An effort was made to engineer E. coli to better produce difficult-to-express antibodies. Mutations in glutathione and thioredoxin reductase combined with coexpression of chaperones increased the yield of functional Fab fragments. Coexpression of Erv1p sulfhydryl oxidase increased the yield of camelid single domain antibodies in the cytoplasm. However, most antibody fragments are still produced in the periplasm of E. coli using an N-terminal leader sequence targeting the periplasmic Sec secretion pathway.