The document summarizes three journal entries by a student about cognitive biases: 1) The false consensus effect, where people assume others share their own opinions and behaviors more than they actually do. The student gives examples of making incorrect assumptions about friends' trip preferences. 2) Counterfactual thinking, or imagining how past events could have turned out differently. The student describes taking the wrong bus and experiencing upward counterfactuals about how the situation could have been better. 3) The halo effect, where positive or negative impressions of a person in one area influence judgments of them in other unrelated areas.

1. SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING & DESIGN
FOUNDATION IN NATURAL & BUILT
ENVIRONMENTS (FNBE)
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PSYC0203
ASSIGNMENT 1: JOURNAL
NAME : DANA KAN JIA TORNG
STUDENT ID. : 0323648
SESSION : MONDAY 5.30PM - 7.30PM
INTAKE : MARCH 2015
LECTURER : MR. SHANKAR T.

2. 9 OCTOBER 2015
ENTRY 1: THE FALSE CONSENSUS EFFECT
The situation when we overestimate the number of people that share the same
opinions, beliefs or behaviors as us is called the false consensus effect. As humans,
we quite naturally make quick impressions based on the people around us and the
people we meet. We tend to think it is very easy to predict other people’s attitudes
and behaviors based on the information retrieved from many past experiences
involving both ourselves and others. However, that is not the case in reality. Each
individual is different and entitled to his or hers own thoughts and insights. Only as
we engage in social interactions with people from various backgrounds do we realise
that their opinions differ from our own.

3. Similarly, when we mingle around with people in our first interaction with them,
for example, on the first day of class, we tend to seek out people who have similar
topics of interest and life encounters as us. This will determine whether he or she can
be someone where we can get along with or keep our distance away from, because
we believe they are similar to us. But in actual fact, we most oftenly make the
mistake of generalizing people we meet according to our own beliefs, attitudes and
behaviours. As a type of cognitive bias, false consensus can influence our decisions
and behaviors. People generally believe that their own values and ideas are "normal"
and that the majority of people share these same opinions.
For instance, there was this one time where my high school group of close
friends and I were planning on a trip to somewhere for our holiday break. It was
something we all look forward to since it was our last year together in high school
before each of us move on to different universities after our SPM. We decided to
choose two days during the long semester break in May to have an overnight trip to
somewhere. First of all, we tried to come up with various places that we could go on
a piece of paper and then proceeded to vote. Among the places of interest were
Melaka, Port Dickson, and Genting Highlands. I thought to myself that since we grew
up in the same city, Genting Highlands and Melaka must be those places that we went
to for so many times. I assumed that everyone would most probably not want to go to
Genting Highlands the most as we were just students and the trip there would be
costly. In my mind I decided that Port Dickson was the best as we could play in the
sea, relax and have a cosy barbecue party on the beach with minimum expenses
whilst having enjoyment to the fullest.
To my surprise, the most voted one is Genting Highlands and the least is Port
Dickson! My assumption that everyone would prefer a cheaper and relaxing place on
the beach was wrong as they prefer to go on amusement park rides and enjoy the cool
whether up there even though it would be pricey. One friend of mine even said she
had never been to Genting Highlands before. I felt dejected as what I thought was
common and preferable for me was in fact not the same for my friends. But in the end,
our trip was forced to be canceled as school got in the way of our plans.

4. Another example I can relate the false consensus effect was the encounter I had
when I was in Sunway Pyramid shopping centre. That day, I finished class early and
went there to buy materials needed for my assignment. While I was waiting for my
friend to go shopping with, I was approached by two ladies who were conducting a
survey about Christianity. Thinking it would do no harm by spending a few minutes
helping someone out and killing time while I waited, I agreed to answer their survey
form. They then proceeded to tell me how God was the Almighty One and the
Creator of everything and showed me a 4 minute long video explaining about the
perks of believing in the bible, what God has done for his children and so on. At this
point, I started getting annoyed and queasy. They started to probe me into becoming a
Christian by persuading me to join a a ritual of communion by their church. And
when I politely declined and said I would think about it first, they furrowed their
brows and continued to pester me even more with more aggression saying, “Why
think further? If you believe in God and the bible you should come and learn about it
more. After all, you are an adult now and can decide for yourself right?” At that time,
I was really irritated and felt pressured as if I was choosing a life choice then and
there. Even though it was true that I can make decisions for myself, but I felt it was
not right to suddenly convert myself while my whole family were strong Buddhists.
Just because they think so doesn’t mean that I should agree to it blindly. Hence, we
should not make assumptions that people generally think the way we do.
References:
Dean, J. (2007, November 7). Why We All Stink as Intuitive Psychologists: The False

5. Consensus Effect. Retrieved November 15, 2015, from
http://www.spring.org.uk/2007/11/why-we-all-stink-as-intuitive.php
6 NOVEMBER 2015
ENTRY 2: COUNTERFACTUAL THINKING
Have you ever looked back at past events and
imagined the possibilities about what might have
been had some past choice been different? We have
regretted the choices ever taken, the advice we
neglected, things that we should have done but had no
courage to, or maybe putting in a little more effort
into studying that mid-term test so you could score with flying colours. Thinking
about what might have been, about alternatives to our own pasts, is central to human

6. thinking and emotion. Such thoughts are called counterfactual thoughts.
Counterfactual thinking is literally thinking counter to the facts. We often
contemplate about the “what-ifs” and the “if only”s only to feel more guilty or worse
than we ever did. But sometimes we also do the reverse, thinking about bad things
that did not happen, such as when we narrowly avoid being in an accident, and being
grateful and lucky that it happened this way. These are called upward and downward
counterfactuals; better alternatives are termed upward counterfactuals; worse
alternatives are termed downward counterfactuals. Downward counterfactual
thinking may improve our moods by thinking on a positive note. Sometimes we do it
just to cover up the uncomfortable reality and to help us move on. Upward
counterfactual on the other hand may just do the opposite. Why do we think about it
anyway if it’s not going to change the past? In truth, thinking about what might have
been can help us reflect back on our past choices and in turn regulate our
performance and facilitates improvement in the future. It will leave a mental
impression that “okay, maybe last time because I did this so I failed. This time I
won’t do the same thing again”, so that we do not repeat our mistakes. For this, I
have a recent encounter to illustrate this point.
After a tiring day full of lectures and group meetings, I was going to take the bus
like I usually do. I ran to the bus waiting area thinking that I was late as there was a
change in the schedule. To my surprise, one bus came early by 10 minutes and I
hopped on without hesitating to ask for confirmation as I really wanted to get home
as soon as I could. Alas, when I realised that I took the wrong bus, I was the only one
left on the bus. The bus driver was annoyed at me and proceeded to wait by the
roadside for the other bus that goes to my desired destination. As I was waiting, I
started to get anxious. I called to inform my mother that I took the wrong bus and
would be late reaching home. As I was on the phone, the other bus came by and the
driver pestered me to quickly go down and catch that bus. I suddenly panicked and
was going down the steps of the bus with my phone in my hand when my two legs
just crumpled below me. I felt that I had sprained my ankle and scraped my knee but
immediately got up to run after the other bus, fearing it might leave without me. In

7. the end, I managed to get home safe but I discovered that I had lost my wallet.
This day sums up how bad it was for me as I caught the wrong bus, fell down
and sprained my ankle, and lost my wallet. As I went on to relate the events of this
bad day to my family, I had upward counterfactual thoughts of what might have not
gone wrong if I paid more attention. If only I had asked the driver before boarding
the bus, if only I was mindful when I was getting off the bus then I wouldn’t have lost
my wallet, if only I didn’t panic and had looked at where I was stepping then I
wouldn’t have fell down. If only, if only...
In conclusion, this experience has become a lesson for me to be more aware of
my surroundings and belongings. I realised that although counterfactual thinking
would do nothing to change the fact and consequences of the events happened, it still
wouldn’t hurt to imagine the alternatives and just wistfully thinking that it could have
gone better. However, on some cases, we tend to overthink and that will lead to a
huge impact on our mental health. Some people might have to go through a trauma
and as they replay the unfortunate events in their head, repetitively considering how
their predicament could have been better, which can eventually lead to mental
illnesses. As for me, I would probably think about it for a week and then try to let it
go. What is done, is done, isn’t it?
References:
Moss, S. Psychlopedia Everything Psychology “Counterfactual Thinking” Retrieved
November 29, 2015, from
http://www.psych-it.com.au/Psychlopedia/article.asp?id=401
23 NOVEMBER 2015
ENTRY 3: THE HALO EFFECT
The halo effect is a bias in which our
overall impression of a person colours our
judgement of that person’s character. Also
known as the physical attractiveness stereotype

8. and the "what is beautiful is good" principle, the halo effect, at the most specific level,
refers to the habitual tendency of people to rate attractive individuals more
favourably for their personality traits or characteristics than those who are less
attractive. Beauty, in its various forms, is associated with positive qualities, whether it
is the physical beauty of a person, the way the individual dresses or how enthusiastic
he or she is in the conversation with you. These can all influence us as the observer’s
thoughts and feelings about that individual’s character as a whole.
When we meet someone for the first time, we undoubtedly draw a conclusion
about them. We make a judgement of them of how they generally are like, and quite
subconsciously decide whether we like them or not. Therefore, first impressions play
an impactful role as to see if we are likable or acceptable to others. Several different
studies have found that when we rate people as good-looking, we also tend to believe
that handsome or attractive people possess positive personality traits and are smart.
One study even found that jurors were less likely to believe that attractive people
were guilty of criminal behaviour.
"In the work setting, the halo effect is most likely to show up in a supervisor's
appraisal of a subordinate's job performance. In fact, the halo effect is probably the
most common bias in performance appraisal. Think about what happens when a
supervisor evaluates the performance of a subordinate. The supervisor may give
prominence to a single characteristic of the employee, such as enthusiasm, and allow
the entire evaluation to be coloured by how he or she judges the employee on that one
characteristic. Even though the employee may lack the requisite knowledge or ability
to perform the job successfully, if the employee's work shows enthusiasm, the
supervisor may very well give him or her a higher performance rating than is justified
by knowledge or ability."
(Schneider, F.W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M., Applied Social Psychology,
2012)
The halo effect is also a type of heuristic, a mental short-cut so we can quickly
determine how to perceive others without spending a long time analysing their

9. behaviour. For example, we tend to believe someone who has a baby-face and
dimples is more likely to be a trustworthy and innocent person. I remembered when I
first met one of my best friends in high school. I knew him by sight during primary
school as he stuck out like a sore thumb because he was the only Caucasian in a field
of Chinese students. I was waiting idly outside the school gate when suddenly my
vision was occupied by a head of curly hair. When I looked up, this guy just babbled
something gibberish at me and ran away laughing. His light brown eyes of mischief
and rosy cheeks gave me a first impression as he was such an adorable and
happy-go-lucky person. Years later as during my high school orientation, I discovered
we were in the same school, I was more willing to approach him and befriend him as
I had perceived him to be a likeable character with a bubbly personality since the last
encounter with him. This is an example of the halo effect as it influences the degree
of acceptance of a person through first impressions.
Another common example that displays the halo effect is advertising. Companies
often use celebrities to endorse products in all forms of advertising, as our positive
evaluations of that individual can spread to our perceptions of the product itself.
The halo effect stems from the marketing value gained by associating the product
with the fame of the celebrity. We think positively about the actor because he played
a hero, or the actress because she was made up to look incredibly beautiful, and
assume that they therefore have deep knowledge about car engines or anti-wrinkle
cream.
As a conclusion, we should be more aware of the halo effect, so it does not easily
manipulate our decisions and assumptions about an individual or a product.
References:
Cherry, K. (2014, October 21). What Is the Halo Effect? Retrieved 29 November
2015 from http://psychology.about.com/od/socialpsychology/f/halo-effect.htm
Hindle, T. (2009, October 14). The Halo Effect. Retrieved from The Economist
http://www.economist.com/node/14299211

10. 15 MAY 2015
ENTRY 4: STEREOTYPES, PREJUDICE & DISCRIMINATION: SEXISM
“How many times have I told you? You can’t do that because you are a girl!”--
Is probably how most of the arguments with my mother goes whenever I bring up
things that are deemed to be “unfeminine” by her. Since young, I have been exposed
to and educated about what things are boys that CAN do, and what things are girls
SHOULD do. Sexist attitudes are frequently based on beliefs in traditional
stereotypes of gender roles, and is thus built into many societal institutions. It can be
understood or judged on the basis of the essential characteristics of the group to
which an individual belongs.
Based on the biological traits we are born with, people tend to treat the other
gender differently and unequally. It is not uncommon to spot how people are treated
differently in the modern society. Many cultures still place different expectations and
value on men and women even though there are laws that give special rights,
privileges, or responsibilities to one sex or two sexes. For example, in a workplace,
there is the glass-ceiling effect. This is an unsaid and unwritten policy that some
companies still practice today although it appears subtle. This law inhibits women
and minorities to advance in the corporate world, thus preventing a woman from
being promoted, getting higher opportunities and pay raises. Another example of
sexism or gender discrimination can be portrayed by the dowry custom in India. This
is an extreme gender inequality that demands money, land as form of gifts from the
bride’s family to be accepted into the marital home.

11. Being the youngest and only daughter in a family where I had three older
brothers has led to me having countless of lectures about how different I am than to
my brothers. An example of sexism and gender prejudice that happens in my family
is whenever I was told to do house chores while my brothers can just laze off and
“shake their legs”. There was this one time where I was really caught up with my
upcoming major examinations and homeworks to be done so my room was a mess.
My mother would then nag at me and said how can a girl be so untidy. I realised that
she would always ask me to help her out in the kitchen and with the house chores
while my brother who was not having any exams was exempted from doing all the
work. When I retorted back and said they should be helping out too, she simply
replied, it’s alright for them. But for me, if I don’t learn how to cook and do the house
work I would never find a husband in the future. My brother chipped in and said that
girls shouldn’t study so much as after all I should just marry into a rich man’s family
and spend my sheltered life tending to his needs and doing the housework.
Furthermore, when I asked my parents whether I can walk or cycle to school by
myself when I was 15 or 16 years old like my brothers did (as the school was near to
my house), they instantly refused to let me do so. They said it was dangerous for a
girl to go out anywhere even though it was just a 7 minutes walk to school. I was
even not allowed to go for gatherings with my friends at shopping centres until I was
17. When we were on vacation and I wanted to follow my brothers to go to a
shooting range, I was also not allowed to go as they said it was “a boy thing”.
All these are experiences made me feel that I was given unequal treatment and I
couldn’t be independent because I was seen as the weaker gender and had to be
sheltered for at all times. A person’s cleanliness or tidiness does not depend on their
gender. It is all an individual’s traits and character, not their biological sex. Does it
mean that a man can be as sloppy and untidy as he likes just because he was a guy?
No. That is why I hate to feel that I was not acknowledged for my potentials and
strengths as an individual to achieve success. Instead, I was hindered from spending
time with my brothers just because I am a girl. Thus, I am motivated and determined
to outdo my brothers in becoming a successful individual to prove to them that I as a

12. woman can do it too.
References:
Source: Boundless. “Gender Discrimination.” Boundless Political Science.
Boundless, 21 Jul. 2015. Retrieved 20 Nov. 2015 from
https://www.boundless.com/political-science/textbooks/boundless-political-science-te
xtbook/civil-rights-5/women-s-rights-41/gender-discrimination-232-5479/
Seeger, L. International policy digest. “India’s Dowry Culture” Retrieved 20 Nov
2015 from
http://www.internationalpolicydigest.org/2013/07/30/indias-dowry-culture/

13. 27 NOVEMBER 2015
ENTRY 5: POST-DECISION DISSONANCE
Post-decision dissonance is how after we have
made a decision, we will feel dissonance regarding the
possibility of it being wrong. We will often change our
perceptions to reduce this dissonance and make the
decision seem more attractive. Making choices is part
of our lives. May it be choosing which university to
study at, or even deciding among two different models
of laptop, we simply have to make a decision by the end of the day. It becomes
especially hard to choose when the options available are nearly equivalent.
Nevertheless, once we have made our decision, we have no choice but to accept the
disadvantages of that option and give up the advantages of other, unchosen, options.
Making right and quick decisions is a type of skill to acquire in our daily life.
After making a decision, it is natural for us humans to seek confirmation that what we
have got our eyes on is correct and the right choice. As we worry about the
consequences to face after making that choice, our discomfort triggers us to value the
chosen one more and point out the flaws of rejected option. Being an indecisive

14. person, it was tough for me to choose even the simplest of things. At the beginning of
my last year of highschool, I was to choose between 2 or 3 tuition centres to go to as I
felt that I couldn’t catch up with my studies and needed extra guidance. I researched
on the fees, the teacher, and the choice of subjects for almost 2 weeks. In the end, I
chose tuition centre A as it was where most of my friends go to, and it had great
reputation as the teacher was a past examiner. After attending tuition centre A classes,
I felt I could compare better between tuition centre A and B. I started to find more
advantages of tuition centre A compared to tuition centre B. For example, tuition
centre A had friends that I know of so that whenever I have transportation problems, I
know I can ask them for help; whereas tuition centre B was located further than
tuition centre A. Besides that, even though the teacher at tuition centre A was very
strict and gave us a lot of work to do, it was better as it was a form of practice as the
teacher in tuition centre A was an experienced past examiner rather than B which was
a normal high school teacher. By doing these comparisons to support my decision, I
felt that the degree of dissonance was reduced in this incident and I felt more at ease
thinking that I have made a suitable choice.
Another example to illustrate this point is when I had to choose between
attending a gathering of close high school friends or an outing with university course
mates which clashed on the same day. The level of dissonance was rather high in this
incident as both are appointments I do not wish to miss. One was with old friends
who I haven’t seen for almost a year while another group was people that I would
want to get to know more with. Finally, I had decided to go out with my high school
batch instead. The consonant element which influenced my decision was the reason
that we would not be able to see each other often as all of us are in different
universities. On the other hand, I could still have plenty of opportunities to get to
know my current university course mates. This became the consonant element that
reduced the level of dissonance in my decision making.
To sum it up, according to cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) these
and other factors subconsciously help enhance the options we choose to make us feel
good about our choices. Thus, making a decision can cause dissonance, especially if

15. the chosen and unchosen alternates have similar advantages and if the decision is
important. Dissonance can be reduced by revoking the decision, dwelling on the
benefits of the chosen alternative, stressing the drawbacks of the unchosen option
(frequently people do both of the last two possibilities), or reducing the importance of
the decision. It is possible to influence a decision by providing consonant (or
dissonant) information.
References:
Changing minds. Post decision dissonance, Retrieved 27 November 2015 from
http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/post-decision_dissonance.htm