or being left
because of their sexual orientation. Technology definitely and
in specific social media has
changed everything in the way they approach Queer Aesthetics.
Before it was influential people
like Hughes or Warhol who would make impact but today

anyone can make the change they
desire, making it easier for the queer community to express
themselves adequately. Being an
aspect that has been considered as degenerate for the longest
time, it is only right that the queer
community is embraced by society to change the narrative for
once. So that the coming
generation would not have the ideas of discrimination and
isolation of queer individuals but
enable the queer individuals to identify their sexuality early
enough which would be better for
everyone.
Queer Aesthetics
References
Multiple Passings and the Double Death of Langston Hughes by
Juda Bennett.
Langstone Hughes, Café 3 a.m. Montage of a Dream Deferred.
Queer Aesthetics
LGBTQ+ Community Using Social Media To Empower Itself by
Luke Waltham, 16th June 2018.

Retrieved from https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/luke-
waltham/opinion-lgbtq-
community-using-social-media-to-empower-itself_
Taylor Swift – You Need to Calm Down, August 23rd 2019.
Retrieved from https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dkk9gvTmCXY
Why Sex is Not Binary by Anne Fausto, October 25th 2018.
Retrieved from https://
www.nytimes.com/2018/10/25/opinion/sex-biology-
binary.html?searchResultPosition
https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/luke-waltham/opinion-lgbtq-
community-using-social-media-to-empower-itself_
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dkk9gvTmCXY
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/25/opinion/sex-biology-
binary.html?searchResultPosition
Running head: QUEER POESIS ! 1
Queer poesis
Queer poesis especially lesbianism in the society has received
lot of opposition, and
people do not want to associate with people who are
heterosexuals. Lesbianism has indeed
received mixed reaction and in film making industry, those

practicing lesbianism rarely access
the platform of acting. Therefore, they are discriminated. This
work therefore evaluate some of
the techniques that have been used discriminate those practicing
queer poesis. The paper will
compare and contract Nitrate Kisses and Watermelon Woman in
their films.
In the nitrate kisses film, explores eroded as well as images for
lost vestiges of gay and lesbian
culture as directed by Barbara Hammer. Hammer decides to put
in context a forbidden and
invisible history of marginalized people through sexual
activities of both lesbian and gay
couples. The society has indeed resisted association with gay
and lesbian culture. People do not
want to even imagine that lesbian and gays existed in the
society especially lesbian of color. In
filmmaking, they are denied to the opportunity in acting.
According to Gever et al. (1993) the
audiences of the film expects heterosexual acts in the film and
when they see the homosexual
acts like lesbianism, they are disappointed. The film industries
have also refuted or even refused
to showcase lesbian or gay content. Those characters that act, as

lesbian and gay do not receive
lot of length is the film. In fact, film companies like Hollywood
do not perceive the content as
lesbianism. It is depicted far from the intentions of the actress
or artists. . Barbara indicate that
lesbian cinema are indeed invisible on screen. It is quite
difficult to see lesbian representation in
cinema. Moreover, they carried out in invisible lines throughout
and heated by projector lamp.
QUEER POESIS ! 2
Therefore, the audiences do not see the vivid real acts of lesbian
and gay (Rich et al. 1993).
According to authors involved in production of homosexual
content in early 1970s, they faced
lot of problems since there were no images for lesbians. They
were even termed as feminists
semioticians with essential meaningless ideology. Through
nitrate kisses film, the author is said
to be forcing people what they have for long time avoided.
Moreover, there existed restriction
that censorship ruling had against lesbian and gay arts in
cinema. It is quite clear that the study

depicts the problems faced by artists as well as directors in
charge of homosexual content. The
society was not very interested in their content and Barbara for
instance was in the move of
making history, which attracted the political resistance from the
society across the world.
The watermelon film on the other hand was the first film to
feature made by black woman. The
film receives lot of problems due to lesbianism content. Racism
also comes in since it involves
the people of color. There is primary tension in the film since it
involves intersection of race as
well as sexual orientation, politics as the movie addresses
black-white lesbian relationship.
According to Cheryl Dunye the voices of black women had been
missing from the dominant
cultural production and it is time at this century to address the
elision. The content or the image
of black women has been coined to be harmful as well as
inaccurate stereotyping. Stereotyping
has been as major technique to blow out lesbian content in film
production. Additionally, they
have been termed as sexually deviant, which therefore goes
against the norms of the society

since the society, which is largely occupied by heterosexuals. A
large section of US community
do not confirm to sexual gratification, which involve use of
objects. Therefore, they reject all
content that do not promote heterosexuals and therefore such
lesbians content has not attracted
QUEER POESIS ! 3
audience like other movie which involve heterosexual acts.
Nevertheless, watermelon content
has attracted the curiosity of the audiences and according to
Sullivan (2007), the watermelon
film does provoke the curiosity of the audiences and they find it
simply fascinating as they
follow up when cheryl as deterctive looks for clues regarding
the unknown black actress. The
actress indicate that there has been discrimination of black
women for long time since their
stories have never been told. The voices of black women has
been absent especially in the
dominant cultural production of content especially text and
film. In fact, prominent film
production companies like Hollywood have depicted black
women as domestic servant and

recently as welfare mothers. Therefore, black women in the film
has always been assigned
insignificant role and the main reason for such practice is
discrimination and negative
stereotyping. The discrimination and form of hatred has even
made the producers to even ignore
listing of black women in the credits. Racism ha really led to
demeaning and devaluing of black
women in the filmmaking industry (Sullivan, 2000).
Additionally, Sullivan claim that black lesbian women have not
been active in the production
since they have been denied equal chance of participating in the
mainstream media. According to
Jewell Gomez, black lesbians are few visible group in both fine
arts and popular media and to
make matter worse lesbian of color should not even exist. Black
women involved in homosexual
rarely receive the chance to appear before camera.
In conclusion, women have really been discriminated in the
society for long and despite the
milestone they have made in fighting for equity, equality and
freedom; the film industry has not
yet accepted women role participation fully. Additionally, the

practice of homosexuality
QUEER POESIS ! 4
especially lesbianism has really been rejected by not only those
involved in production of film
but also the audiences. The black females are the most affected
and the women spearheading the
production of lesbianism have been criticized and termed as
feminist seek for political
recognition.
QUEER POESIS ! 5
References
Rich, B. R., Gever, M., Parmar, P., & Greyson, J. (1993). Queer
Looks: Perspectives on Lesbian
and Gay Film and Video.
Sullivan, L. L. (2000). Chasing Fae: The Watermelon Woman
and Black Lesbian
Possibility. Callaloo, 23(1), 448-460.

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The effect of playground- and nature-based playtime
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The effect of playground- and nature-
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Jo Bartona, Gavin Sandercocka, Jules Prettya & Carly Wooda
a School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex,
Colchester, UK
Published online: 12 May 2014.
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The effect of playground- and nature-based playtime
interventions on
physical activity and self-esteem in UK school children
Jo Barton, Gavin Sandercock, Jules Pretty and Carly Wood*
School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester,
UK
(Received 18 December 2013; final version received 10 March
2014)
School playtime provides opportunities for children to engage
in physical activity
(PA). Playground playtime interventions designed to increase
PA have produced dif-
fering results. However, nature can also promote PA, through
the provision of large
open spaces for activity. The purpose of this study is to

determine which playtime
interventions are most effective at increasing moderate-to-
vigorous physical activity
(MVPA) and if this varies by school location. Fifty-two
children from an urban and
rural school participated in a playground sports (PS) and nature-
based orienteering
intervention during playtime for one week. MVPA was assessed
the day before and
on the final day of the interventions using accelerometers.
Intervention type (p < 0.05)
and school location (p < 0.001) significantly influenced MVPA;
with PS increasing
MVPA more than nature-based orienteering. Urban children
seemed to respond to the
interventions more positively; however, differences in baseline
MVPA might influence
these changes. There was a positive correlation for fitness and
MVPA during PS
(r = 0.32; p < 0.05), but not nature-based orienteering (p >
0.05). The provision of PS
influences PA the most; however, a variety of interventions are
required to engage less
fit children in PA.
Keywords: physical activity; playtime; urban; rural; nature
Introduction
Many UK school children aged 5–10 years (26–34 %) do not
perform the recommended
daily 60 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA)
(NHS Information
Centre 2011). Regular physical activity (PA) during childhood
is essential for good
physical and psychological health (PH) (Department of Health

2011). In common with
the adult data, a meta-analysis of paediatric exercise
interventions conducted worldwide
shows a similar, moderate effect size for changes in children’s
self-esteem (SE) due to
exercise (Ekeland et al. 2004). However, opportunities for
children to be active are
diminishing and children in the UK follow an increasingly
sedentary way of life (Biddle
et al. 2004). Time spent outdoors is a positive correlate of PA
(Cleland et al. 2008), yet
UK children spend less time outdoors than previous generations
due to safety concerns,
traffic and parental fear of crime (Bird 2007). Children are also
drawn inside by the
attraction of indoor alternatives such as TV and computer games
(Biddle et al. 2004).
Children of a lower socio-economic status (SES) are a group of
particular concern, as
they have greater access to sedentary activities but reduced
access to portable play
equipment such as bicycles, which facilitate PA (Tandon et al.
2012).
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
© 2014 Taylor & Francis
International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 2014
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2014.915020
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mailto:[email protected]

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2014.915020
School playtime provides an ideal opportunity to promote PA in
an outdoor environ-
ment (Ridgers et al. 2006). Children in the UK typically receive
up to 55 min of school
playtime each day, equating to 183 h per year. If all this time
were used for PA, play-
time would provide 50 % of the total amount required (Ridgers
et al. 2006, 2007a).
However, playtime currently only contributes 5–40 % towards
the daily activity require-
ment (Ridgers et al. 2006). There is large variation in the
calculated contribution of
school playtime due to differences in PA assessment methods
and playtime durations.
Playtime interventions such as equipment provision and
playground markings have
successfully increased time spent in MVPA during school
playtime by up to 60 %
(Stratton 2000; Stratton & Mullan 2005; Verstraete et al. 2006;
Ridgers et al. 2007b;
Haug et al. 2010). However, some studies also suggest that
playtime interventions such
as playground markings do not significantly influence PA levels
(Ridgers et al. 2007a;
Haug et al. 2010; Ridgers et al. 2010). The sustainability of
increases in PA over time
is also questionable as short-term changes may be due to
novelty effects of the interven-
tions (Stratton 2000; Ridgers et al. 2006).
The location of playtime interventions may also impact upon
their effectiveness.

Natural environments provide large open green spaces for
activity and can create more
imaginative and inventive play than urban environments lacking
natural features (Bird
2007). Individuals with access to natural, green environments
are three times as likely
to be active (Wells et al. 2007) and natural settings can improve
concentration, cognitive
function and social play (Wells 2000). In adults, performing PA
whilst exposed to nature
(green exercise) provides additive benefits for PH, largely
through improvements in SE
(Pretty et al. 2005; Barton & Pretty 2010). It is suggested that
these additive benefits
are enabled through the ability of natural environments to
provide a distractor from
daily stresses (Pretty et al. 2005; Reed et al. 2013). However,
there is a paucity of green
exercise studies in children and those simulating the experience
using natural images
have shown no additive benefit to SE (Wood et al. 2012).
The school environment may provide a vital opportunity for
children to have contact
with natural environments. Accessing green space and engaging
in outdoor play during
the school day is therefore a key component to the health, well-
being and development
of children (Ward Thompson et al. 2008). Yet, children spend
much of their playtime
on the concrete playground (Ridgers et al. 2006) and often have
limited access to green
spaces within the school environment. The primary purpose of
this study was to deter-
mine which type of playtime intervention is most effective at
increasing PA levels and

improving SE in UK school children. A secondary aim was to
compare the effect of the
interventions in children attending schools located in urban and
rural settings.
Methodology
Participants
Fifty-two boys and girls aged 8.84 ± 0.45 years (mean ± SD)
volunteered to participate
in the study. Participants were recruited from two primary
schools located in urban and
rural areas in England (Colchester Borough Council 2004). The
two areas were in the
20 % most socio-economically deprived in England for one or a
combination of factors,
such as housing, income and health, crime and living
environment (Colchester Borough
Council 2004). The participants in each school were derived
from a year 5 class; the
sample size was determined by the relative size of each class.
Informed parental consent
and individual assent were obtained for each child prior to the
start of the study. Only
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children who returned consent forms participated. Institutional

faculty ethical approval
was granted for the study.
Procedure
At the start of the project, participants’ stature was measured
with the participant bare-
foot and to the nearest 0.1 cm (Seca 220 stadiometer) and mass
measured to the nearest
0.1 kg (Seca 770 digital scale). Body mass index (BMI) and
BMI z-scores (Cole et al.
1995) related to the individuals’ age and sex were also
calculated. Cardiorespiratory fit-
ness was determined using the 20 m shuttle run test (20 mSRT)
(Léger et al. 1988). The
20 mSRT required participants to run between markers, 20 m
apart, in time to pre-
recorded beeps. The initial running velocity was 8.5 km h−1,
increasing by 0.5 km h−1
each minute. The test was terminated due to volitional fatigue
or when the participant
failed to reach the marker at the beep on two consecutive
occasions (Léger et al. 1988).
The number of shuttles each participant completed was recorded
and converted to run-
ning speed (km h−1). 20 mSRT z-scores were then calculated
from age and sex-related
normative data (Olds et al. 2006). A positive or negative z-score
indicates an above or
below average score, respectively.
Two playtime interventions were then introduced into each of
the schools during
lunch playtime for one week between November and December
2009. The interventions

were available for the whole 55 min duration of lunch playtime
on five consecutive
days. The weather did not prevent the children from accessing
either of the interventions
on any of the five days. A playground sports (PS) equipment
intervention was imple-
mented followed by a nature-based orienteering intervention.
The order of the interven-
tions was requested by the school due to circumstances out of
our control. It would
have been preferable for the order of the interventions to be
randomised for each partici-
pant in order to eliminate the effect of one intervention on the
other and also any order
effects. Time spent in MVPA was assessed prior to and on the
final day of each inter-
vention, whilst SE was assessed pre- and post-intervention. The
interventions were
implemented for a period of five days in order to determine
whether they could influ-
ence MVPA and SE in the short term.
Interventions
The PS intervention was performed on the playground and
consisted of small pieces of
equipment such as skipping ropes, bats and balls and Frisbees.
The children could play
with the equipment freely during all playtime periods. In both
schools, the playground
consisted of concrete areas surrounded by the school buildings.
There were very few
green features in view from the school playground.
The orienteering intervention was carried out on the school field
and green areas

surrounding the school buildings. Children were provided with a
map of the school
grounds and a course with markers to follow and locate. The
course was altered on each
day of the intervention. In both the urban and rural schools, the
fields were surrounded
by trees and green areas. At some points in both schools, the
school buildings could be
seen from the field; however, the dominant features of the
environment were green.
The dimensions of the green and playground areas were
comparable in both schools
and all children participated fully in both interventions. The
implementation of the inter-
ventions was the same in both the urban and rural schools. The
children received an
International Journal of Environmental Health Research 3
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explanation of each intervention and were provided with
identical equipment and
opportunity to take part in each of them.
Instrumentation
PA levels were monitored for one day prior to the start of the
intervention and on the
final day of each intervention using accelerometers (Actigraph

GT1 M, MTI Health Ser-
vices Inc.). Accelerometers were only worn on the final day of
each intervention so as
to minimise the disruption to the schools and daily lessons.
Activity levels were moni-
tored during the 55-min lunch break using a 1s epoch.
Accelerometers were worn on a
belt, over clothing, positioned on the right hip. Accelerometer
data were downloaded
using the Actilife programme (v4.4.1) and processed using
ActiSci V0.99b5. The time
spent in MVPA was determined using established cut points
(Treuth et al. 2004), with
an adjustment made for the accelerometer model (Corder et al.
2007).
SE monitoring took place immediately after lunch break, the
day before each inter-
vention and again at the same time on the final day of the
intervention. SE was assessed
using the one-page 10-item Rosenberg SE scale (Rosenberg
1965); the instruments test–
retest correlations range from 0.82 to 0.99 and reported
Cronbach’s α coefficients range
from 0.77 to 0.88 (Blascovich & Tomaka 1991). The scale was
slightly modified to
ensure that the language could be understood by the age group
of children involved.
For example, participants are normally asked how they feel
about themselves and
whether they strongly agree, agree, disagree or strongly
disagree with a list of 10 state-
ments. This was amended to whether the participants thought
the statements to be very
true, true, not true or definitely not true. This change was made
as it was thought that

children would have a greater understanding of “true” and “not
true”, as opposed to
“agree” and “disagree” and that they would therefore be able to
interpret the statements
and provide responses more easily. Some statements were also
modified to make them
more comprehensible in terms of language, for example “I am
able to do things as well
as most other people” was changed to “I can do things as well
as most other children”.
Data analysis
Two-way between ANOVA examined differences in
anthropometric and fitness data
according to sex and school location. Two-way mixed ANCOVA
examined the changes
in time spent in MVPA according to the intervention type and
school location, with the
pre-intervention MVPA, BMI z-score and 20 mSRT z-score
being included in the analy-
sis as covariates. Pearson’s correlation examined the
relationship between fitness and the
change in MVPA following the nature-based orienteering and
PS interventions sepa-
rately. Two-way ANCOVA also examined the effect of the
intervention type and school
location on the change in SE, with pre-intervention SE scores,
BMI z-score and 20
mSRT z-scores being included in the analysis as covariates.
Significance was accepted
as p < 0.05 throughout the analysis.
Results
Two-way between ANOVA (using school location and sex as

two independent
variables) revealed a significant difference between urban and
rural school children in
age (F(1,44) = 4.75; p < 0.05), stature (F(1,44) = 9.17; p <
0.01), BMI (F(1,44) = 14.04;
p < 0.001) and BMI z-score (F(1,44) = 14.47; p < 0.001).
Participants in the rural school
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were older and taller, but had a lower BMI and BMI z-score
than the urban school
children. There were no differences (p > 0.05) between mass, 20
mSRT speed or 20
mSRT z-score in the urban and rural schools (Table 1). There
was also a main effect for
sex revealing significant sex differences in age (F(1,44) = 4.21;
p < 0.05) and 20 mSRT
speed (F(1,44) = 19.54; p < 0.001) for all children combined.
Females were younger and
reached a slower final speed on the 20 mSRT. There were no
sex differences in stature,
mass, BMI, BMI z-score or 20 mSRT z-score (p > 0.05). There
were no significant
effects for any of the variables due to the interaction of the
school location and sex
(p > 0.05).
Descriptive data according to school location and activity type

are reported in
Table 2. Two-way ANCOVA showed a significant main effect
for the change in the time
spent in MVPA due to the intervention type (F(1,74) = 5.78; p <
0.05) and school loca-
tion (F(1,74) = 23.42; p < 0.001), but no effect due to the
interaction of the intervention
type and school location (p > 0.05). The PS intervention
increased the time spent in
MVPA more than the nature-based orienteering intervention and
the urban school
increased their time spent in MVPA to a greater extent than the
rural school (Table 3).
ANCOVA also revealed that there was a significant effect of
pre-intervention time spent
in MVPA on the change in the time spent in MVPA (F(1,74) =
18.97; p < 0.001) and
also a significant effect of the BMI z-score on the change in the
time spent in MVPA
(F(1,74) = 6.85; p < 0.05). There was no effect of the 20 mSRT
z-score on time spent in
MVPA.
Table 2. Time spent in MVPA (min) and SE scores according to
playtime activity and school
environment (mean ± SD).
Urban Rural
MVPA (min) Self-esteem MVPA (min) Self-esteem
Sports Pre 11.28 ± 4.46 21.60 ± 7.69 7.72 ± 4.62 19.05 ± 6.29
Post 15.23 ± 4.24 18.89 ± 6.10 9.77 ± 5.65 18.36 ± 5.98
Total 13.33 ± 5.26 19.89 ± 7.49 8.75 ± 4.99 18.52 ± 5.86
Orienteering Pre 4.67 ± 2.46 18.00 ± 6.24 7.48 ± 4.11 16.82 ±

6.15
Post 9.27 ± 4.03 15.67 ± 6.73 7.50 ± 3.59 16.27 ± 5.19
Total 6.59 ± 3.95 17.00 ± 6.43 7.48 ± 3.82 16.29 ± 5.45
Total Pre 7.93 ± 5.14 19.91 ± 7.23 7.63 ± 4.25 17.75 ± 6.14
Post 12.60 ± 5.44 17.30 ± 6.90 8.58 ± 4.65 17.06 ± 5.37
Total 10.07 ± 5.75 18.61 ± 7.17 8.11 ± 4.46 17.39 ± 5.74
Note: A lower score = a better self-esteem.
Table 3. Change in the time spent in MVPA (min) due to the
sports equipment and orienteering
intervention in urban and rural school children (mean ± SD (95
% CI)).
Urban (min) Rural (min) Total (min)
Sports 4.16 ± 4.74 (0.68–5.84) 1.92 ± 5.43 (0.29–6.45) 3.07 ±
5.16 (2.54–5.08)
Orienteering 4.60 ± 3.85 (1.95–6.94) 0.15 ± 3.62 (−1.71 to
1.37) 2.15 ± 4.31a (0.22–2.83)
Total 4.36 ± 4.31 (3.69–6.35) 1.00 ± 4.6b (−0.97 to 1.59) 2.62 ±
4.75 (1.44–3.48)
aIndicates a significant difference between sports equipment
and orienteering (p < 0.001).
bIndicates a significant difference between schools (p < 0.05).
6 J. Barton et al.
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Pearson’s correlation revealed a positive correlation for
children of all fitness, deter-
mined by the maximum speed achieved on the 20 mSRT, and
time spent in MVPA dur-
ing the PS intervention (r = 0.32; p < 0.05), but not during the
nature-based orienteering
intervention (p > 0.05).
Two-way ANCOVA revealed no significant main effects on the
change in SE, due
to either the type of intervention (p > 0.05), school location (p
> 0.05) or interaction of
both variables (p > 0.05) (Table 4). The pre-intervention SE
score significantly affected
the change in the SE score (F(1,77) = 25.09; p < 0.001). There
was no effect of BMI
z-score or 20 mSRT z-score on change in SE (p > 0.05).
Discussion
The primary aim of this study was to determine which type of
playtime intervention is
most effective at increasing PA levels and improving SE in UK
school children.
The results indicated that the PS intervention led to
significantly greater increases in the
time spent in MVPA compared to the nature-based orienteering
intervention, irrespective
of the school location. The time spent in MVPA following the
PS intervention contributed
21 % towards the daily PA recommendation; whilst the time
spent in MVPA following nat-
ure-based orienteering only contributed 13.7 %. Previous
studies support the finding that
the provision of games equipment during playtime leads to

increases in PA (Verstraete
et al. 2006; Haug et al. 2010). However, no studies to date have
documented the effects of
a nature-based intervention on PA. Greater increases in PA
might have been expected
following the nature-based orienteering intervention as access
to natural environments has
been associated with increased levels of PA (Wells et al. 2007).
On the other hand, the PS
intervention may have encouraged more vigorous activity than
the nature-based orienteer-
ing, as orienteering requires cognitive thinking which may
influence PA levels.
There was a positive relationship between fitness and time spent
in MVPA for the
PS intervention, suggesting that more fit children chose to
engage more with the sports
equipment than less fit children. There was no correlation
between fitness and the time
spent in MVPA during the nature-based orienteering, indicating
that this type of
intervention may be effective at engaging children of all fitness
levels. PA in man-made
settings is based on a hierarchy of physical strength and skill
(Bird 2007), whereby the
fittest and most able individuals dominate. Natural areas
stimulate more diverse and
creative play, providing opportunities for children of all
abilities to take part (Bird
2007). The nature-based orienteering intervention was more
inclusive than the PS
intervention; thus nature-based interventions should be used as
a tool to engage children
of all abilities in PA during school playtime.

Both the PS and nature-based orienteering interventions led to
improvements in SE;
however, there were no significant differences in the change in
SE due to the type of
intervention. In adults, performing PA whilst exposed to nature
has been demonstrated
Table 4. Change in SE scores due to the sports equipment and
orienteering intervention in urban
and rural school children (mean ± SD (95 % CI)).
Urban Rural Total
Sports 2.33 ± 6.69 (−0.65 to 3.66) 0.78 ± 5.18 (−1.68 to 2.46)
1.53 ± 5.94 (−0.51 to 2.41)
Orienteering 2.16 ± 5.81 (0.68–5.16) 0.59 ± 3.33 (−0.97 to
3.19) 1.32 ± 4.66 (0.51–3.51)
Total 2.25 ± 6.21 (0.63–3.79) 0.68 ± 4.31 (−0.75 to 2.25) 1.43 ±
5.32 (0.24–2.48)
Note: A positive change = an improved self-esteem.
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to provide synergistic benefits for PH (Pretty et al. 2005, 2007;
Barton & Pretty 2010).
In the children in the current study, interventions conducted in
natural, green environ-
ments did not affect SE differently to interventions conducted in

concrete areas. The
current generation of children spend significantly less time
interacting with nature than
previous generations (Bird 2007). As such, it is possible that
they have become discon-
nected from the natural environment in a way that limits them
from receiving benefits
for PH (Bratman et al. 2012). However, the effects of the
nature-based intervention may
have been limited by the duration of the orienteering, the type
of activity and factors
such as weather and temperature. Further investigation into the
benefits of green exer-
cise and activity requiring interaction with nature is warranted
in children.
The secondary aim of this study was to compare the effect of
the interventions in
children whose schools were located in either an urban or rural
setting. Environmental
location may affect health risk factors. In this study, children
attending the urban school
had a significantly higher BMI (and BMI z-score) than those
from the rural school and
were more likely to be classified as either overweight or obese.
SES may affect BMI,
due to limited opportunities for PA and greater access to
sedentary activities in more
deprived individuals (Tandon et al. 2012). Whilst both of the
schools within this study
were within areas which were in the 20 % most socio-
economically deprived in Eng-
land, they were categorised as so for different reasons. The
urban school was in an area
deprived in terms of education, skills and training, income,
crime and employment,

whilst the rural school was only deprived in terms of housing
and access to key services
(Colchester Borough Council 2004). Poor income and a lack of
employment are likely
to prevent individuals from having bicycles or portable exercise
equipment which
provide opportunities for PA (Tandon et al. 2012), whilst
having to travel to reach key
services such as a supermarket or doctor are not.
In terms of MVPA, the urban school children responded to the
interventions more
positively than the rural school children. Whilst the urban
children experienced increases
in MVPA by 4.2 and 4.6 min due to the PS and nature-based
orienteering interventions,
respectively, the rural children only experienced 1.9 and 0.2
min increases, respectively.
The urban children may have responded more positively to the
playground intervention,
as they may not have access to the equipment outside of the
school environment. Fur-
thermore, children living in a deprived urban area are less likely
to have regular access
to nature (Bird 2007). The interventions provided new and
exciting opportunities for the
urban children, but may have been more familiar to the rural
children, thus leading to
the disparities in their effects. The findings suggest a need for
bespoke activity interven-
tions informed by the school location, characteristics and
fitness levels of the children.
However, it should be noted that the differences between MVPA
in two schools prior to
the interventions might have impacted on the results.

The urban children experienced slightly greater improvements
in SE following the
playtime interventions; however, these differences were non
significant. The urban chil-
dren performed more MVPA during the interventions and
seemed to engage with the
interventions to a greater extent than the rural children; thus,
the slightly more positive
changes in SE might have been expected. Urban residing
children also have less fre-
quent opportunities for day-to-day contact with nature than
rural children (Bird 2007),
perhaps providing some explanation as to why they experienced
a more positive
enhancement in SE following nature-based orienteering. To
date, this is the first known
study to examine the effect of different playtime interventions
on SE and to compare
the effects in urban and rural school children.
8 J. Barton et al.
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The present study has several limitations. Firstly, the lack of
randomisation of the
interventions may have impacted upon the results.
Randomisation helps to control for
the potential novelty effects of the interventions and prevents
one intervention from
impacting upon the other. Since the playground intervention

was performed first and
there was only a one week gap between the interventions, the
playground intervention
may have directly impacted upon the pre-nature-based
orienteering MVPA. The timings
of MVPA assessment post-intervention may also be considered
as a limitation, as only
one day of monitoring took place. Additional monitoring would
provide a more
thorough assessment of the impact of the interventions on PA.
The study would also
have benefited from a longer intervention period. The one-week
period for which the
interventions were implemented is unlikely to have influenced
SE, thus accounting for
the lack of statistically significant changes. Also, given that the
interventions were
performed in two different schools, it is possible that there may
have been some dispar-
ity between the interventions and their implementation, which
might have impacted on
findings.
Conclusion
This study indicates that whilst both nature- and playground-
based interventions can
increase the time spent in MVPA during playtime, the more
traditional playground inter-
ventions are more effective at increasing PA. Urban children
seem to respond more pos-
itively to playtime interventions than rural children; however,
differences in activity
levels prior to the interventions may limit the application of
these findings. Children
with lower fitness tend to be disengaged with the more

traditional playground activities;
thus, nature-based interventions may provide vital opportunities
for PA in these groups
of children. Playtime interventions can also promote
improvements in SE; however,
these do not significantly vary according to the type of
intervention or the location of
the school. This study demonstrates that it is essential that a
multi-faceted approach be
utilised in order to engage children in PA during school
playtime, whilst also taking
advantage of the numerous health benefits derived from playing
in all areas of the
school grounds. Nature-based interventions should be
implemented alongside play-
ground-based interventions to provide opportunities for children
of all abilities to engage
in PA during playtime. Thus, schools should allow children to
have regular access to
both the playground and natural areas of the school grounds in
order to for all children
to have opportunities to be active. Furthermore, PA and health
policies should encour-
age the use of natural environments in order to enable more
children to meet activity
guidelines and thus receive the well-documented health
benefits.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by Heart Research UK
[HHG/2968/08].
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View publication statsView publication stats
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262225742Abstract
Introduction Methodology Participants Procedure Interventions
Instrumentation Data analysis Results Discussion
ConclusionAcknowledgementReferences
Social Effects of Policing on Campus
Boaz, G., Connolly, D., Johnston, D., & Poitras T.,
Department of Criminal Justice, Radford University, Virginia
24142
Introduction
.
Methods
Results
Discussion
Printing Supported by the Office of Undergraduate Research
and Scholarship
We created a survey of 13 questions through Qualtrics that was
then distributed through different social media platforms, that
asks participants if campus police generate fear and stress
amongst students.

Our sample consisted of 122 Radford University students.
The results showed that the majority of our sample, in regards
to Class Standing, Gender, and Ethnicity were as follows;
57.4% were seniors, 51.4% were Female, and 59.8% were
White/Caucasian.
Our study explored the effect of police presence on college
students’ emotions.
We hypothesized that the presence of police on campus causes a
higher level of anxiety and distrust among students, particularly
those from a racial minority and among male students compared
to other students.
Purpose of this research is to examine the differences in the
perceptions of students regarding the presence of police on
campus in terms of their personal security.
Past studies have found that both race and gender can predict
how individuals perceive police, particularly police use of
force. The study also states exposure to media coverage and
highly publicized incidents of police misconduct have also been
found to negatively impact perceptions of police especially
among Blacks and Hispanics (Girgenti-Malone, Khoder, Vega,
& Castillo, 2017).
We believe that the police and students would benefit from
programs that integrate them on campus to reduce the
systematic fear and stress that the students experience.
This program would allow students to shadow campus police,
giving students the transparency and insight into the duties and

responsibilities of campus police
This insight could potentially decrease the levels of stress and
fear amongst students.
Girgenti-Malone, A. A. der, C. Vega, G. Castillo, D. (2017).
College students’ perception of police use o:
/15614263.2017.1295244
Hispanic participants reported the highest mean levels of stress
as well as fear from campus police.
Male participants reported lower levels of stress from campus
police compared to the female participants.
Female participants reported lower levels of fear from campus
police compared to male participants.
References
Girgenti-Malone, A. A., Khoder, C., Vega, G., & Castillo,
D. (2017). College students’ perception of police use of force:
Do suspect race and ethnicity matter? Police Practice and
Research, 18(5), 492-506.
Doi:10.1080/15614263.2017.1295244
me))

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