Groups can be classified as either common bond or common identity based on whether members are united by an overall goal or shared status. Common bond groups are united by goals, like professional groups, while common identity groups are linked more by a shared status, like a university class. Groups influence norms and expectations, which impact behaviors within the group. There are various ways groups can be organized, including physical interactions, geographical proximity, and formal vs informal membership. Group prototypes represent core group values, while marginal members may not fully identify. Social identity theory proposes that people derive self-esteem from feeling their ingroup is superior to outgroups. Deindividuation theory suggests losing one's identity in a group can lead to antisocial behaviors due

1. Basic theory:
What are groups
Groups are collections of people, formed to satisfy common goals or needs. They can be
classified as common bond or common identity based on whether the organizing
characteristics uniting individuals within a group revolve around the goal or status. In
common bond groups individuals are united by an overall collective of goals, with examples
including professional groups and podcast groups. In contrast, common identity groups
involve individuals being linked by a status more than a goal. An example of this would be a
class of students at university.
The difference between common bond and common identity groups and other group defined
characteristics are important to clarify because can influence the way individuals relate to
each other in a group. This is because the goals and relative status of a group can influence
norms and expectations which in turn group includes group behavior (Johnson and Johnson
1987 as cited in week 1 PSY4030 lectures) are. For example, in a common identity group
such as a class of students, the students may not know each other or want to know each
other because their individual grades are independent on each other and there is no one
shared goal. In contrast in a common bond goal such as professional groups individuals are
more likely to interact with each other and know each other because there is shared goal,
but all group members need to act to achieve.
How are groups organized:
There are a variety of different ways groups can be characterized. These include physical
and visually observable characteristics and geographical organization. For example, some
groups such as hospital workers physically interact with each other. In contrast groups such
as university students may be geographically dispersed around the country because of
coded or be dispersed if the students belong to an online based university such as open
University. groups can also be classified as formal or informal depending upon whether the
membership is based on survival-oriented objectives or informal more latent objectives such
as member satisfaction. This is important because groups based around survival-oriented
objectives can be more likely to be atavistic and get a confrontation.
A paper by (Marsh 2017) list some examples of common group-based goals. These include
1) security 2) social 3) esteem 4) proximity 5) attraction ad 6) being ordered to by someone.
It also highlights some of the different ways groups try to achieve these goals. These are 1)
representation 2) teaching 3) fighting for a common cause 4 orientation 5) creation of a
social life and 6) collective thinking. It is also important to recognise individuals within the
group often interact in different ways and feel different explicit and implicit role similar to
achieve these goals. Psychologists believe but some these individual processes have
systematic elements to them which are elaborated on by (Asch et al. ).
Norms and expectations often key to the underlying structure of the group. Norms can be
defined as attitudinal and behavioral uniformities that define group membership and
differentiate between groups. Social norms can take on the form of implicit or explicit rules
and abide by governing behaviors values and beliefs. Explicit norms can take the form of
specific rules enforced by legislation and sanctions such as dress codes in groups such as
the Armed Forces. Implicit norms can take on the form of rules regarding everyday
interactions are often taking for granted. These include cleaning your plates were living in a

2. shared flat, being polite and looking presentable. According to, (Callaghan et al.
2010)norms can be divided and categorized into the differe
A well-known theory known as social contract theory categorizes norm form of social
contracts but can be derived from different sources. They read lists three levels of social
contract with each level reflecting a different source from which social contracts norms can
be derived. Level 1 social contracts are explicitly based on conversation or instruction. Level
2 social contracts are those based on inferences and interpretations. Level III social
contracts on those based on assumptions and past experiences ( (Lau ) and (Callaghan et
al. 2010)). These are 1) managing agency and individual behavior in social environments 2)
legitimizing organization behaviour whether it is substantive or symbolic, 3) legal/regulatory
enforcement (e.g., societal enforcement behavior) and 4) Economic.
Norms can also be thought about as stereotypes or generalizations between groups,
although not all norms are stereotypes and literature different illicit difference between the
two. Stereotypes are usually negatively stick and generalized whereas norms usually solve a
different function and are often back to make social conduct and important tasks more
efficient although some norms are informed by stereotypes. Both norms and stereotypes are
thought to make socialization it easier providing a frame of reference that allows an
individual to take context into account and therefore specify the most appropriate
behaviors and expressions.
It is important to highlight that in some cases stereotypes are positivistic and can
work to the advantage of the individuals the start-up refers to and the disadvantage
of those that lie outside of the stereotypes frame of reference. An example of this is
the rap industry where it was previously commonly thought that only that rap was a
predominantly black industry although times have changed. An example of this is the

3. Jewish rapper Lil’ Dickie who became a successful rapper despite coming from a
relatively privileged background. This privileged background went against some of
the stereotypes running the rap industry that rap was about individuals with major
problems coming out and speaking about my pain.
Expectations are not a second way in which groups can be organized. One-way
expectations expressed itself implicitly is using roles which are either formal or
social. Roles can be defined as patterns of behavior exhibited by group members
that complement the patterns of behaviors exhibited by other group members. Roles
are believed to serve at least for purposes within a group:
1) Indicate the division of labor within the group
2) highlight the responsibilities and expectations of each group member
3) outline appropriate ways to group members to be able to relate to each other
4) provide a basis for self-definition and consideration of individuals pay lace in a
group which means that they have potential for enormous impact on identity and
concept of self. For example, being a mother might make someone happy but may
also be negative if they typecast himself.
Group prototype considerations:
A third more theoretical way of analyzing the structure of individuals within the
groups revolves around what prototypical group member looks like. Prototypical
group member defined as a member who embodies the core values of the groups
although they may not meet all group norms. Prototypical group members may or
may not make up the bulk of the group’s. Groups are also made up of marginal
group members who may not fully identify with the group and may not be considered
true or full members of the group by other prototypical individuals or marginal group
members. This is important because it allows such as a way to conceptualize
intragroup behavior by considering how individuals think about the membership of
others. For example, in the case of racist some individuals believe that those of
certain ethnicities should not be able to be allowed to be British ( (Marquez & Paez,
1994) & (Marquez, Yzerbyt, & Leyens, 1988) as cited in week 1 PSY4030 lectures).
The term intragroup behavior refers to the behavior of individuals within a group to
each other, whereas the time intragroup behavior refers to the behaviors of
individuals between groups. Stunning group interactions are important to find out
why we treat others in a certain way and tackle issues such as racism and explain
why violence can occur between groups.
Social identity theory and social categorization:

4. The socio-cognitive process known as socio- categorization is thought to be
significant to the study of intergroup processes. Social categorizations refer to a
mode of thinking where we make assumptions and generalizations about groups and
individuals within them in order to divide them into certain categories Based on
similarity similarities under different distinctions. This is thought to make social
processes more efficient because individuals rarely have all the facts and sometimes
it is important that socio-cognitive processes are quick because individual sometimes
must make quick evaluations and judgements such as the trustworthiness, and
character of others. This could also imply that it we tend to see individuals as being
descended from a category first before thinking about an individual as a entity of
their own. However, these cognitive shortcuts based on assumptions and
generalizations can often be incorrect faulty and inflexible and therefore it to us to be
inconsiderate of others or potentially voluntarily or unknowingly discriminatory.
The theory known as social identity theory explains intragroup behavior on the basis
of how social evaluative processes of categorizations influences the latent factor of
self-esteem. The theory was created by (Tajfel & Turner 1986) and the underlying basis of
this theory is that we often compare the groups that we are part of and not part off which
forms part of our social identity and our self-esteem is increased when we feel or think that
the “groups that we are part referred to as ingroups” or better than the groups that we are
not part of which are referred to as out groups.
The theory heavily assumes that social membership and identity are heavily associated with
self-esteem and that we often become members of groups in order to feel okay, right more
acceptable so that we can have a positive self-concept. So for example some individuals
often want to become part of the police force not only because them for money but also so
that others perceive them as tough, intellectual and strong. In essence we ideally like to
belong to high status or reputable groups so that we are perceived as more socially defined
and superior. Furthermore, in order to feel more socially defined and distinct research
suggests that when two groups are of equal status then they often like to create some
positive distinctness against equal status groups.
One justification for the assumptions of this theory is that individuals like to have solid
boundaries regarding the social and personal identity and this is achieved by trying to make
themselves and the groups they are part of more concrete and distinct. This can be
beneficial because knowing where one self-concept identity can make it easi to manage
responsibilities, obligations and makes social interactions be perceived as more predictable
and therefore less stress provoking
Social identity theory predicts that low status groups are likely to act behaviourally because
this perception of low status and reputation during social evaluation will create a low sense
of self-esteem and social identity. According to further research individuals can act in a
multitude of ways which correlates to the legitimacy stability and permeability of what
individuals perceived to be the underlying reason for the low social status.
If, membership is permeable meaning that the individual can easily join other high status
groups than that maybe one individual is likely to do. In contrast if group membership is not
permeable and the individuals within a group perceive that the reason for this low status is
discrimination and is therefore a legitimate than the group may utilise activism or the
individual may try to join activist groups, will become creative by creating music in order to
change this or in some scenarios create alliances with other groups. Different situations are
more likely to arise and sign scenarios and others. For example an individual receiving
embarrassment due to having status such as a man in a knitting group may change

5. hobbies very easily if this causes low self-esteem. In contrast individuals who are
part of ethnic group memberships are more likely to act in a atavistic manner or
become creative because they cannot change that entity or skin colour
although the dimensions of legitimacy permeability and stability correlate highly in
predicting the behaviour of low status groups there are a variety of individual
contextual differences also need to be considered. These include narcissism,
personality and value differences different worldviews and tolerance of uncertainty
and psychological resilience and the interactions from the membership of multiple
groups. For example an individual who received embarrassment due to being part of
a knitting club may not change if they are not very likely to run into individuals who
view them negatively being part of a knitting club or alternatively may not change if
they find the skills gained from being part of the club to be functionally useful to
themselves, or perceive the boredom associated graph but whilst Lovell with not
being part of the knitting club to be even worse.
Predicting violence in groups:
Research suggests that individual individuality is separate from group membership.
This is important to consider because individuality and one's own agency can
account for the complexity of social behavior in and between groups and also explain
why some group members become hostile. According to deindividuation theory
which originates from Carl Yung 1946 individuation is a process of self-differentiation
and people refrain from primal behavior on their own but in crowds it is not so easily
identified and people revert to antisocial behavior. Zimbardio 1970 as cited in the
week 1 PSy4030 lecture slides identifies a reason for this. He believed that
deindividuation occurred because belonging to a large group can allow an individual
to have a cloak of anonymity and diffused responsibility and therefore less likely to
be negatively socialized. This is because in large crowds individuals can lose their
personal identity and therefore may not be picked out so easily and this therefore
leads to a deindividuated state of disinhibition.
A model for deindividuation is outlined by (Festinger et al. 1952 as cited in week 1
PSY4030. According to this model deindividuation is caused by changes in
environmental conditions which in turn lead to reduced self-awareness and then
deindividuation. Deindividuation has also been characterized into five facets by
festingers model. These are 1) Weakened restraints against impulsive behavior 2)
Increased sensitivity to immediate cues and current emotional states 3) Inability to
monitor and regulate on’s own behavior, 4) Lessened concern about evaluation by
others and 5) Lowered ability to engage in rational planning.

6. Research suggests that deindividuation can also be effected by the clothes one is
weared and situational context. Furthermore it also shows that in some situations
deindividuation is not always bad. For example Festinger, Pepitone and Newcombe
(1952 as cited in PSY4030 week 1 lecturers) found that participants in grey lab coats
in a dimly lit room made more negative comments about their parents than
participants under “normal” conditions. With regard to festinger's model it is possible
that they gray lab coat and dim lighting may have subconsciously made the
participants feel more anonymous and okay with ambivalent emotions because grey
is a colour associated with ambiguity. Furthemore wearing lab court may have made
the individual think more from the role of a scientist, with the scientist role being
attributed to studying things objectively without embarrassment or shame. For
examples gynecologists who sometimes wear lab coats can be male and examine
the female vagina professionally without judgement and shame regarding
themselves and others who do not see it as a violation of sexual norms because it is
part of a beneficial healthcare process. Likewise a person in a grey lab coat may be
more willing to talk more negatively about their parents because since they are in a
lab coats others may assume that it is part of a professional sanctioned study and
therefore be less likely to judge them and also use that information to their
detrimental due to medical ethics and legal protections often associated with
professions. Evidence for this can be seen in a study by Singer, Brush, & Lublin
(1965) (as cited in week 1 introduction to psychology lecture) who found that
participants discussing erotic literature using more obscene language when
discussing literature than when not.

7. Another famously cited study when reading about deindividuation is the famous
Zimbardo (1970) study. This found evidence also supporting the significance of
status or perceived or actual role on the concept of deindividuation. Firstly, the study
found that students wearing a white hood similar to the KKK hood were willing to
give shocks to a “learner that was twice that of those not wearing a hood. Secondly,
inj the famous Stanford prison experiment students who deindividuated as prison
guards were more willing to treat prisoners in more brutal and demeaning ways.
Social identity theory further reading:
1) Social identity theory and personal identity conflict, social media, perceived social
value and social exchange theory, perceived social support, propensity of trust, trust
as a personality consideration, four behavioural dimensions, integrity – trust –
benevolence and ability considerations, relational embeddedness, social exchange
theory (love, status information, money good ad services).
Social identity theory is a theory developed by (Tajfel and Turn 1979 as cited in
unveilingtheantecedents). The theory articulates how the process of social
categorization and depersonalization occur when individuals look at the social
groups in social identity (Tajfel 1972 as cited in Shi et al, 2016). The theory defined
social identity as an individuals perception of similarity to an ingroup membership
and an emotional attachment or sense of belonging to the community with most
individuals having two identities; personal and social identity. Social identity is
divided up into sub portions such as cognitive elements of social categorization with

8. examples including political orientations, social status, interests, hobbies and
activities (Turn et al, 1982 as cited in Shi et al, 2016). The theory is important
because it provided a basis for investigations and predicating social engagement
and behaviours on the basis of interact and/or reciprocal social processes. The
theory has three dimensions which are cognitive (social categorization) , affective (in
terms of belonging and attachment) and evaluative (relating to self-value, importance
and contribution) (Dholakia et a. 2004 as cited in Chi et al. 2016) .
The theory makes some assumptions about the nature of social relationships and
how this shapes an individual's perceptions. One assumption is that meaningful
behaviours are important to group membership and this can cause individuals to act
with group notions of appropriateness so that their behaviour reflects social norms
and values within a social context. The theory itself is quite generalized and
therefore does not explicitly talk about moderating variables and contextual factors
which research has consistently shown. This includes 1) the nature of community
interests 2) Sense of affiliation. Outcome factors include 1) The stability of
relationships.
Social identity, has various definition. In the context of social media communities it is
an individual's psychological perception of identity consistency with other members
and personal attachment to the community. Social identity theory says that this
develops as part of a self-categorization process which individuals making decisions
and choices regarding social engagement. Meaning and congruence with personal
identity abd exoectations is more likely to enhance positive decision about
engagement, and performance (as cited in Chi et al. 2016).
Perceived social support is a theory that considers how differences in cognitive appraisals
will impact how individuals relate to others and the social resources they belief are available
to them (Barrera 1986 as cited in Chi et al. 2016). According to this theory social support can
take place one of three ways such as 1) informational support in the form of suggestion,
advice, feedback, explanation, and useful information, 2) informational support in the form of
intimacy, affection, empathy, encouragement, and acceptance and 3) community support
such as protection, resources and belonging. Social media is thought to demonstrate the
following major impacts 1) making access to groups and resources not previously easily
available 2) impacting social value and 3) utilizing different traits compared to normal
interactions.
Propensity of Trust is a psychological factor that recognizes that individuals have differing
intuitive willingness to trust another regardless of the credibility and quality of information
about others (Fraizer et al. 2013 as cited in Chi et al. 2016). According to (Mayer et al. 1995
as cited in Chi et al. 2016 it is a stable personality trait that develops from an individual's
personal characteristics and experience and according to McKnight et al. (2002) it effects an
individual's ability to personally innovate.

9. The theory makes some assumptions about the nature of social relationships and
how this shapes an individual's perceptions. One assumption is that meaningful
behaviors are important to group membership and this can cause individuals to act
with group notions of appropriateness so that their behavior reflects social norms
and values within a social context. The theory itself is quite generalized and
therefore does not explicitly talk about moderating variables and contextual factors
which research has consistently shown. This includes 1) the nature of community
interests 2) Sense of affiliation. Outcome factors include 1) The stability of
relationships.
Perceived social value is a variable that is similar to (Schwartz's definition of values ;
Schwartz 1992: 2006 as cited in Chi, et al 2016) and is a theory that can be used
when social value exchanges are important in line with social exchange theory.
According to this theory it's the extent to which individuals perceive the desirable
goals and utility of an item and action with relevance to their well-being (Kim et al,
2011 as cited in Chi et al.).
There are four definitions 1) Hedonic value or sensuous gratification that usually take
the form of experiential feelings and emotional states 2)Cognitive value such as
information, knowledge, experience and expertise that can be influenced by an
individual's judgment, awareness, reasoning and perception. 3) Personal value such
as improvement of personal image, self-esteem, community acceptance and
recognition and 4) Relational enhancement with specific individuals or sub groups
within a group. (mnemonic cognitive personal relation hedonic and sensual).
Social identity has various definition. In the context of social media communities, it is
an individual's psychological perception of identity consistency with other members
and personal attachment to the community. Social identity theory says that this
develops as part of a self-categorization process in which individuals making
decisions and choices regarding social engagement. Meaning and congruence with
personal identity abd expectations is more likely to enhance positive decision about
engagement, and performance (as cited in Chi et al. 2016).
Social media and social communities demonstrate novel applications for social identity
theory because many contextual factors are different and do not have the same boundaries
such as time, location and distance. Furthermore, there is a greater degree of difference in
the asymmetric distributions of "information, knowledge and social resources in comparison
to the physical world (Shi et al. 2016).

10. Many theories explain behavior in terms of it being rational, and having personal intentions
and environmental motivations behind them (Triandis, 1980 as cited in Chi et al. 2016).
However this is not always through and therefore social media engagement is recognized as
being cognitive, conscious and passionate , which in turn allows for non-rational and intuitive
behaviors to be recognized. It is wrong to think that non-rational behavior are always
deterimental and cannot be predicted.
This type of behaviour can be predicted by behaviour such as time, information, knowledge,
interests and feelings with interactions ranging from emotional to less rational. Four
behavioural dimensions are also outlined by the theory which are: 1) Affective engagement
with concerns a feeling of accomplishment, emotional pleasure and enjoyment 2) Conscious
and cognitive engagement towards goals with clear and efficient approaches 3) interactions
and reciprocal engagement of sharing, learning and exchanging social values and 4)
Supportive engagement in giving/recieving personal feedback, advice, suggestion,
endorsing problem-solving and socializing personal connections to enhance membership
and relational bonds (as cited in chi et al. , 2016).
Community trust outlines that trust is a significant factor affecting how individuals
interact, exchange and try to accomplish personal goals and needs. This can be
measure on two dimensions which a 1) an individuals propensity to trust and intuitive
willingess to trust others and trustworthiness of fllow memberships. Trust itself is
thought to involve 3 dimensions which are 1) integrity (honest and ethical), 2)
benevolence (good intentions and care) and ability (trustee's compentence and skill)
(as cited in Chi et al. 2016)
Relational embeddedness is about the quality and strength of social ties in social
networks, structures and environments (Granovetter 1985 as cited in Chi et al.
2016).
In these instances factors such as personal feelings, interpersonal relationship, gratitude,
and unspecified relationships are more likely to play a role (Blau, 1964 as cited in Shi et al.
2016). Although utilitarian goals and monetary value applies to many groups with concrete
prices and returns expected between groups, group membership can also be open-ended
and overlap with personal identity allowing for trust, affective, commitment, relational
contracts and long-term reciprocity to play a role.

11. Useful pictures:
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Ffigure%
2FSocial-identity-and-knowledge-integration_fig1_220195694&psig=AOvVaw0F-
HoU0rOX19EQioALu2Y0&ust=1654252425145000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=2ahUKE
wjJmtDSyI74AhWHLsAKHZlNC4gQjhx6BAgAEAw
Shi, Xinping, Jonathan T. L. Liu, and Ibrahim Sirkeci. 2016. “BAM2016 Unveiling the
Antecedents and Consequences of Social Media Engagement and Community
Trust.” In The British Academy of Management Annual Conference. unknown.
http://dx.doi.org/.
Paper 2: Paper 2: From political opponents to
enemies? The role of perceived moral distance
in the animalistic dehumanization of the
political group (
Dehumanisation, morality, moral distance, younger people less likely to engage in
dehumanistic behaviour, procedural safeguards, morality, identity defining , group dynamic,
intergroup functioning, dehumanization, objectification, mechanization, demonization and
animalisation)
This is a
paper by (Pacilli et al. 2015). The paper is titled From political opponents to
enemies? The role of perceived moral distance in the animalistic dehumanization
of the political group. The full names of the researchers involved are
Maria Giuseppina Pacilli,1Michele Roccato,2Stefano Pagliaro3and Silvia Russo.
The purpose of the paper is as follows:
·
Analyze the relationship among political
identity, ‘s faith and secular moral distance between the group and
contribute to the limitations implications and possible
developments from this analysis
·
Look at how morality contributes to the
likelihood of dehumanization and minimisation of our groups.
·
Answer three hypotheses: It is this piece of
research which led the researchers to believe that level of animalistic
dehumanization related to the moral distance between in group and out group

12. (hypothesis 1) and out group animalistic dehumanization (Hypothesis 2).
·
This in turn mediated by perceived moral distance
(Hypothesis 3)
·
Analyze two correlational (Study 1, N = 99) and
experimental study (Study 2, N = 96). The correlational study revealed a
positive correlation of in group identification, and the
experimental study revealed the salience of in re
membership degree to which participants were dehumanized
Results of the studies
Experiment 1: Cross sectional: Correlational study:
Experiment 1 correlational study. After analysis using a SPSS macro the authors gained
from a different study it was found that moral distance indeed mediated the ability of
outgroup animalistic dehumanization. The statistical values given were (r2 = .27, p<.001).
However, the r2 value predicts that only 27% of the variation was accounted for by moral
distance. This therefore means that other factors are also significantly influential and may
potentially be more influential than moral distance. This would go against the paper cited by
the authors stating that moral distance morality is the most important dimension of the social
comparison in predicting negative behavior towards outgroups (Leach et al. 2007; Ellemers
et al, 2013).
The experiment involved 99 voluntary participants from the Italian city of Perugia (48
women and 51 men with a mean age of 36.31 and standard deviation of 16.67). Participants
were scored using for measures or scales 1) Political ingroup identification was measured
using (Baretto and Ellemers), 2) Standard socio-demographic form that asked participants to
state their political placement along a continuum, 3) Moral distance was measured using a
scale by Leach et al (2007) that asked participants to measure how much their in group
differed from the group in terms of morality, honesty, sincerity and trustworthiness.
The results of the study revealed that political membership was salient but interestingly
unlike the first study no significant difference was found between moral distance and
animalistic dehumanization. However significance was only just narrowly avoided so it is
possible that an effective increase was not matched due to individual variation. One possible
source of individual variability could be the much younger age group of the participants in
the second study compared to the far study. This is important because age-related effects
in morality and social evaluation have been seen in my brief reading. Use the participants
and study to begin being in my opinion very young adults. They may be more likely to foster
liberal views or more likely to want to come across as modest and non judgemental 1 to the
researchers. One reason for this is that since they are very young they don’t have resources
and money that older people may have in order to defend themselves after making negative
social judgments against others.
TThis is somewhat well-known in what is referred to as the norm against prejudice in which
much of society it is seen as negative to be prejudiced. This can also explain why

13. morality is an important dimension in political social evaluations because one way to
overcome the norm against prejudice is to label the outgroup as morally reprehensible.
The author cites the US as one example where this is the case.
Another topic of importance has been highlighted by the paper which I feel deserves
elaboration. This is that societies are aware of the tenuous nature of political discussions
and debates and therefore develop procedures that must be followed to prevent this. This is
based on a paper by (Skitka and mullen, 2002) cited in the paper that states that moral
controversy often leads not only less ability to resolve intergroup differences but also
disregard the procedural safeguards. This is important because procedural safeguards may
be what prevents injury behavior from becoming very bad and can be seen in the UK in the
example of the house, where discussion between MPs is controlled by the speaker.
A much more recent example of this could be seen in the Trump elections where
multiple explicit and possibly implicat safeguards had been violated. For example, trumpet
referred to the media and everyone else as raw as complete frauds and fake news which
could be a form of dehumanization. Admittedly, it could be reasonably argued that many
Americans were angry at the media for their unwillingness to focus on issues that were
sometimes controversial but the trump campaign almost highlighted the entire media and
political infrastructure as a religion. This this could have led to the riots and the violent
interactions because Individuals no longer went through the proper channels and follow the
safeguarding processes. This could have been seen in the name of some of the groups that
righted such as the oath keepers with the name oath keepers emphasizing that they keep
their promises unlike the fake media.
Important theory from the paper on political identity:
· Political theory gives an opportunity to define who we are in the eyes of others and
express our views
· According to (Huddy, 2001 and Jost et al, 2007) as cited in this paper political
identity is related to ideology and is dependent on it. Ideologies arise as the result of
identity related motivations and acts as the lens through which people observe the
world, shape interpersonal relationships and satisfy relational needs for affiliation.
· The author identifies two definitions used to describe how parties might engage in
this context which are political enemy and political opponent. A political opponent is
someone you want to defeat which usually involves the use of legally and
democratically sanctioned mechanisms such as debates and voting in the UK. In
contrast, the term political enemy is used to refer to a to someone for whom
oppression is justified which can involve more harsh,
· Autonomous groups vs relationship groups The author
identifies two definitions used to describe how parties might engage in this context
which are political enemy and political opponent. A political opponent is someone you
want to defeat which usually involves the use of legally and democratically
sanctioned mechanisms such as debates and voting in the UK. In contrast, the term
political enemy is used to refer to a to someone for whom oppression is justified
which can involve more harsh,
Important theory from the paper on morality:

14. Morality is often cited as a major factor which moderates social evaluative processes
involving political identity and can therefore influence behavior. One common reason that
morality is to be made moderator is that it is involved in assessments of fairness and the
political playing field and it is used by groups and individuals within them to justify the
integrity and trustworthiness of a group and their actions. Although, is unclear whether
morality is always the most important factor one author cited within this paper mentions that
it is the most important dimension. It is also often the case that groups are highlighted as
morally reprehensible before actions taken to them on the basis that but the action taken
against the group in the form of social justice.
The paper highlights that morality is actually not just one concept but can be defined In
terms of three important concepts. This is significant because different forms of morality
may be more influential than others and if not available already, scales need to be created to
measure different types of morality and social identity research. The three forms of identity
mentioned are 1) Identity defining 2) Group dynamic function and 3) Intergroup relations
function. Some of these forms of morality reflect how morality influences group perception
and behaviour rather than a definition of morality on its own.
Identity defining morality is a form of morality where individuals define who they are in
relation to relevant groups (Leach Elemers & Bareto). Group dynamic functionality is a form
of morality that is involved in playing an active role in intragroup regulation processes and
serves as a strong tool regulating individual group members. Finally, intergroup relations
functions refers to how morality influences how an individual perceives its members and
interacts with them. Morality does not always appear to be the direct cause of negative
behaviour towards our groups but instead causes it through the use of dehumanisation.
The author mentions that there are five types of dehumanization (1) Dehumanization, 2)
Objectification 3) Mechanization 4) Demonization and 5) Animalization.) . In the paper the
author studies animalisation specifically mentions that there are two models from which to
consider animalisation
Week 2: Trumpism
it may be useful
Week 2: Trumpism

15. it may be useful to apply social identity theory to the 2016 election of Donald Trump
to try and explain how the controversial prep presidency occurred.
One explanation for the trump presidency is that contextual factors at the start of
Donald Trump’s election campaign provided situations that Trump was well
positioned to take advantage of. First of all many individuals were unhappy with the
previous democratic government and the effectiveness of the democratic process.
There are a variety of reasons for this. First of all there individuals were unhappy
about Obama’s handling of the crisis in Syria and ISIS as well as the promises he
was unable to keep. Secondly, there was increasingly widening polarization on a
number of key issues often relating to 1) immigrants and immigration 2) Treatment of US
Muslims 3) Same sex marriage 4) Gun Control and 5) Abortion. Thirdly, individuals were
very unhappy with the way that the media had covered this issue. This
Within the framework of social identity theory Donald Trump positioned Donald Trump
exploited socially evaluative processes in a number of ways. First of all he appealed to
idealistic values through the use of phrases such as make America great again and referring
to the good old days. Secondly, he is disaffiliating himself with current group memberships
and arguably created his own ingroup in which he was positioned as a billionaire he had the
resources that others did not unique at and also has a mindset that lie outside the
Republican democratic system that many individuals were unhappy with.
This new ingroup would be considered by many as having highly positive attributed because
of Trump’s billionaire and celebrity statuses and also have a high level of distinctiveness and
therefore attract many voters. Furthering this, his positioning of himself as an entirely new
segment of American politics made the cult of Donald Trump highly permeable and
accessible to many different voters because group membership did not come with some of
the negative attributes are related to membership of both Democratic and Republican party.
For example, some individuals who often did not both referred to as the “silent majority” did
not normally vote because they did not want to get involved in the political risks that come
from taking positions on controversial issues such as abortion. However, because Donald
Trump presented himself as entirely new this could have meant that some sign majority
voted to not feel the same level of fear.
Donald Trump’s presidency also played and manipulated portrayals of legitimacy as
presented in social identity theory. This was achieved through many different means. First of
all he referred to traditional democratic systems and parties as completely broken and also
referred to the media in this way mentioning that they were fake news. Secondly, he
heightened fears about corruption and the level of care those in power and individuals he
competed with showed towards the votes through different modes. First, of all he mentioned
actual cases of potential cases and second of all he made running a country seem especially
easy.
This was seen in expression such as China and Russia making deals and outdoing
American in trade tails when the answer all to winning was so easy. The way he referred to
these countries and other parties during these verbal expressions were also phrased in such
a way that they exploited the socially evaluated processes outlined in social identity theory.
He made countries like China and Russia seem less hard-working and undeserving of
winning in trade deals unlike hard-working Americans and promised them that they would
win all the time. He therefore tried to betray his opponents and their databases as on
legitimate and unstable out groups in comparison to the legitimate stable and fair in group
that was his voter base. In general, it could be said that he tried to play on political cynicism
and misattributions American democracy such as only the unfair win.

16. To this is to this extent Trump campaign also double down and spend attacks on Donald
Trump in such a way that they enhanced the likelihood that he and his campaign would be
perceived as a far hard-working in group in comparison to the unstable illegitimate out
groups that was the opposition as the Trump campaign progressed. According to Reicher,
S., & Haslam, S. (2017) Trump was frequently called names such as Buffoon, Wazock,
Comical, Demagogue, Stupid, Dumb, Arrogant, Jerk, Idiot, Clown and Dumbass.
When examining social identity theory this could have decreased his voter base by causing
negative attributions to be associated with his group which was technically highly permeable
as Americans were free to vote for whoever they wanted. However, Trump played on this to
make it seem as though political membership was not permeable. He did this by successfully
suggesting that attacks on him by the media and his opposition that included attacks on his
character were evidence of how bad things had become and how dangerous the present
political situation was such that urgent action which involved his election was necessary.
This was achieved by Trump highlighting that if a billionaire and this and successful snubber
celebrity that individuals previously thought very highly of could have this character
assassination done to them then nowhere would be safe and therefore fostering a sense of
fear in voters. This in turn made voting for Donald seem impermeable on the basis that this
opportunity to vote for Donald Trump and fix the political system would only happen once
because it may be too late in the future. Evidence Is such can be found in a number of
quotes from the president.
· Our country is in serious trouble. We do not have victories any more. We used to have
victories. When was the last time anyone say us beating, let’s say China in a Trade deal?
They kill us”
· When do we beat Mexico at the borde? They’re laughing at us, at our stupidity. And now
they are beating us economically. They are not our friend, believe me. But they’re killing us
economically.
· Our real unemployment is from 18-20 %, do not believe the 5.6%, do not believe it. Thats
right a lot of people can’t get jobs because there are no job, because China has our job and
Mexico has our jobs. They all have jobs.
· If he gets elected president I will bring it back bigger, better and stronger than ever before.
This could have cause deinidivudation by preventing individual from using rational thinking
about how he was going to do this and may also also lead some individuals to think that any
discrimination against out groups would be worth at as they would eventually see this bigger
and better America. This is shown by phrases using by supporters such as “5d chess” for
actions which were inconsiderate or silly, and afformances cause be his status being seen
as privileges rather than respect and fear of his billionaire status.
· He encouraged a victim hood status for straight white middle aged men.
In a way Trump’s campaign also did not follow the normal social identity theory
paradigm because he deliberately tried to make his voter base seem like a low
status group. This could arguable be seen in the portrayal of his group and voter
base as the target of unfair discriminatory attacks. He benefited from betrayal of his
group as low status group because it made individuals or supporters of Donald
Trump more socially creative and activistic. This is evidenced by the fact that unlike
any other candidate Donald Trump had many fanatical fans both online and in

17. person with a well-known example of this being the oath keeper riots and the raiding
of the American Houses of Parliament.
According to Reicher,
S., & Haslam, S. (2017). The politics of hope: Donald Trump as an
entrepreneur of identity. The myth
of rational politics: Understanding the allure of Trumpism. M. Fitzduff (Ed.) New York:
Praeger as cited in
week 2 introduction to psychology lectures , Trump rallies were actually
physically and deliberately arranged in a way that could exploit socially
evaluative processes. This is significant because the org physical organisation
of of individuals within a group is often associated directly with social evaluation
except in scenarios such as rituals and ceremonies that groups may have such as
remembrance occasions and celebrations why leaders are often presented at the
front.
First of all individuals had to wait an extremely long time in order to see Donald Trump about
also shown merchandise through. This would have had a double effect: firstly it would cause
confirmation bias in individuals because they would be trying try to mentally justify why they
had waited such a long time and be more likely to buy merchandise during the waiting period
and also to support the confirmation bias. Secondly the use of logos such as make America
great again and Donald Trump on clothing would be a form of activism by his voter base and
also cause individuals to own their membership of a group. Whereas traditionally many
individuals do not explicitly state which party they belong to and only vote the Trump
campaign actively encouraged participants to proudly support Donald Trump and show this.
This would have exploited the creation of what what people perceive to be the prototypical
strong supporter in a positive way because having a proud Trump supporter who openly
exposes his would carry a number of positive attributes such as courage and pride.
Secondly it would also decrease the level of fear people had about voting for Trump as if
people could wear clothing from his controversial campaign and not have anything happen
to them then they are more likely to think that membership would be okay.
Individuals were encouraged during rallies to be highly emotional and devoted to
Donald Trump with individuals frequently chanting Trump Trump . This is significant
because emotions have been shown to influence social evaluation. It may also have
been an attempt to decrease fear of being associated with the Trump cam by
implicitly implying that individuals should be proud of being part of the Trump
campaign. In this regard could be argued that Trump also directly attempted to allay
fears of negative in group associations by suggesting that being too nice or too
tolerant would likely lead to exploitation and that in some situations one needed to be
hostile and assertive. This therefore legitimised any potential emotional irrational and
zealous view.
The attempts to which the Trump campaign was able to spin character attacks and
concerns into positive in group attributes can be seen by the spin demonstrated on
even highly deviant group behaviors such as in the famous “grab em by the pussy
phrase”. Trump was able was able to make even morally inappropriate behaviors
such as misogyny be seen as potentially appropriate and even positive. This also
highlights the social identity theory is lacking because it does not consider how
significant the behaviours of group leaders can be. Group leaders are often famous
and very powerful individuals and very often characteristics and perceptions of group
leaders influence group norms and expectations.

18. Social media and social identity theory:
Social media is a pressing issue and allows society to do a variety of things. It
allows a community to seek the development of capability, knowledge, social
relations, interactions by actions such as chatting, sending and receiving
information, posting self-generated context, disclosing personal issues and
opinion, sharing experience and interests and exchanging social and
emotional support. Social and digital group interaction pose a challenge
because there are many differences between online groups and real-world
groups. A review by (Shi, Liu, and Sirkeci 2016) tries to reconcile the
differences between the two and notes the following similarities and
differences and try to see how it will impact social activities engagement
behaviors and consequences
Similarities Differences
• Groups online also provide social value,
support and beneficial effects for
community functions
• People operate on network-wide
information flows
• The psychological status and individual
personality behaviors are thought to
influence community activities
• Relationships are also maintained by
social exchange needs and fufilment.
• Geographic
locations
• Organization
policies
• Leadership and
power structure
• Work hours
• Employ
relationships
• Financial reward
systems
• Cost and Profit
• Job specification
• Work
performances
Further social identity theory research:
A positive correlation between strength of group identification and the amount of positive
intergroup differentiation is only slightly seen according to a literature review by (Brown,
2020) although there is substantial evidence for ingroup favoritism.

19. Possible talking points:
Does having a common identity bring groups closer together
Positive-negative asymmetry is present in intergroup discrimination.
To what extent does positive contact with individual outgroup members affect positive
general assumptions (3 perspectives unaware, individual vs overall, awareness & focus on
different group attributes)
What are the different dimensions and values involved in ingroup outgroup comparison and
how are they different.
Not all identity functions can be described by social identity theory.
Split identities vs seperate identities
What predicts the nature and direct of spontaneous intergroup comparison
What are the types of group enhancement and prediction
How to integrate temporality and consequences in social identity theory
Bridging the gap between intergroup differentiation and hostilities of different severities e.g.
disliked and disrespected
The correlation between stability, permeability and individual mobility.
Choice of identity maintenance strategies
Different frames of reference (interpersonal, substantiating, collective, individual) and many
different contexts
Integrating and accounting for emotion as a part of social identity theory
Investigation different types and implicit and explicit processes of social identity, self-esteem
etc
Identity maintenance hypothesis.
Clear cons:
It doesn’t really talk about conflict within groups
Moderating variables:
Moral superiority as a cause of comparison
Motivations, goals and superordinate goals (it is possible to have supra-ordinate goals
without a shift in identity)
Self-esteem hypothesis (There is pressured causal connection between intergroup
differentiation and self-esteem Brown (2000))
Locus of control
Real word variables:
Discrimination Brown (2000)
Reward and punishment Brown (2000)
Stereotypical attributes Brown (2000)
Historical and contextual confounders. Brown (2000)
Variables considered regarding group membership

20. Self-insight Brown (2000)
Intergroup comparisons Brown (2000)
Cohesion Brown (2000)
Collective self-esteem Brown (2000)
Interpersonal comparisons Brown (2000)
Social interaction opportunities Brown (2000)
Romantic relationships Brown (2000)
Measures of implicit and explicit functioning:
Association Brown (2000)
Response times Brown (2000)
Subliminal priming Brown (2000)
Measuring social attitude differently Brown (2000)
Socially creative strategies:
Activism
Rioting
Emphasizing unconventional values
Seeking out other oppressed groups
Jumping ship completely.
Quotes & useful information:
Shame, resentment, love and hope are complex emotions (Leyens
et al. 2000 as cited in Brown 2000)
Anger, pain , pleasure and excitement are simple emotions.
(Leyens et al. 2000 as cited in Brown (2000)
Other relevant theories:
Social categorization theory Brown (2000)
Optimal distinctiveness theory

21. Concept displacement of frustration aggression theory.
Acculuturation theory (Berry 1984 as cited in Brown 2000)
Keywords:
Ingroup primes vs outgroup primes e.g. we, they and them
Subgroup Salience
Groups, Group memberships and Group context
Normative and modal positions
Primes (some of which can be subliminal)
Commentary on research:
Taxonomic types of research are inherently flawed
Social identity theory:
A lot of room is left for research: According to Brown (2000) no formal
statement of hypothesized correlation with any variables is explicitly
stated by the theory's founder Tajfel. Many hypotheses and
propositions are derived implicitly from social identity theory.
Due to the complexity of social issues there are no complex, unitary
and concrete measures. Therefore no exact predictions can be
made with regard to past and current achievements, current
problems and future challenges (Brown 2000).
Supra-ordinate goals:
s. One type of goal known as supra-ordinate goals may make in-groups and out-
groups get along more favorable. Supra-ordinate goals are goals which are worth
completing but require more than one group to complete t(Brown 2000 et al p.764).
Scales:
According to (Gibbons and Buunch 1999 as cited in Browns et
al. 2000) they developed instruments which could measure people
intergroup and interpersonal comparison orientation
Also according to studies in Brown (2000) not all interactions
changes an individuals percpetion of the group; some individuals
only consider the individual, other.
Some factors are more important for self-esteem:

22. Research suggests that that comparison which lead to feelings of
moral superiority by members of an ingroup are more likely to lead
to dominance attempts over outgroups t(Brown 2000, p.764).
Self esteem:
Two assumptions gained from the self-esteem hypothesis are that
positive ingroup comparison increases self-esteem and that people
with initially depressed self-esteem show more differentiation to
elevate it to “normal levels” ( Papers as cited in Brown (2000))
Two assumptions gained from the self-esteem hypothesis are that
positive ingroup comparison increases self-esteem and that people
with initially depressed self-esteem show more differentiation to
elevate it to “normal levels” ( Papers as cited in Brown (2000)). The
findings for the first assumption are more consistent that the second
assumption in which higher differentiation is seen to choose with
initially lower than normal self-esteem ( Papers as cited in Brown
(2000)).
Religious groups vs social groups:
Brown (2000) there is evidence that supports that different group
memberships can serve different identity functions for the
individuals of a group, with examples including political, social and
recreational functioning Brown (2000). Furthermore studies also
suggest that dimension dimensions and values are involved in the
process of inter-group comparison for different types of groups.
(Studies in Brown 2000 found that cohesion and self-esteem was
high for religious groups, whereas self-esteem and social
interaction was high for sports teams). Social categorization theory
intersection with social identity theory
Imagined schizotypy and imagined contact:
A neutral possibility is also that in some cases imagined contact
causes neutral comparisons or shifts the focus of in-group out-
group comparisons to areas will are less likely to worry or trigger
individuals. This could be seen in out-group comparison towards
groups sometimes perceived as eccentric or highly cultured such as
Japanese communities. In the West “nerd and geek” cultures often
perceive these groups through the frame of anime and cartoons
even though many Japanese individuals are not interested in anime

23. and the country has one of the longest working hours in the world,
and is very inflexible in that becoming a Japanese citizen is very
hard.
Individuals desire differing levels of optimal distinctivness:
Optimal distinctiveness theory (as cited in Brown (2000)) is one theory that
can explain a direct and indirect link between creativity and social
identity. According to this theory individuals have differing optimal
distinctiveness that they desire. The extent of this desire can be
judged on the basis of dichotomies such as uniqueness and
assimilation or individualism vs collectivism (studies cited in Brown
2000) .
Measuring and account for levels of ingroup bias:
Optimal distinctiveness theory (as cited in Brown (2000)) is one theory that
can explain a direct and indirect link between creativity and social
identity. According to this theory individuals have differing optimal
distinctiveness that they desire. The extent of this desire can be
judged on the basis of dichotomies such as uniqueness and
assimilation or individualism vs collectivism (studies cited in Brown
2000) .
Positive-negative asymmetry
It has been difficult to bridge the gap between differentiation and dislike (Brown 2000).
The relationship between group identification and ingroup bias is different(Brown 2000).
Incorporating affect into social identity theory:
Incorporating affect into social identity theory:
Incorporating affect into social identity theory is a challenge for the future however the
correlation between ingroup bias and positive and negative feelings has not been shown to
be direct and appears to vary considering different contextual factors Brown (2000).
According to (Brewer 1999 as cited in Brown (2000) the link between emotions are
more clearly associated with in group love, bias or favoritism rather than outgroup
hostility or bias. As with ingroup bias emotion can be considered in measured in
different ways.

24. For example some studies consider emotions in terms of fear, disgust, contempt,
anger and jealousy t(Brown 2000). Different emotions have different antecedent
conditions and consequences for intergroup behaviors (Smith 1993 as cited in Brown
2000) and there also appears to be a taxonomic relationship. For example, one
study; found that fear and jealousy predominate more in low status groups whereas
fear and anger predominate more in high status groups.

25. Fear stimuli can be phylogenetic or ontogenetic. Phylogenetic stimuli are stimuli such as
snakes, fire, lions , babies or smiling faces with some of these stimuli being relevant in our
previous evolutionary environment. In contrast, ontogenetic emotional reactions are thought
to stem from associative or evaluative conditioning. These six categories of items are fear-
phylogenetic, fear-ontogenetic, pleasure-phylogenetic, pleasure-ontogenetic, neutral-
phylogenetic and neutral ontogenetic.
prefrontal-cortex allowing for more malleability of responses to ontogenic stimuli that require
successful interpretation of socio-cultural context and other nuances that may not be needed
for phylogenetic stimuli. Onto-genic stimuli’s involve more top-down stimulation whereas
phylogenetic stimuli require more bottom up consideration. .
Differences in activation between ontogenetic stimuli and phylogenetic stimuli:
Ontogenic stimuli was also found to be associated with higher levels of dorsal striatum
activity in an area of the brain which consists of the caudate nucleus and the
putamen. Ontogenetic stimuli which were of phylogenetic origin tended to increase with
dorsal striatum activity which consists of the caudate nucleus and the putamen. Interestingly
there was a stronger association of right putamen activity for negative phylogenetic stimuli
whereas left putamen activity was stronger for positive phylogenetic stimuli.With this in mind
the authors also note that their fMRI technology did not have sufficient spatial resolution to
associate the amygdala more specifically such as different nuclei of the amygdala. Such
differences have been seen in literature: (Ledoux 2000 as cited in “Spring10nrojas”) found
may process different affective stimuli differently.
Important conditioning terminology
Time and conditioning:
• In simultaneous conditioning, the neutral stimulus is presented at
the exact time as the unconditioned stimulus. This type of
conditioning leads to weak learning.
• In backward conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus is given first,
and the neutral stimulus is presented afterward. This type of
conditioning also tends to result in weak learning.
• In trace conditioning, the neutral stimulus is presented briefly and
then stopped, then the unconditioned stimulus is presented. This
type of conditioning produces good results.
• In delayed conditioning, the neutral stimulus is presented and
continues while the unconditioned stimulus is offered. This type of
conditioning produces the best results.
Biochemistry of conditioning:
Serotonin modulate defensive behaviours, enhance avoidance and inhibit escape behaviour.
CCK agonists which typically involve panic attacks facilitate scape behaviours. (Pinheiro
et al., 2007; Graeff and Zangrossi, 2010 as cited in Krypotos et al. 2015).

26. Pavlovs dog:
Stimuli can be classified in terms of being external independent variables , intervening
variables and dependent variables). Independent variable rewards include deprivation of
food, water, sex, painful stimulation, magnitude of rewards and the number of reinforced
training trials. These stimuli can vary in terms of amplitude, speed. main theories of learning
(Social & contextual, experentialism, constructivism, constructivism, cognitivism and
behaviourism)
Reconciling imitation with pavlov's dog and operant conditioning:
For example, humans sometimes create dances which they imitate and become memes and
some imitative behaviors such as grooming behaviors include steps that appear only to be
based on highly social factors such as impressing others or impressing a mate.
Researchers have conceptualized Imitation based processes into multiple different types
such as those described in (Zentall 2006). One type of imitation process is Species-typical
mechanism which include (mimicry and contagion), another is motivational mechanisms
which includes (social facilitation, incentive motivation and transfer of fear), attentional
mechanisms such and local enhancement and stimulus enhancement, imprinting, following,
observational condition and learning how the environment works which is termed affordance
learning? . Finally, there are also opaque imitative processes which have no cognitive
processes. These processes are thought to be facilitation at various neural and cognitive
levels that are so varied that one theory describes everything.
Species typical behaviour is category of imitative behaviour. The term usually refers to
genetically pre-disposes behaviour and individual (trial and error) learning (Boyd and
Richardson as cited in Zentall 2006). Furthermore, the behaviours or not thought to need
environmental reinforcement. Zentall, 2006 argues that these behaviours are often
instinctive and ingrained but are direct by socially facilitative processes that provide a
functional comprise to certain foods which also implies that these processes are not
positively tied down to a certain odor or visual representation of food. (Is this true?)
For example, abandoned animals who may have once been used to being fed by their
animals would become stray and learn to find new foods. If such an animal finds other strays
eating certain foods that social learning may take place and the stray will try to locate the
same types of food. It has been suggested that in certain contexts social learning occurs
much faster than others. For example, in the context of stray animals it is less risky and
beneficial to eat what others are eating as eating the wrong foods can have very bad
consequences.
Knowledge paradigms. A second but less consequential example would be birds trying to
learn a bird song.
Imprinting as a form of learning:
Imprinting is a very interesting process because it represents a predisposed form of
behaviour that it biologically programmed in some way and also have flexibility. The
mechanisms behind imprinting seem to be focused on specific aspects of mechanical
stimuli because laboratory experiments appear to show that imprinting can involve
almost any moving object (Hess 1973 as cited in (Zentall 2006).

27. Higher order conditioning can refer to a number of things????? One form of
higher order conditioning is when the the the observer does not always
experience the unconditional stimulus. Another finding by (Zentall and
Hogan 1975) is that a neutral stimulus can become an conditioned stimuli
even when it leads to inaccessible unconditioned stimuli. For example,
(Zental and Hogan 1975 as cited in (Zentall 2006) found that pigeons
following lights to inaccessible grain may still follow set light (My thoughts:
To elaborate on this further I could design an experiment where there were
different ratios where sometimes the light led to bad grain and sometimes it
did no).
Symbolic imitation:
Deferred imitation must demonstrate internalization of the stimulus
complex (Bandura 1969). Dorrance and Zentall (2001) demonstrated that
quails were capable of showing deferred imitation??? Is this because of
internalization or a fear of passing this helpful behavior on to other quails
and therefore maintain an asymmetry of potentially helpful
knowledge.Parody and caricature are considered forms of symbolic
imitation.
Affordance learning : (Operant conditioning with cognitive enhancement):
Two terms have been used to highlight the differences in learning in humans. The first term
is termed Affordance learning. It refers to a form of observational conditioning in which the
reinforcer is not specified by it but it reasoned. Furthermore, this learning may not have any
motivational latent learning factors behind it. For example, an individual may see another
opening a door by turning a door or swiping a card and reason that a card is needed to enter
or that the reward for turning the knob is leaving the room. It has also been seen in animals,
for example Klein and Zentall (2003) as cited in (Zentall 2006) found that when pigeons
were presented with a bird feeder and a screen which was later pushed to the left or to the
right such that it no longer blocked the feeder, and were then reintroduced to the feeder with
the screen blocking it the researchers found that the authors tended to push the screen to
the side that they saw the screen being blocked.

28. Further reading regarding Erikson:
Criticism of Erikson's theory:
One criticism is that it is as it suggests but improvement in internalization abstract principles is
one of the factors that right a person's development life. Although this is highly likely as
individuals and society as a whole discusses important topics in relation to abstract principles
of trust and integrity and morality these principles are very hard to study. This is made even
more difficult by the fact that theory provides no suggestion of the different threads or cognitive
processes involved in the internalization and thought regarding these principles (Critiques &
Controversies of Erikson ). These abstract principles are also quite broad which would mean
that they can apply to anyone and it is hard to treat these principles because of this.
According to Cole and Cole (1989) as cited in (Critiques & Controversies of Erikson ) one
reason for this because one of Erikson’s favorite methods was the use of biographical case
studies on famous men such as “Martin Luther and Mahatma Gandhi”. This is plausible given
that theory-based lace structures itself and the lifespan approach, but this would mean that is
based on retrospective life analysis which could be problematic because it would mean that
model may be based on guesswork; furthermore the use of famous men may mean that model
May not be representative of all individual’s.
Another major criticism stated Aronson’s theory is that my span approach Is quite monolithic
with no specific consideration given to demographic variables such as “gender, ethnic
variability and socioeconomic status” (Women's Growth and Development Across...). This is
important to consider because these variables will cause individuals to have drastically different
life narratives and causes and also influence how others treat them. For example, with regards
to gender some individuals may see normal life course of many women to intermarriage,
whereas the man this may not be the case. This is important because it can influence how
individuals conceptualize and internalize Ericsson’s virtues. For example in this case men are
more likely to internalize desirability of autonomy and distance oneself from others.
According to (Women's Growth and Development Across...).; precedent for this can be found
in Kohlberg’s levels of moral development which are based on interviews with only men will
introduce a woman being discarded. This is a very serious criticism and therefore will need to
double check whether sucking
It is also possible to theorize alternative virtues to Erikson's stages and this therefore shows
that Erikson’s virtues are not comprehensive. For example, one about you is conformity and
resilience which are not detected here; this may be more important in some cultures than
others with Eastern cultures more likely to place great emphasis on conformity than variables

29. such as identity. Erikson stages also think about the virtues from a cognitive level and this
implies that identity is cognitive which is not entirely true, although the cognitive component of
identity is a major component. Ericsson stages implied identity is constructed from multiple inner
constructions and assumptions about the nature of relationships and self which are implicit in
Eriksson’s matches.
One area where Erikson’s stages provides little explanation is how individuation occurs and
individuals learn to form an identity that is uniquely theirs and seperate from society.
Investigation into this is probably related to an individual development of resilience and
conformity which are not making a
One criticism of Erikson’s stagesAs I only focuses on the development of individuation and does
not consider the impact of attachment to theories such as the strange situation and that of
Bowlby. This is important because the child’s development and passion for caregivers has been
shown to have a profound impact on the development. This is especially importantGiven that
Erikson theorized that individuals move from one face from the other after a psychological
crisis, because social factors and demographic variables are highly likely to be major
influences on an individual’s ability be resilient against psychological crises and in turn
influence the understanding and internalization of a virtue for a given stage.
However, whether psychological crises are necessary for personal growth and progression to
the stages is also a point of debate. Broadly speaking individuals do tend to grow after
psychological crises but this is not always the case if some individuals fall into hopelessness
and depression as outlined by learned helplessness theory. Alternatively, one possible
empirical piece of evidence for psychological crises is necessary the majority of cases could be
found in the case of individuals who are sheltered and lie and do not take responsibility as they
grow. In these cases that utterly case spoilt children are sometimes seen that although they
are financially well off they are unable to develop trust and personal relationships on their own.
The theory provides no way to predict an individual’s behaviors
Is Erikson’s stage suitable given gender differences in identity development: An examination of
longitudinal data? Gender differences in identity development: an examination of longitudinal
data (Streitmatter 1993).
The matter regarding whether the singular lifespan approach of Erikson’s stages is appropriate
given differences in gender development actually appears to be quite controversial even early in
older literature. A study by Marcia (1966) as cited in (Streitmatter 1993) which used an
ego-identity interview format found that there were no significant gender differences according
to school grade in various domains of life such as politics, religion and vocation. However, it is
possible that given the times Some women may have lied in order to conform to gender labels
and stereotypes of the time and adding to this because the children were grouped in terms of

30. school year in the scenario that they were interviewed within the school environment it is
possible this may have influenced that thinking. This is a reasonable possibility because it has
been shown in the case of eating disorders that environment and role passing considers to be
in can influence their perception. For example, in anorexia nervosa it has been shown that
an adolescent may see herself as underweight from the perspective of a normal adolescent girl
But not underweight when seeing herself as a gymnast.
However, (Streitmatter 1993) mentions other research that suggests that gender differences
exist. For example (Streitmatter 1993) mentions that a researcher by the name of Archer (1989)
aFound that males were more likely to identify as having foreclosed identity whereas females
more likely to have a diffuse identity. Th there is reasonable! Why this could be true woman are
often traditionally seen as more reception and nurturing And can fit victims of social frameworks
through this basis and ability to raise children whereas men cannot and are often seen as
competitors; although this is perhaps a simplification of gender relations. It is however
important to highlight that gender relations and stereotypes have changed subsequently from
this time. And therefore things may be very different and newer research needs to be sited
A finding by the same author which suggests that things are more complex than they appear is
that even though males were associated with foreclosed identity more compared to females,
moratorium and identity achievement was more prevalent In females. This could suggest that
females are more likely to mortally discard an identity and at the same time be happy with it,
whereas males may not be more happy with an identity as represented by their foreclosed
identity but at the same time not so readily discarded through identity moratorium.
One explanation for this is that this is representative of how traditionally females find it easier
to navigate the social scene and maybe more easily accepted. In contrast, males may find
this harder and can traditionally navigate the social scene four survival and work oriented
purposes. This could explain why even though man had a higher prevalence of identity
foreclosure it was women but had a high prevalence to the moratorium. The pairing of hi
higher foreclosure status in men could represent a necessity to put up with identities that are
not liked in order to be part of the beneficial social structure that can also provide protection
and resources.
This could be supported by similar thoughts about gender interactions by researchers at that
time. For example (Noddings 1983 as cited in (Streitmatter 1993) ) believed through a
cross-sectional study that females used more connected and relationship oriented style of
self-definition whereas males identified themselves more separately and objectively. This inturn
was built of the work of Gilligan who believed that males identified themselves more
occupationally than females and this can also influence how they conceived that themselves
and thought about morality.
Gilligan even suggested that this meant that the genders would learn about different virtues at
different times (Gilligan 1979 as cited in (Streitmatter 1993) ). For men it was theorized that
identity preceded intimacy and relativity; which falls away from the order of the development of

31. Erikson's virtues through life course In which intimacy is land before identity. In contrast Giligan
believed that women learned about these virtues in a fused manner. This therefore suggests
that the order through which the land is not the same in individuals.
. Due to the retrospective nature of cross-sectional studies nothing can be proved a certain
however but finding that multiple psychologists accepted this interpretation based on multiple
studies gives credibility to you
Given the cognitive nature of Eriksons’s virtue it is surprising that identity factors such as
self-esteem are not considered a virtue. This is especially significant given that the construct of
self esteem is shown to be significant and crucial in many psychopathological models such as
the diathesis stress model. Self - esteem is also important in debating the differences between
gender because self-esteem has been shown to be different emails. According to (Simmons,
Brown, Bush, & Blyth, 1978) females have a lower self-esteem than makes in early
adolescence.
However, given that females have a lower self-esteem is surprising that female adolescents
were found, high level of moratorium and identity achievement as if self esteem was
psychologically important it could be predicted that one would see high levels Of moratorium
and foreclosure and not a high prevalence of identity achievement which traditionally, involves
individuals in with identity. Therefore this suggests that self esteem alone cannot account for
differences between gender
The study by the present authors paper tried to answer the same questions through the use of
the extended objective measure of ego identity status (EOM-EIS ) in adolescents. The
participants from the study were drawn up from an Urban Southwestern school. Population
consisted of approximately 500 7th and 8th grader students. The design of the study was
perspective three year follow-up so that the students was subsequently in the 10th and 11th
grade in two highschools at followup. The total number of respondents a follow-up was 105
which demonstrate the high attrition rate. However the authors mentions that this attrition rate is
not unexpected. Demographically most of the 105 students that completed the followup were
white (92%: 92 students) and none have a primary language other than English or were
classified as special education students.
The extended objective measure of ego identity status (EOM-EIS ) in adolescents is a tool by
(Grotevant & Adams, 1984) was used to measure the identity status of the respondents
on both assessment occasions. It Massive ego identity through the use of 64 questions
related to religious, occupational, political, philosophical and social contexts and also
measures ideological and interpersonal identity development. (Streitmatter 1993) mentions
that sale has reasonable vakuduty statustucs. Furthermore whilst some of the items on the
scale laso measured identity statuses of (diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium and achievement).

32. The results showed that as Spence progressed from 7-8th grade and 10-11th grade that
identity diffusion And foreclosure decreased and there was no significant decrease between
boys and girls. Furthermore, total moratorium scores increased for both with age with no
difference achievement scores remained relatively stable. The authors attribute these changes
to the increasing responsibility over child rates especially as puberty became a factor. Due to
increasing responsibility and the need to focus on academics, makes sense that foreclosure
identity statuses would decrease and moratorium statuses would increase, as chillingly
uncertain about the future will be dependent on the performance in school. This interpretation is
supported by the finding that achieving value to both genders remain fairly stable an were not
significantly different between the two as the lack of change could represent uncertainty about
how they are and they future.
This could have been further supported through the use of uncertainty scales by asking the
children what they thought about the future. If most children said that there was an uncertain
future, than this theory would most likely be proved. This data can also be used to look into the
fact by consideration of marriage may have had on identity status. For example, if the marriage
life course is reasonable to believe that students who believe that they are going to marry
someone may not be so uncertain about the future, analyzing data using this group of students
could be important.
Paper 2: Age and Gender Differences in Human Values: A
20-Nation study
This is a paper by (Vilar et al. 2020) titled Age and gender differences in human values: A
20-nation study. The paper is by Roosevelt Vilar 1, James Hou-Fu Liu 1, Valdiney Veloso
Gouveia 2 DOI: 10.1037/pag0000448.
Aim of the study:
The aim of the study was to investigate how culture and factors that may differ between
culture and country influence values which in turn leads to differences in goals. The research
study had two aims a) to examine age and sex differences in human values and b) ascertain
whether these patterns vary across cultures and in accordance with moderators.
Theoretical background:
I have chosen this paper because Erikson’s theory states that values guide an individual’s
behavior and needs throughout life and the consideration of what is optimal behavior. The
paper points out that there are newer value theories which are more elaborate and flexible
When defining the structure and function as well as explaining how one by one relates to
another. These are Schwartz universal theory of basic values (Schwartz, 1992) and the
functional theory of human values which will be briefly explained. These theories may be more
flexible than Erikson's theory because they do not simply collapse behavior into one abstract

33. dimension (Vilar et al. 2020) . a further advantage there is also that they recognise that values
which may be similar to that used can be super personal and may not be always understood
cognitively
Schwartz universal theory of values cagorizes values into four supra-ordinate categories
(openness to change, self-transcendence, conservatism and self-enhancement). Each category
of value stored in town is related to different goals and all considerations. In total , are split
under these four categories. Picture is shown below:
The functional perspective of the human values model is newer and is pictured below: The
model is by (Gouveia 2019). It is very similar to Schwarzer’s model but is more concrete than
any of the other models. In this model there are six types of value (Excitement, Suprapersonal,
interactive, promotion, existence and normative) (SINPEE).Each value can be categorized
functionally dependent on the directions and relevance during the expression and cause of
different needs. Each Functional dimension is subsequently divided into the type of need and
goal respectively. The dimension involving expressions of needs recognizes that some of these
values pertain to thriving needs which are involved in the consideration of life into a source of
opportunities and survival needs which source life as a source of threats. In contrast, the values
as a guide of action model divides goals into personal, central and social goals.

34. The study found that individuals tended to change their behavior, life course and
commonalities among all countries and cultures that participants were part of. This co-aligned
with certain values and alterations with values through time suggesting that these values did
indeed guide behavior, Or vice versa. Furthermore there were also gender differences seen in
life course to which the same line.The study collected data online as part of the Digital
Influence project that collected information in a two-wave panel design. Around N=21,632
individuals were recorded. Values were measured using the Basic Values Survey which is an 18
item measure.
It was found that older adults scored higher than younger adults in values associated with
(social normative and interactive) and central goals (suprapersonal and existence). Contrarily,
young adults scored higher on values pertaining to personal goals and excitement.
That changes in values and behaviors associated with these values through life course can be
attributed to maturation and the effects of aging which was as an individual to balance their
pursuit of gains and regulation of losses. Biology is believed to be a key factor around which
balancing regulation and the others believe that changes in the body causes a balancing
between opportunities and the personal vitality of the body. This is one explanation why
excitement values were associated with young people as they have lost vitality additionally may
not have as many responsibilities to think aboutYou.
Later on with a career and tried to obtain personal resources more focused on self-promotion
and development of meaningful relationships. The authors highlight that there may be a shift
between humanitarian and idealistic values and a materialistic pragmatic mindset. Such a
theory has been seen in such as socio-emotional selectivity theory (Cartensen’s et al 1999) that
shifts occur between knowledge related goals and well-being related goals and other theories
stating that there are shifts in ego-centric and personal gains.
Another finding the older individuals tended to score higher in values related to conservation
and self-transendance which was combined with an increase in openness to change
enhancement. According to (Vilar et al. 2020) this is in line with other literature stating that the
personal and universal values especially those relating to social issues such as tolerance

35. equality and social justice cancer increased with age. This may Erikson’s generativity vs
stagnation stage.
More specifically, some values seem to have a rocky relationship with age whereas others
excitement and emotion seemed to have an inverse linear relationship and the other
participants the less important these values became.
You
In general it was found that women scored higher on central and social goals revolving around
the purpose of life and their place in the community than men who scored higher on personal
goals regarding excitement and promotion within the workplace. Interestingly, it was found that
men and women scored high in the excitement values areas and interaction values when old
but there were significant differences between them in all other life courses. The authors (Vilar
et al. 2020) state but most differences are explained using evolutionary theory or social role
theory.
The authors state that social role is more explanatory than evolutionary theory. The reason for
this is explained as a secondary source stating that the midpoint you have Lytham and personal
values than men is contrary to what a revolutionary theory would predict. However I think that
this is not something contradictory as if woman evolved to be more social than align themselves
with universal values would enable them to navigate social networks more ease. The social
role that suggested as driving a female value differences is the role as universal caregivers.
The man is mentioned that man’s social expectations may allow them to access great
opportunities in the workplace greater freedom in the gender hierarchy. However I think that it
may be more nuanced than this and many may need to have certain resources before it can
properly gender hierarchy this explains why they are focused more around self-promotional and
result oriented bodies
Surprisingly there was almost no moderation effect of culture. This therefore suggests that
these findings are universal and strengthens the idea that the application Ericsson’s theory
and similar theories maybe somewhat appropriate
The study’s mentions that although there is a lack of studies investigating the interaction
between culture and values the authors assert that the literature they have read suggests that
the interaction between culture and age and values is very small and minor. This will imply that
changes in values are more likely to be universal and related to social role. The researches
(Vilar et al. 2020) found that the link between age and values mNowoderated by country level
variables only promotes values.
This promotion value in turn was stronger for countries with higher gender inequality and
collectivism. However the finding that woman scored higher in social goals whereas men were
higher in personal goals remain the same across cultures

36. . It is possible that one of the main reasons for this could be that these values influence adaptive
behaviors. This scenario for debate as if adaptive behaviors are the main reason than a
evolutionary theory may be equally as important
The researchers analysed how GP and hostile dimensional individualism versus collectivism
may have acted as a country level moderator in this regard. Additionally they also tested the
effect of gender equality using the gender Gap index on age and sex in human values. The
authors believe information on this could help clarity on the importance of social role theory
because if social mobility is correct and greater gender equality at the country level should result
in smaller sex differences in human values. However it is possible, that each value should be
considered separate from others and that the the presence in some in assigned gender over
another can be attributed may lead to a evolutionary theory whereas others can be attributed to
social role theory.
The authors (Vilar et al. 2020) highlight but some researchers (Sheldon and Kasser 2001 as
cited in (Vilar et al. 2020)) mentioned that maturity appears to be a significant connector
between generativity and ego integrity. This may be significant because it appears that
generative at the is major focus in old age whereas values around ego are more important in
young age. Currently none of the value theories mentioned nor Ericsson stages mention
maturity specifically and instead it is only implicitly implied individuals may mature through
understanding of difference virtus through life. A
THEORY AND DIVERSITY: A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT STAGES
(Samsanovich 2021)
Choice Theory (1999) argues that there are five basic needs that all individuals value, but that
each individual prioritizes in different order (Glasser). The five needs include: survival, freedom,
love and belonging, power, and fun. To some, freedom is the most important and trumps all the
other needs (Glasser, 1999). Under this theory, those struggling with isolation under Erikson
(1963) have love and belonging as the number one need under Choice Theory (1999). For
these individuals, having every other need met does not cancel out the absence of love and
belonging. Consequently, someone not feeling accepted and loved must be feeling rejected and
unloved. . you are are a you will you you are.
Critical Analysis of Erikson’s Theory with the Theory Evaluation Scale
To assess the quality of Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development,
the researcher used Joseph and Macgowan’s Theory Evaluation Scale (TES). As
its name indicates, the TES is a measure that evaluates theories based on nine
criteria: coherence, conceptual clarity, philosophical assumptions, historical
10

37. development, testability, empiricism, limitations, client context, and human
agency (Joseph & Macgowan, 2019). The TES has been used to analyze several
theories, including empowerment (Joseph, 2020a), social justice (Joseph,
2020b), and poverty attribution (Stoeffler and Joseph, 2020)
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development scored 25 on the TES,
with a maximum score (5 points) (for coherence, conceptual clarity, philosophical
assumptions, and historical development, but lowest score (1 point) for the other
five criteria. According to Joseph and Macgowan (2019), a score of 25 indicates
that the theory is of good quality. However, Stoeffler and Joseph (2020) argued
that any theory that lacks empirical evidence should be considered of poor
quality, regardless of the overall score. Hence, Erikson’s theory has good overall
quality, but little to no empirical support in the literature
. This chapter will be divided into seven parts consisting of discussing study design, sampling,
data collection and instruments, procedures, protection of human subjects, data analysis, and
summary.
Dsdippds
Paper 3:
Locating, understanding and celebrating disability: Revisiting
Erikson’s “stages” (Jordan and Tseris 2018)
According to this paper it is hard to place disabled adults into Eriksons theory. This is relevant
because their Disabled status and nature of their disability may mean that they may not
progress through all that they all the stages. Also iss suggested that the concept of autonomy
industry initiative and initiative are different single people Is hard to predict which says this
may be male depend on factors such as perseverance ability is and when the disability
occurred. Some suggested that disabled adults may fall into the stagnation stage of Eriksons
stages. Alternatively perhaps some disabled adults do not go through all American stages but
sick role that society allows them performance and they do not need the benefit that derives
and go through the stages functional life to have a functional life.
Different adulthoods: Normative development and transgressive
trajectories (O'Dell et al. 2018)
According to this paper though the lack of definition around normative adulthood. This is a
research problem because it is the default category in much of research but despite this is a
taken for granted construct with an unarticulated background. This is significant because and
understanding unaltered will allow research to be carried out in a way which better

38. accommodates individuals Who have marginal identitiesAnd belong to groups in society that do
not undergo what was considered normative adulthood.
The researchers outline three interrelated weights or beams through which this can be done.
These are 1) deconstructing developmental tasks by considering how adulthood is assumed a
naturalized and how completion of so called tasks of adulthood affect the identity and individual
being considered an adult 2) binding how is normal no it’s not I didn’t do that one ice cream no
no that’s not me is not my ice cream in a long is not me now one configured within certain
geopolitical spaces with respect to certain Demographics such as gender, ethnicity and class. 3)
Investigating the limits of adulthood which involve looking at taken for granted assumptions
about hood and why some individuals would be considered adults whereas others will not.
The authors (O'Dell et al. 2018) highlight that one way to consider normative adulthood is to
conceptualize it as a bundle of rights, benefits, obligations and powers in addition to the
attainment of certain structural markers. These structural markers may be of some age, or the
attainment and fulfillment of certain activities such having a job and becoming married or the .
The article mentions that such tasks are not neutral tasks but signifying by signifying certain
normative positive attributes related to normal adulthood such as the achievement of a certain
level of independence and autonomy.
The culture an individual is in Often decides what the structural markers and tasks are and
researchers therefore need to find out how these tasks are gendered and embodied in the
naturalized cultures. Also important to consider the influence of universal values because they
are likely to influence cultural priorities And in time considerations of adulthood. For example
across cultures an individual who is an adult will often be seen as being financially
self-sustaining and able to support others and be patient.
This is not just an attribute describing what the individual has also represents societal
expectations of the individual. The author(O'Dell et al. 2018) highlights that researchers need
to find out why markers are naturalized and normalized whereas others are pathologized
leading to society or a person’s social structures denying an individual their right to adulthood.
This can represent itself in various ways such as individuals not asking adult questions to an
individual and still seeing them as a child.
The subject of motherhood or potential motherhood is a highlighted scenario where this is
very prominent. For example, although motherhood is highlighted as an adult status,
sometimes individuals who have children when there were two young are still not seen as adults
because having a child who I represent is a majority rather than the agency. In the case of
teenage mothers this may be correct but in some cases this applies to individuals just over the
age of 18.
Alternatively in a very different scenario one author references in this study (Lesch and Van der
watt 2018) mentions that childless single women in South Africa are not seen, as adults, not
marrying or living with a partner. This is significant because it demonstrates how socially

39. constructive the concept can be because even though in the end an individual may be
self-sufficient purely on the basis of marriage they are being denied the chance to be seen as
another adult in the eyes of others.
This could be because of evolutionary and social role based reasons. This is because due to
South Africa being seen as a Conservative and low socio-economic status country There may
be a social pressure to force individuals to marry so that everyone is looked after; though in
some cases this would mean that some individuals support those that we don’t want to support.
Evidence for this could be found (Vilar et al. 2020) who found that adults in countries with
higher gender equality had lower levels of promotion values with age, suggesting that with age
and in these countries may be expected to promote themselves and their own opportunities less
and take on responsibility for others. Aligning with this it is argued it is mentioned in this current
paper that unmarried women are sometimes portrayed as problematic lacking in some way.
This demonstrates that normative concessions sometimes have utilitarian basis about them and
that which compete with this are seen as different, transgressive and pathological. Since in this
case a a specific conception adult these to be protected by socio economically protective
factors outside of an individual this therefore suggest that countries where individuals are more
financially well-off definition can be more flexible. Since not all alternative conceptions are
likely to tread on the boundaries of normative conceptions is likely that whereas some are
considered pathological others are simply deemed problematic but accepted or are simply
absent from societal debate. Interesting
Further reading about Piaget’s theory:
In defense of Piaget's theory: A reply to 10 common criticisms. (Lourenço and Machado )
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.103.1.143
The ten common criticism outlines in this paper are:
1)It underestimates the competence of children
2)It established age norms for certain cognitive capabilities but, in some studies children have
demonstrated abilities outside their respective stage
3) Piaget characterizes development negatively
4) Piaget’s theory is an extreme competence theory
5) theory neglect the role of social partners in development
6) The theory predicts developmental synchronize not corroborated by data
7) The theory describes but does not explain
8)The theory paradoxically assesses theory through language (Not sure what is meant by this?)
9) Piaget theory ignores post adolescence development
10) Piaget theory appeals to inappropriate models of logic.