The document outlines an assignment for students in a psychology course to create a behavior modification program based on theories discussed in class, applying methods of classical and operant conditioning. Students must describe the target behavior, evaluate their progress, and link their program to appropriate behavioral theories while adhering to formatting guidelines. It also discusses ethical considerations in behavioral research and various research designs for measuring behavior.

1. PSYC 281 - Behaviour Assignment Instructions
Students will be responsible for constructing a behaviour
modification program in which you will modify/change some
type of behaviour using the various theories discussed in class.
You can design this program with animal or human subjects and
need not worry about ethical guidelines as we WON’T be
actually conducting the program! Alter the behaviour of your
cat or boyfriend/ girlfriend! Be creative and have fun with the
assignment. Chances are if you enjoy creating and writing it I
will enjoy reading it.
Basic Instructions:
Although this behavioural assignment does not require any
additional information from peer-reviewed publications or
books you are required to include the following information
based on what you have learned throughout the term, both in
lecture and from the textbook.
The Problem/Behaviour: You will start with the description of
the problem behaviour or any behaviour that you will be
modifying. The description should include details of the
behaviour, if it is problematic and what the problem actually is.

2. The remainder of the report will address how, both theoretically
and methodologically, you will be modifying the behaviour or
correcting the problem.
Methods: Using information from class and Chapter 2 of the
textbook, identify and describe the methods you’re using to
evaluate progress in your behaviour modification program,and
explain why those methods are suitable for your particular
program.
Classical and/or Operant Procedures: You will likely be using
some of the classic methods that we’ll discuss in class (and that
are described in the text). Make sure that you are documenting
your procedures and using the terminology correctly. You will
also need to ensure that your reinforcers or conditional and
unconditional stimuli are powerful enough and appropriate for
the situation.
Theoretical Models: This will differ for each program, but keep
in mind that you need to link your program to at least one
behaviourist theory discussed in class or in the textbook. For
some programs it will simply be classical or operant
conditioning, but for other programs there will be specific
models that apply. For example, if you’re doing a self-control
program you will need to discuss the Ainsley-Rachlin model. If
you’re addressing choice behaviour, you will likely discuss
Matching or Melioration theories.

3. Constraints: Every species and every individual has its
limitations so you need to identify those constraints and explain
how you will accommodate them in your program. For example,
if you’re dealing with a dog who eats your shoes you need to
recognize that chewing behaviour is harder for some breeds to
control.
Format Instructions:
1. Please use 12 point Times / Times New Roman font, double-
spaced throughout the paper. The report will be three pages
long.
2. Number the pages of your paper. Use APA formatting for any
citations and for the various title, heading and subheadings
within the report.
8. AGAIN, ASK QUESTIONS! If you are unclear on these
instructions, on what constitutes a
good topic, or anything related to the report come and see me.

4. Animals in Behavioural Research
Main advantages:
1. Control genetic makeup and learning history
2. More strictly control experiment
3. Cannot be ethically conducted on humans
Research Ethics
Potential to inflict harm on or deceive subjects = ethical
concerns
CCAC - Canadian Council on the Care of Animals
The Three Rs
Replacement alternatives avoid or replace the use of animals
Reduction alternatives strategy that results in fewer animals
used
Refinement alternatives modification of procedures to minimize
distress
Silver Spring Monkeys
Research Ethics
Classical Conditioning
Certain innate behaviours come to be produced in new
situations

5. Operant Conditioning
Strengthening or weakening of a behaviour as a result of its
consequences
E.G. emotional responses and likes or dislikes
(fear, sexual arousal)
E.G. goal directed, voluntary
(studying, complimenting)
Notation for Conditioning Diagrams
Bell: Food
Colon = the events occur in sequence
Bell: Food
sound of the bell is followed by presentation of food
Arrow = events also occur in sequence BUT one causes the
other
presentation of food causes the dog to salivate
Food Salivation Bell Salivation
Bell Salivation
Bell: Food Salivation

6. Bell is presented just before the food, and the food in turn
cause the dog to salivate
Then the presentation of the bell itself now causes the dog
to salivate
Lever press Food pellet
The pressing of the lever results in the consequence of
availability of food
**Target behaviour is in italics
Elicited Behaviours
And Classical Conditioning
Chapter 3
1. Elicited Behaviours
Reflexes
2. Mechanisms of Learning
3. Classical Conditioning
Pavlov
Basic Procedures
Elicited Behaviour
Elicit is to draw out or bring forth

7. 1. Behaviour is automatic
2. Drawn out by particular stimulus
Basic form is a REFLEX
Reflex.........
simple automatic response to stimulus
Can involve a few or many coordinated muscle movements
E.G. Startle Response
E.G. Acoustic startle
response in mice
E.G. Orienting Response
A movement response to novelty
E.G. Flexion Response
Reflex arc is the neural structure
underlying reflexes

8. Consists of......
1. Sensory neuron
2. Interneuron
3. Motor neuron
E.G. Patellar Reflex
1. quadricep stretches - sensory neuron
2. motor neuron - tightens quadricep
3. interneuron - inhibits and relaxes
hamstring
Research Methods
Chapter 2
1. Basic Term Review
2. Measuring Behaviour
3. Various Research Designs
4. Animal Research
Measuring Behaviour - Recording Methods
1. Rate of response - often called frequency
# of behavioural responses per unit time
2. Intensity - magnitude of the behavioural response

9. 3. Duration - length of time that behaviour is performed
Total duration = total length of performance
Mean duration = accumulation of several performances
4. Latency - length of time required for behaviour to begin
5. Interval Recording - if a behaviour occurs within a set
interval
6. Time-Sample Recording - if a behaviour occurs within a
series of
intervals
Research Designs
WE know the variables to use..............how to measure
them.......HOW
do we organize it all?
Descriptive Research
‣simply describing behaviour
‣NO manipulation
A. Naturalistic Observation
Stone Handling in Macaques
B. Case Studies

10. Correlational!
Research Designs
Experimental Research
‣looking for cause and effect relationships
‣manipulation of independent variable
A. Control Groups Design
One group = treatment
One group = no treatment
A. Control Groups Design
Comparative design between species
Research Designs
A. Control Groups Design
Disadvantages
‣averages across MANY individuals
‣need large sample sizes
‣comparisons across species may not be accurate
B

11. Research Designs
Experimental Research
B. Single-Subject Designs -
requires one or only a few subjects
Simple Comparison Design:
baseline vs. treatment
A
Research Designs
Experimental Research
B. Single-Subject Designs
Reversal Design: repeated alternations between
baseline and treatment
B
A
B
A
Two-Treatment Reversal Design: repeated
alternations between baseline and treatment
B

12. A
Treatment 1
Treatment 2
C
A
C
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
1. Behaviour MUST revert to baseline
2. Long-lasting effects will confuse results
3. Ethical considerations
Alternatives???
1. Entire experiment with one subject
2. Generalization is possible with additional subjects
3. Can assess effectiveness of treatment
Research Designs
Experimental Research
C. Multiple-Baseline Design - treatment started
successively for two or more people/behaviours

13. Baseline
Treatment Week 2Treatment Week 1
Baseline
Treatment Week 3
No WITHDRAWING!
Baseline
Research Designs
Experimental Research
D. Changing-Criterion Design - measures a gradual
change over time
10 smokes/day
FOR 3 DAYS
Baseline
12 smokes/day
8 smokes/day
FOR 3 DAYS
6 smokes/day
FOR 3 DAYS
Animals in Behavioural Research
Main advantages:

14. 1. Control genetic makeup and learning history
2. More strictly control experiment
3. Cannot be ethically conducted on humans
Research Ethics
Potential to inflict harm on or deceive subjects = ethical
concerns
CCAC - Canadian Council on the Care of Animals
The Three Rs
Replacement alternatives avoid or replace the use of animals
Reduction alternatives strategy that results in fewer animals
used
Refinement alternatives modification of procedures to minimize
distress
Silver Spring Monkeys
Research Ethics
Elicited Behaviours
And Classical Conditioning
Chapter 3
1. Elicited Behaviours

15. Reflexes
2. Mechanisms of Learning
3. Classical Conditioning
Pavlov
Basic Procedures
Elicited Behaviour
Elicit is to draw out or bring forth
1. Behaviour is automatic
2. Drawn out by particular stimulus
Basic form is a REFLEX
Reflex.........
simple automatic response to stimulus
Can involve a few or many coordinated muscle movements
E.G. Startle Response
E.G. Acoustic startle
response in mice

16. E.G. Orienting Response
A movement response to novelty
E.G. Flexion Response
Reflex arc is the neural structure
underlying reflexes
Consists of......
1. Sensory neuron
2. Interneuron
3. Motor neuron
E.G. Patellar Reflex
1. quadricep stretches - sensory neuron
2. motor neuron - tightens quadricep
3. interneuron - inhibits and relaxes
hamstring
Research Methods
Chapter 2
1. Basic Term Review

17. 2. Measuring Behaviour
3. Various Research Designs
4. Animal Research
Basic Term Review
Manipulation of......VARIABLES
1. Independent: condition/event that is manipulated
2. Dependent: affected by manipulation (i.e. dependent upon the
independent)
INDEPENDENT
VARIABLES
DEPENDENT
VARIABLE:
Rival male invaders
Relationship between
variables is functional
Basic Term Review
1. Stimulus: condition/event that can influence behaviour
2. Response: the instance of behaviour in response

18. Basic Term Review
1. Overt: behaviour that can be directly observed
2. Covert: internal subjective behaviour that only the actor
knows of
Basic Term Review
1. Appetitive Stimulus: event/condition that is actively sought
2. Aversive Stimulus: event/conditions that is actively avoided
Often referred to as:
Pleasant and
Unpleasant Stimuli
Appetitive
Aversive
Appetitive & Aversive events......depend on the state of the
event

19. Establishing Operation
Two types.......
1. Deprivation: prolonged absence of event that increases
appetitive
behaviour
Establishing Operation
2. Satiation: prolonged exposure to event that decreases
appetitive
behaviour
Basic Term Review
1. Contiguity: closeness or nearness........
Temporal contiguity..........events occur close together in time
Spatial contiguity............events occur close to each other in
space
2. Contingency: one event predicts and other event
Basic Term Review
1. Contiguity: closeness or nearness........
Temporal contiguity..........events occur close together in time

20. Spatial contiguity............events occur close to each other in
space
2. Contingency: one event predicts and other event
Measurement of Behaviour
Definition of Behaviour................ETHOGRAM
Use of unambiguous terms with no function applied
e.g. Aggression
Measurement of Behaviour
Recording Methods.......several ways to record behaviour
1. Rate of response - often called frequency
# of behavioural responses per unit time
60 presses in 30 min
= 2/min
Cumulative recorder

21. Measurement of Behaviour
Recording Methods.......several ways to record behaviour
2. Intensity - magnitude of the behavioural response
Amount of saliva
produced
2. Intensity - magnitude of the behavioural response
Measured also via local rate
# of behaviours per unit
time
Measurement of Behaviour
Recording Methods.......several ways to record behaviour
3. Duration - length of time that behaviour is performed
Total duration = total length of performance
*best expressed as a proportion
Mean duration = accumulation of several performances

22. Measurement of Behaviour
Recording Methods.......several ways to record behaviour
4. Latency - length of time required for behaviour to begin
Measurement of Behaviour
Recording Methods.......several ways to record behaviour
5. Interval Recording - if a behaviour occurs within a set
interval
*NOT how many occurred in the interval!
e.g. Aggression
- 200min @ 10 min intervals
- 20 intervals
- aggression in 16 intervals
= 80% incidence
Measurement of Behaviour
Recording Methods.......several ways to record behaviour
6. Time-Sample Recording - if a behaviour occurs within a
series
of intervals

23. e.g. Aggression
- 8 hour monkey day
- every hour/10 min interval
- aggression in 5 intervals
= 62.5% incidence
The “Evolution” of Learning
Charles Darwin
‣modification by descent
‣no lower or higher species
‣NATURAL SELECTION
Set in MOTION a sensible, superior
theory
“continuity between species”
Variation
Transmission
Competition
Behaviourism = study only observable behaviour
Stimulus-response: input from the environment =
behavioural response

24. Classic Example: Pavlov’s dog
What is Behaviourism?
Schools of Behaviourism
Methodological Behaviourism = only observable
behaviour
Waton’s ideas on stimulus-response
Conscious
thoughts & feelings
Unconscious drives
& motives
Environmental
Events
Observable
Behaviour
Internal Events
Schools of Behaviourism
Hull’s Neobehaviourism = utilizes intervening variables
Clark Hull’s also a pure stimulus-response theorist
Internal
psychological

25. processes
Environmental
Events
Observable
Behaviour
Intervening Variables
For example; Hunger
Is the ‘concept of hunger’ measureable?
Schools of Behaviourism
Cognitive Behaviourism = overall pattern directed at an
outcome
Edward Tolman had a more molar or gestalt theory
Internal cognitive
processes
Environmental
Events
Observable
Behaviour
Internal Events

26. Cognitive Map & Latent Learning
e.g. Driving to school
Schools of Behaviourism
Social Learning Theory = emphasizes observational
learning
Albert Bandura also had a more molar theory
Thoughts &
Feelings
Environmental
Events
Observable
Behaviour
Internal Events
*person variables
Social Learning Theory..........................lead Bandura to the
concept of
RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM
Schools of Behaviourism

27. Radical Behaviourism = emphasizes environmental
influence, rejects internal events.......AND thoughts
need to be explained
B. F. Skinner includes internal events but does not use
them to describe behaviour
Thoughts & Feelings
Environmental
Events
Observable
Behaviour
B. F. Skinner includes internal events but does not use
them to describe behaviour...............because
ORDER is unknown
e.g.
Emergency Feelings of concern Provide help
Feelings of
concernProvide helpEmergency
Feelings of
concern
Provide help
Emergency

28. B. F. Skinner therefore felt environment ULTIMATELY
determines
both external behaviour and internal events.
Thoughts &
Feelings
Environmental
Events
Observable
Behaviour
Internal Events
*private behaviours
Schools of Behaviourism
B. F. Skinner and the stimulus-response system
S-R chains = reflexive, classical conditioning
Operant = controlled by consequences
Environmental
Events
Observable
Behaviour
Genetic Factors = not all behaviour is nutured, some is built
in.......
“Operant conditioning is similar to natural selection”

29. Different Views in Europe.....ETHOLOGY
Konrad Lorenz (1940’s)
•instinct and imprinting
•1963 met Niko Tinbergen
•won Noble Prize with Tinbergen & Von Frisch
Different Views in Europe.....ETHOLOGY
Niko Tinbergen (1950-1960’s)
•cognition and behaviour
•The Study of Instinct 1951
•pioneered “four questions”
•Causation, Development, Function, Evolution
Research Methods
Chapter 2
1. Basic Term Review
2. Measuring Behaviour
3. Various Research Designs
4. Animal Research

30. Basic Term Review
Manipulation of......VARIABLES
1. Independent: condition/event that is manipulated
2. Dependent: affected by manipulation (i.e. dependent upon the
independent)
INDEPENDENT
VARIABLES
DEPENDENT
VARIABLE:
Rival male invaders
Relationship between
variables is functional
Basic Term Review
1. Stimulus: condition/event that can influence behaviour
2. Response: the instance of behaviour in response
Basic Term Review
1. Overt: behaviour that can be directly observed

31. 2. Covert: internal subjective behaviour that only the actor
knows of
Basic Term Review
1. Appetitive Stimulus: event/condition that is actively sought
2. Aversive Stimulus: event/conditions that is actively avoided
Often referred to as:
Pleasant and
Unpleasant Stimuli
Appetitive
Aversive
Appetitive & Aversive events......depend on the state of the
event
Establishing Operation
Two types.......
1. Deprivation: prolonged absence of event that increases
appetitive
behaviour

32. Establishing Operation
2. Satiation: prolonged exposure to event that decreases
appetitive
behaviour
Basic Term Review
1. Contiguity: closeness or nearness........
Temporal contiguity..........events occur close together in time
Spatial contiguity............events occur close to each other in
space
2. Contingency: one event predicts and other event