2. Cost of Quality – 4 Categories
Early detection/prevention is less costly
(Maybe by a factor of 10)
3. Ways of Improving Quality
Plan-Do-Study-Act Cycle (PDSA)
Also called the Deming Wheel after originator
Circular, never ending problem solving process
Seven Tools of Quality Control
Tools typically taught to problem solving teams
Quality Function Deployment
Used to translate customer preferences to design
4. PDSA Details
Plan
Evaluate current process
Collect procedures, data, identify problems
Develop an improvement plan, performance
objectives
Do
Implement the plan – trial basis
Study
Collect data and evaluate against objectives
Act
Communicate the results from trial
If successful, implement new process
5. Seven Tools of Quality Control
1. Cause-and-Effect Diagrams
2. Flowcharts
3. Checklists
4. Control Charts
5. Scatter Diagrams
6. Pareto Analysis
7. Histograms
7. Flowcharts
Used to document the detailed steps in a
process
Often the first step in Process Re-Engineering
8. Control Charts
Important tool used in Statistical Process
Control
The UCL and LCL are calculated limits used to
show when process is in or out of control
9. Scatter Diagrams
A graph that shows how two variables are
related to one another
Data can be used in a regression analysis to
establish equation for the relationship
10. Pareto Analysis
Technique that displays the degree of importance for each
element
Named after the 19th century Italian economist; often called the
80-20 Rule
Principle is that quality problems are the result of only a few
problems e.g. 80% of the problems caused by 20% of causes
11. Histograms
A chart that shows the frequency distribution of
observed values of a variable like service time
at a bank drive-up window
Displays whether the distribution is symmetrical
(normal) or skewed
12. Product Design - Quality
Function Deployment
Critical to ensure product design meets customer
expectations
Useful tool for translating customer specifications into
technical requirements is Quality Function Deployment
(QFD)
QFD encompasses
Customer requirements
Competitive evaluation
Product characteristics
Relationship matrix
Trade-off matrix
Setting Targets
13. Quality Function Deployment
(QFD) Details
Process used to ensure that the product meets customer specifications
Voice of the
engineer
Voice
of the
customer
Customer-based
benchmarks
14. QFD - House of Quality
Adding trade-offs, targets & developing product specifications
Trade-offs
Targets
Technical
Benchmarks
15. Reliability – critical to quality
Reliability is the probability that the
product, service or part will function as
expected
No product is 100% certain to function
properly
Reliability is a probability function
dependent on sub-parts or components
16. Reliability – critical to quality
Reliability of a system is the product of
component reliabilities
RS = (R1) (R2) (R3) . . . (Rn)
RS = reliability of the product or system
R1 = reliability of the components
Increase reliability by placing components
in parallel
17. Reliability – critical to quality
Increase reliability by placing components
in parallel
Parallel components allow system to
operate if one or the other fails
RS = R1 + (R2* Probability of needing 2nd
component)
18. Process Management &
Managing Supplier Quality
Quality products come from quality sources
Quality must be built into the process
Quality at the source is belief that it is
better to uncover source of quality
problems and correct it
TQM extends to quality of product from
company’s suppliers
19. ISO Standards
ISO 9000 Standards:
Certification developed by International
Organization for Standardization
Set of internationally recognized quality standards
Companies are periodically audited & certified
ISO 9000:2000 QMS – Fundamentals and
Standards
ISO 9001:2000 QMS – Requirements
ISO 9004:2000 QMS - Guidelines for Performance
More than 40,000 companies have been certified
ISO 14000:
Focuses on a company’s environmental
responsibility
20. Why TQM Efforts Fail
Lack of a genuine quality culture
Lack of top management support
and commitment
Over- and under-reliance on SPC
methods
21. TQM Within OM
TQM is broad sweeping organizational change
TQM impacts
Marketing – providing key inputs of customer information
Finance – evaluating and monitoring financial impact
Accounting – provides exact costing
Engineering – translate customer requirements into specific
engineering terms
Purchasing – acquiring materials to support product
development
Human Resources – hire employees with skills necessary
Information systems – increased need for accessible
information
22. Quality Planning
It is important to design in quality and
communicate important factors that directly
contribute to meeting the customer’s
requirements
Design of experiments helps identify which
variables have the most influence on the overall
outcome of a process
Many scope aspects of IT projects affect quality
like functionality, features, system outputs,
performance, reliability, and maintainability
23. Quality Assurance
Quality assurance includes all the activities
related to satisfying the relevant quality
standards for a project
Another goal of quality assurance is
continuous quality improvement
Benchmarking can be used to generate ideas
for quality improvements
Quality audits help identify lessons learned
that can improve performance on current or
future projects
26. Pareto Analysis
Pareto analysis involves identifying the
vital few contributors that account for
the most quality problems in a system
Also called the 80-20 rule, meaning that
80% of problems are often due to 20%
of the causes
Pareto diagrams are histograms that
help identify and prioritize problem
areas
28. Statistical Sampling and
Standard Deviation
Statistical sampling involves choosing part
of a population of interest for inspection
The size of a sample depends on how
representative you want the sample to be
Sample size formula:
Sample size = .25 X (certainty Factor/acceptable error)2
30. Six Sigma Defined
Six Sigma is “a comprehensive and flexible
system for achieving, sustaining and
maximizing business success. Six Sigma is
uniquely driven by close understanding of
customer needs, disciplined use of facts,
data, and statistical analysis, and diligent
attention to managing, improving, and
reinventing business processes.”*
*Pande, Peter S., Robert P. Neuman, and Roland R. Cavanagh, The
Six Sigma Way. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000, p. xi
31. Basic Information on Six
Sigma
The target for perfection is the
achievement of no more than 3.4
defects per million opportunities
The principles can apply to a wide
variety of processes
Six Sigma projects normally follow a
five-phase improvement process called
DMAIC
32. DMAIC
Define: Define the problem/opportunity,
process, and customer requirements
Measure: Define measures, collect, compile,
and display data
Analyze: Scrutinize process details to find
improvement opportunities
Improve: Generate solutions and ideas for
improving the problem
Control: Track and verify the stability of the
improvements and the predictability of the
solution
33. How is Six Sigma Quality
Control Unique?
It requires an organization-wide commitment
Six Sigma organizations have the ability and
willingness to adopt contrary objectives, like
reducing errors and getting things done
faster
It is an operating philosophy that is
customer-focused and strives to drive out
waste, raise levels of quality, and improve
financial performance at breakthrough levels
34. Examples of Six Sigma
Organizations
Motorola, Inc. pioneered the adoption of Six
Sigma in the 1980s and saved about $14 billion
Allied Signal/Honeywell saved more than $600
million a year by reducing the costs of reworking
defects and improving aircraft engine design
processes
General Electric uses Six Sigma to focus on
achieving customer satisfaction
35. Six Sigma and Project
Management
Joseph M. Juran stated that “all improvement takes place
project by project, and in no other way”
It’s important to select projects carefully and apply higher
quality where it makes sense
Six Sigma projects must focus on a quality problem or gap
between current and desired performance and not have a
clearly understood problem or a predetermined solution
After selecting Six Sigma projects, the project
management concepts, tools, and techniques described in
this text come into play, such as creating business cases,
project charters, schedules, budgets, etc.
36. Six Sigma and Statistics
The term sigma means standard deviation
Standard deviation measures how much
variation exists in a distribution of data
Standard deviation is a key factor in
determining the acceptable number of
defective units found in a population
Six Sigma projects strive for no more than 3.4
defects per million opportunities
37. Standard Deviation
A small standard deviation means that
data cluster closely around the middle of
a distribution and there is little
variability among the data
A normal distribution is a bell-shaped
curve that is symmetrical about the
mean or average value of a population
39. Six Sigma as a Philosophy
Internal &
External
Failure
Costs
Prevention &
Appraisal
Costs
Old Belief
4s
Costs
Internal &
External
Failure Costs
Prevention &
Appraisal
Costs
New Belief
Costs
4s
5s
6s
Quality
Quality
Old Belief
High Quality = High Cost
New Belief
High Quality = Low Cost
s is a measure of how much
variation exists in a process
40. Focus: The End User
Customer: Internal or External
Consumer: The End User
the “Voice of the Consumer” (Consumer Cue)
must be translated into
the “Voice of the Engineer” (Technical Requirement)
41. Six Sigma as a Metric
1
)( 2
n
xxi
s
Sigma = s = Deviation
( Square root of variance )
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Axis graduated in Sigma
68.27 %
95.45 %
99.73 %
99.9937 %
99.999943 %
99.9999998 %
result: 317300 ppm
outside (deviation)
45500 ppm
2700
ppm
63
ppm
0.57 ppm
0.002
ppm
between + / -
1s
between + / -
2s
between + / -
3s
between + / -
4s
between + / -
5s
between + / -
6s
s =
42. Six Sigma as a Tool
Process Mapping Tolerance Analysis
Structure Tree Components Search
Pareto Analysis Hypothesis Testing
Gauge R & R Regression
Rational Subgrouping DOE
Baselining SPC
Many familiar quality tools applied in a
structured methodology
43. Distinguish “Vital Few”
from “Trivial Many”
Y = Dependent Variable Output, Defect
x = Independent Variables Potential Cause
x* = Independent Variable Critical Cause
Define the Problem / Defect Statement
Y = f ( x1
*, x2, x3, x4
*, x5. . . Xn)
Process
(Parameters)
Material
Methods
People
Environment
Output
Machine
Measurements
44. Strategy by Phase -
Phase
Measure
(What)
Analyze
(Where, When, Why)
Improve
(How)
Control
(Sustain, Leverage)
Step
What is the frequency of Defects?
• Define the defect
• Define performance standards
• Validate measurement system
• Establish capability metric
Where, when and why do Defects occur?
• Identify sources of variation
• Determine the critical process parameters
How can we improve the process?
• Screen potential causes
• Discover relationships
• Establish operating tolerances
Were the improvements effective?
• Re-establish capability metric
How can we maintain the improvements?
• Implement process control mechanisms
• Leverage project learning's
• Document & Proceduralize
Focus
Y
Y
Y
Y
X
Vital X
X
Vital X
Vital X
Y, Vital X
Y, Vital X
Process Characterization
Process Optimization
Measure
Improve
Analyze
Control
Measure
Improve
Analyze
Control
Measure
Improve
Analyze
Control
Measure
Improve
Analyze
Control
Measure
Improvement
45. A Black Belt has…, and will…
Leadership Driving the Use
46. Black Belt Training
Task
Time on
Consulting/
Training
Mentoring
Related
Projects
Green
Belt
Utilize
Statistical/
Quality
technique
2%~5%
Find one
new green
belt
2 / year
Black
Belt
Lead use
of
technique
and
communic-
ate new
ones
5%~10%
Two green
belts
4 / year
Master
Black
Belt
Consulting/
Mentoring/
Training
80~100%
Five Black
Belts
10 / year
47. Barrier Breakthrough Plan
1.00
10.00
100.00
J94
DPMOp
6 Sigma
SIGMA
J95 J96 J97
6
5.6
5
5.
6
5.
5
5.
4
5.
3
MY95 MY96 MY97 MY98
Pareto, Brainstorming, C&E, BvC
8D, 7D, TCS Teams, SPC
DOE, DFM, PC
RenewBlack Belt Program (Internal Motorola)
Black Belt Program (External Suppliers)
Proliferation of Master Black Belts
49. Define
Problem
Understand
Process
Collect
Data
Process
Performance
Process Capability
- Cp/Cpk
- Run Charts
Understand Problem
(Control or
Capability)
Data Types
- Defectives
- Defects
- Continuous
Measurement
Systems Evaluation
(MSE)
Define Process-
Process Mapping
Historical
Performance
Brainstorm
Potential Defect
Causes
Defect
Statement
Project
Goals
Understand the Process and Potential Impact
Measure Phase
51. Baselining:
Quantifying the goodness (or badness!) of the
current process, before ANY improvements are
made, using sample data. The key to baselining
is collecting representative sample data
Sampling Plan
- Size of Subgroups
- Number of Subgroups
- Take as many “X” as possible into consideration
52. How do we know our process?
Process Map
Historical Data
Fishbone
53. RATIONAL SUBROUPING Allows samples to be taken that
include only white noise, within the samples. Black noise
occurs between the samples.
RATIONAL SUBGROUPS
Minimize variation within subroups
Maximize variation between subrgoups
TIME
PROCESS
RESPONSE
WHITE NOISE
(Common
Cause Variation)
BLACK NOISE
(Signal)
54. Visualizing the Causes
s st + sshift =
stotal
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Time 4
Within Group
•Called s short term (sst)
•Our potential – the best
we can be
•The s reported by all 6
sigma companies
•The trivial many
55. Visualizing the Causes
Between Groups
s st + sshift = stotal
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Time 4
•Called sshift (truly a
measurement in sigmas of how
far the mean has shifted)
•Indicates our process control
•The vital few
56. Assignable Cause
Outside influences
Black noise
Potentially controllable
How the process is actually performing
over time
Fishbone
57. Common Cause Variation
Variation present in every process
Not controllable
The best the process can be within the
present technology
Data within subgroups (Z.st) will contain only Common Cause
Variation
58. s2
Total = s2
Part-Part + s2
R&R
Recommendation:
Resolution 10% of tolerance to measure
Gauge R&R 20% of tolerance to measure
• Repeatability (Equipment variation)
Variation observed with one measurement device when used several times by one operator
while measuring the identical characteristic on the same part.
• Reproducibility (Appraised variation)
Variation Obtained from different operators using the same device when measuring the
identical characteristic on the same part.
•Stability or Drift
Total variation in the measurement obtained with a measurement obtained on the same
master or reference value when measuring the same characteristic, over an extending time
period.
Gauge R&R
Part-Part
R&R
59. To understand where you want to be,
you need to know how to get there.v
Map the Process
Measure the Process
Identify the variables - ‘x’
Understand the Problem -
’Y’ = function of variables -’x’
Y=f(x)
61. In many cases, the data sample can be transformed so that it is approximately
normal. For example, square roots, logarithms, and reciprocals often take a
positively skewed distribution and convert it to something close to a bell-
shaped curve
62. What do we Need?
LSL USL LSL USL
LSL USL
Off-Target, Low Variation
High Potential Defects
Good Cp but Bad Cpk
On Target
High Variation
High Potential Defects
No so good Cp and Cpk
On-Target, Low Variation
Low Potential Defects
Good Cp and Cpk
Variation reduction and process
centering create processes with
less potential for defects.
The concept of defect reduction
applies to ALL processes (not just
manufacturing)
66. A- Poor Control, Poor Process
B- Must control the Process better, Technology is fine
C- Process control is good, bad Process or technology
D- World Class
A B
C D
TECHNOLOGY
1 2 3 4 5 6
goodpoor
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
CONTROL
Zshift
ZSt
poor
good
68. • #1 Define the customer Cue and technical requirement we need
to satisfy
Consumer Cue: Blocks Cannot rattle and must not interfere with
box
Technical Requirement: There must be a positive Gap
Reliability (Level)
Time to install
Total Electricity Usage Req'd for System
Time to Repair
Floor space occupied NO INPUT IN THIS AREA
Sensor Resolution
Response time to power loss
Voltage
Power
Time to supply Backup Power
backup power capacity (time)
Sensor Sensitivity
Floor Loading
Time Between maintenance
Time between equipment replacement
Safety Index Rating
Cost of investment
Cost of maintenace
Cost of installation
Years in Mainstream market
Customer Support Rating
Dependency on weather conditions
ECO-rating
Hours of training req'd
Preferred up dwn dwn dwn dwn dwn dwn tgt tgt dwn dwn tgt dwn up up
Engineering Metrics
Customer Requirements
CustomerWeights
Reliability(Level)
Timetoinstall
TotalElectricityUsageReq'dforSystem
TimetoRepair
Floorspaceoccupied
SensorResolution
Responsetimetopowerloss
Voltage
Power
TimetosupplyBackupPower
backuppowercapacity(time)
SensorSensitivity
FloorLoading
TimeBetweenmaintenance
Timebetweenequipmentreplacement
SafetyIndexRating
Costofinvestment
Costofmaintenace
Costofinstallation
YearsinMainstreammarket
1 Fast Response 9
2 Long time of backup power supply 9
3 Low environmental impact 9
4 Safe to operate 9
5 Meet power requirements 9
6 Low investment cost 3
7 Occupies small floor space 3
8 Easy to upgrade 3
9 Low upgrading costs 3
10 Low time to implement 3
11 Cheap to maintain 3
12 Low recovery or cycle time 3
13 Long life cycle of the system/component 1
14 Cheap to operate 1
15 Cheap to install 1
16 Long Existing proven technology 1
69. • #2 Define the target dimensions (New designs) or process
mean (existing design) for all mating Parts
Gap Must Be T=.011, LSL=.001 and USL = .021
Gap
70. (-) (-) (-) (-)
(+)
Step #3
• Gather process capability data.
• Use actual or similar part data to calculate SS of
largest contributors.
• May use expert data for minimal contributors
• Do not calculate s from current tolerances
Gap Requirements
mT = .010
USL = .020
LSL = .001
73. Design of Experiments (DOE)
To estimate the effects of independent Variables on
Responses.
Terminology
Factor – An independent variable
Level – A value for the factor.
Response - Outcome
X Y
PROCESS
74. THE COFFEE EXAMPLE
Low High
Coffee Brand Maxwell House Chock Full o Nuts
Water Spring Tap
Coffee Amount 1 2
Level
Factor
75. Main Effects: Effect of each individual factor on response
Bean ‘A’ Bean ‘B’
2.2
3.7
ME
77. Why use DoE ?
Shift the average of a process.
Reduce the variation.
Shift average and reduce variation
x1 x2
78. High Low
Adhesion Area (cm2
) 15 20
Type of Glue Acryl Urethan
Thickness of Foam Styrene Thick Thin
Thickness of Logo Thick Thin
Amount of pressure Short Long
Pressure application time Small Big
Primer applied Yes No
Level
Factor
Mini Case - NISSAN MOTOR COMPANY
79. +
+ +
+ +
- -
-
+
+ -
- +
- +
+
-
- +
+ +
- -
-
-
- -
- +
- +
+
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9.8
Design Array
A B C DNo Gluing Str
8.9
9.2
8.9
12.3
13
13.9
12.6
A - Adhesion Area (cm2)
B - Type of Glue
C - Thickness of Foam
Styrene
D - Thickness of Logo
`
A B C D
+ 4.60 5.50 5.65 5.58
- 6.48 5.58 5.43 5.50
Effect Tabulation
80. + - + - + - + -
Adhesion
Area Type of Glue Thk of Foam
Styrene
Thk of logo
Factor Effect Plot
4.6
6.5
5.5
5.58 5.65
5.43
5.58
5
81. 1. Define Objective.
2. Select the Response (Y)
3. Select the factors (Xs)
4. Choose the factor levels
5. Select the Experimental Design
6. Run Experiment and Collect the Data
7. Analyze the data
8. Conclusions
9. Perform a confirmation run.
STEPS IN PLANNING AN EXPERIMENT
83. CONTROL PHASE - SIX SIGMA
Control Phase Activities:
-Confirmation of Improvement
-Confirmation you solved the practical problem
-Benefit validation
-Buy into the Control plan
-Quality plan implementation
-Procedural changes
-System changes
-Statistical process control implementation
-“Mistake-proofing” the process
-Closure documentation
-Audit process
-Scoping next project
84. CONTROL PHASE - SIX SIGMA
How to create a Control Plan:
1. Select Causal Variable(s). Proven vital few X(s)
2. Define Control Plan
- 5Ws for optimal ranges of X(s)
3. Validate Control Plan
- Observe Y
4. Implement/Document Control Plan
5. Audit Control Plan
6. Monitor Performance Metrics
85. CONTROL PHASE - SIX SIGMA
Control Plan Tools:
1. Basic Six Sigma control methods.
- 7M Tools: Affinity diagram, tree diagram, process
decision program charts, matrix diagrams,
interrelationship diagrams, prioritization matrices,
activity network diagram.
2. Statistical Process Control (SPC)
- Used with various types of distributions
- Control Charts
•Attribute based (np, p, c, u). Variable based (X-R, X)
•Additional Variable based tools
-PRE-Control
-Common Cause Chart (Exponentially Balanced
Moving Average (EWMA))
89. CONTROL PHASE - SIX SIGMA
Control Plan Tools:
1. Basic Six Sigma control methods.
- 7M Tools: Affinity diagram, tree diagram, process
decision program charts, matrix diagrams,
interrelationship diagrams, prioritization matrices,
activity network diagram.
2. Statistical Process Control (SPC)
- Used with various types of distributions
- Control Charts
•Attribute based (np, p, c, u). Variable based (X-R, X)
•Additional Variable based tools
-PRE-Control
-Common Cause Chart (Exponentially Balanced
Moving Average (EWMA))
90. How do we select the correct Control Chart:
Type
Data
Ind. Meas. or
subgroups
Normally dist.
data
Interest in
sudden mean
changes
Graph defects
of defectives
Oport. Area
constant from
sample to
sample
X, Rm
p, np
X - RMA, EWMA or
CUSUM and
Rm
u
C, u
Size of the
subgroup
constant
p
If mean is big, X
and R are effective
too
Ir neither n nor p
are small: X - R, X -
Rm are effective
More efective to
detect gradual
changes in long
term
Use X - R chart
with modified rules
VariablesAttributes
Measuremen
t of
subgroups
Individuals
Yes
No No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Defects Defectives
91.
92. Additional Variable based tools:
1. PRE-Control
•Algorithm for control based on tolerances
•Assumes production process with measurable/adjustable
quality characteristic that varies.
•Not equivalent to SPC. Process known to be capable of
meeting tolerance and assures that it does so.
•SPC used always before PRE-Control is applied.
•Process qualified by taking consecutive samples of individual
measurements, until 5 in a row fall in central zone, before 2
fall in cautionary. Action taken if 2 samples are in Cau. zone.
•Color coded
YELLOW
ZONE
GREEN
ZONE
YELLOW
ZONE
RED
ZONE
RED
ZONE
1/4 TOL. 1/2 TOL. 1/4 TOL.
Low
Toleranc
eLimt
Toleranc
eLimt
High
Reference
Line
PRE-Control
DIMENSION
NOMINAL
Reference
Line
PRE-Control
93. 2. Common Causes Chart (EWMA).
•Mean of automated manufacturing processes drifts because of
inherent process factor. SPC consideres process static.
•Drift produced by common causes.
•Implement a “Common Cause Chart”.
•No control limits. Action limits are placed on chart.
•Computed based on costs
•Violating action limit does not result in search for special
cause. Action taken to bring process closer to target value.
•Process mean tracked by EWMA
•Benefits:
•Used when process has inherent drift
•Provide forecast of where next process measurement will be.
•Used to develop procedures for dynamic process control
•Equation: EWMA = y^t + s (yt - y^t) s between 0 and 1
95. Project Closure
•Improvement fully implemented and process re-baselined.
•Quality Plan and control procedures institutionalized.
•Owners of the process: Fully trained and running the process.
•Any required documentation done.
•History binder completed. Closure cover sheet signed.
•Score card developed on characteristics improved and reporting
method defined.
96. The Cost of Quality
The cost of quality is
the cost of conformance or delivering
products that meet requirements and
fitness for use
the cost of nonconformance or taking
responsibility for failures or not meeting
quality expectations
97. Five Cost Categories Related to Quality
Prevention cost: the cost of planning and executing a
project so it is error-free or within an acceptable error
range
Appraisal cost: the cost of evaluating processes and
their outputs to ensure quality
Internal failure cost: cost incurred to correct an
identified defect before the customer receives the
product
External failure cost: cost that relates to all errors not
detected and corrected before delivery to the customer
Measurement and test equipment costs: capital cost of
equipment used to perform prevention and appraisal
activities
98. Maturity Models
Maturity models are frameworks for
helping organization improve their
processes and systems
Software Quality Function Deployment model
focuses on defining user requirements and
planning software projects
The Software Engineering Institute’s
Capability Maturity Model provides a generic
path to process improvement for software
development
Several groups are working on project
management maturity models, such as PMI’s
Organizational Project Management Maturity
Model (OPM3)