PSI Exam Syllabus MPSC
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MPSC PSI Prelim and Mains Revised syllabus
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Evaluation of postfix expression
This document discusses postfix notation for evaluating mathematical expressions. It begins by explaining that postfix notation, also called reverse polish notation, writes operators after their operands. It then covers the precedence of operators in postfix notation and the fundamental principles of evaluating a postfix expression using a stack. Key advantages of postfix notation are that operator precedence is unnecessary and the order of evaluation is determined by the position of operators and operands. An example is provided to demonstrate how to manually evaluate a postfix expression step-by-step using a stack.
Array
Arrays are a data structure that allow the storage of multiple elements of the same type. They can have one or more dimensions. One-dimensional arrays use a single subscript, while two-dimensional arrays use two subscripts to reference rows and columns. Arrays can be passed as arguments to functions in several ways, including as a pointer, sized array, or unsized array. Arrays are useful for storing and sorting data, performing matrix operations, and storing temporary values in recursive functions. However, arrays have limitations such as a static size, requiring elements to be of the same type, and potential memory issues if not sized correctly.
concept of Array, 1D & 2D array
The document discusses different types of arrays, including one-dimensional and two-dimensional arrays. It defines an array as a single name for a collection of data values of the same type. One-dimensional arrays have a single size dimension, while two-dimensional arrays represent data in a matrix with row and column sizes. Examples of how to declare, initialize, and reference elements of one-dimensional and two-dimensional arrays in code are provided.
Basics of pointer, pointer expressions, pointer to pointer and pointer in fun...
Pointers are a data type in C that contain memory addresses as their values. They allow programs to indirectly access and manipulate the data stored at those addresses. Pointers can be used to pass arguments by reference, return values from functions, access array elements, and link data structures like linked lists. Proper initialization of pointers is important to avoid issues like accessing protected memory or going out of array bounds.
Linked list implementation of Queue
Queues can be implemented using linked lists by allocating memory dynamically for each new element and linking them together. Two pointers - Front and Rear - are used to mark the front and rear of the queue. Elements contain a data part and an address part linking to the next element. Insertions occur at the rear and deletions at the front. The linked list start pointer is used as Front, while Rear points to the last element. An empty queue is indicated when Front and Rear are NULL.
Test Cross & Back cross
A test cross is performed to determine the genotype of a plant with dominant expression by crossing it with a recessive plant. A backcross involves breeding an F1 hybrid with one of its parents. A test cross identifies if a dominant phenotype is homozygous or heterozygous, while a backcross recovers the elite genotype of the parent and produces offspring genetically closer to the F1 hybrid's parents.
operators and expressions in c++
Operators in C++ represent specific tasks or operations that are applied to operands. There are several types of operators including arithmetic, relational, logical, increment/decrement, and conditional operators. Arithmetic operators perform basic math operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on operands. Relational operators compare operands and return true or false based on the comparison. Logical operators combine relational expressions and include logical AND, logical OR, and logical NOT. The increment/decrement operators increment or decrement operands by 1. The conditional operator returns one of two results based on a condition. Precedence rules determine the order in which operations are performed.
Character Array and String
This is a short presentation on character array and strings in c programming. It includes basic and important facts about the topics.
Recommended
Evaluation of postfix expression
This document discusses postfix notation for evaluating mathematical expressions. It begins by explaining that postfix notation, also called reverse polish notation, writes operators after their operands. It then covers the precedence of operators in postfix notation and the fundamental principles of evaluating a postfix expression using a stack. Key advantages of postfix notation are that operator precedence is unnecessary and the order of evaluation is determined by the position of operators and operands. An example is provided to demonstrate how to manually evaluate a postfix expression step-by-step using a stack.
Array
Arrays are a data structure that allow the storage of multiple elements of the same type. They can have one or more dimensions. One-dimensional arrays use a single subscript, while two-dimensional arrays use two subscripts to reference rows and columns. Arrays can be passed as arguments to functions in several ways, including as a pointer, sized array, or unsized array. Arrays are useful for storing and sorting data, performing matrix operations, and storing temporary values in recursive functions. However, arrays have limitations such as a static size, requiring elements to be of the same type, and potential memory issues if not sized correctly.
concept of Array, 1D & 2D array
The document discusses different types of arrays, including one-dimensional and two-dimensional arrays. It defines an array as a single name for a collection of data values of the same type. One-dimensional arrays have a single size dimension, while two-dimensional arrays represent data in a matrix with row and column sizes. Examples of how to declare, initialize, and reference elements of one-dimensional and two-dimensional arrays in code are provided.
Basics of pointer, pointer expressions, pointer to pointer and pointer in fun...
Pointers are a data type in C that contain memory addresses as their values. They allow programs to indirectly access and manipulate the data stored at those addresses. Pointers can be used to pass arguments by reference, return values from functions, access array elements, and link data structures like linked lists. Proper initialization of pointers is important to avoid issues like accessing protected memory or going out of array bounds.
Linked list implementation of Queue
Queues can be implemented using linked lists by allocating memory dynamically for each new element and linking them together. Two pointers - Front and Rear - are used to mark the front and rear of the queue. Elements contain a data part and an address part linking to the next element. Insertions occur at the rear and deletions at the front. The linked list start pointer is used as Front, while Rear points to the last element. An empty queue is indicated when Front and Rear are NULL.
Test Cross & Back cross
A test cross is performed to determine the genotype of a plant with dominant expression by crossing it with a recessive plant. A backcross involves breeding an F1 hybrid with one of its parents. A test cross identifies if a dominant phenotype is homozygous or heterozygous, while a backcross recovers the elite genotype of the parent and produces offspring genetically closer to the F1 hybrid's parents.
operators and expressions in c++
Operators in C++ represent specific tasks or operations that are applied to operands. There are several types of operators including arithmetic, relational, logical, increment/decrement, and conditional operators. Arithmetic operators perform basic math operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on operands. Relational operators compare operands and return true or false based on the comparison. Logical operators combine relational expressions and include logical AND, logical OR, and logical NOT. The increment/decrement operators increment or decrement operands by 1. The conditional operator returns one of two results based on a condition. Precedence rules determine the order in which operations are performed.
Character Array and String
This is a short presentation on character array and strings in c programming. It includes basic and important facts about the topics.
Lecture 3 data structures and algorithms
This document provides information about data structures and algorithms. It begins by defining data structures and storage structures, and notes that a data structure is a logical model of data organization while a storage structure represents a data structure in computer memory. It then classifies data structures as linear or non-linear, and notes that linear data structures form a sequence. The document discusses representation of data structures in memory using arrays or linked lists, and common operations on linear structures like traversal, search, insertion and deletion. It provides detailed explanations of arrays and pointers.
Advanced biometrical and quantitative genetics akshay
Additive and Multiplicative Model
Shifted Multiplicative Model
Analysis and Selection of Genotype
Methods and steps to select the best model
Bioplot and mapping genotype
arrays of structures
An array is a collection of variables of the same type referenced by a common name. A structure groups variables of different types. An array of structures combines these concepts by creating an array where each element is a structure. For example, an array of fraction structures could be defined to hold multiple fractions. Each structure element in the array contains a numerator and denominator integer. The entire array of structures occupies a contiguous block of memory with each structure taking up the same amount of space. Individual structure elements can then be accessed using the array index and dot notation.
Molecular control of male fertility for crop hybrid breeding
Harnessing hybrid vigor or heterosis is a promising approach to tackle the current challenge of sustaining enhanced yield gains of field crops. More than half of the production of major crops such as maize, rice, sorghum, rapeseed, and sunflower comes from hybrid varieties.
Union in C programming
Unions allow a variable to hold objects of different types in the same memory location. All members of a union share the same memory location, which is the size of the largest member. This means unions save memory by storing all members in one block, but the programmer must ensure the correct member is being accessed based on the data currently stored. The example program defines a union called Student containing different data types, reads values into members, and displays the members to demonstrate unions share the same memory location.
Genetic engineering & transgenic breeding
This document discusses genetic engineering and transgenic breeding. It begins with an introduction and overview of cell culture and transformation methods like somatic embryogenesis and organogenesis that are used to obtain transgenic plants. Various plant transformation methods like direct transformation, biological delivery methods, and selecting transgenic events are described. The molecular biology behind plant transformation involving overexpression vectors, promoters, RNA interference, and zinc-finger nucleases is explained. Transgenic breeding or breeding with transgenics is then discussed, including improving crop traits through backcrossing transgenic plants with elite varieties. Examples are given of transgenic crops with increased yield or insect resistance.
02 Chromosomes, Genes & Alleles
1. Chromosomes contain DNA and package it into a smaller size. In eukaryotes, DNA is contained in linear chromosomes while prokaryotes have circular chromosomes.
2. Humans have 23 chromosome pairs including one sex chromosome pair that determines gender. Genes are located on chromosomes and can exist in different alleles that determine traits.
3. The genotype is an individual's combination of alleles, which determines their phenotype or physical traits. Dominant alleles will be expressed over recessive alleles. Many factors can influence the relationship between genotype and phenotype.
Chi Square
The document describes how to use a chi-square test to determine if observed offspring ratios from genetic crosses fit the expected ratios predicted by theories like Mendel's laws. It provides the chi-square formula and explains how to calculate expected values, degrees of freedom, and compare the calculated chi-square value to critical values in tables to determine if the observed ratios fit or reject the null hypothesis. An example using Mendel's pea plant data is shown to demonstrate applying the chi-square test.
Entity (types, attibute types)
An entity is a person, place, object, event or concept in the user environment about which the organization wishes to maintain data.
Control statements in c
Operator & control statements in C are used to perform operations and control program flow. Arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /, %) are used for mathematical calculations on integers and floating-point numbers. Relational operators (<, <=, >, >=, ==, !=) compare two operands. Logical operators (&&, ||, !) combine conditions. Control statements like if-else, switch, while, for, break, continue and goto alter program execution based on conditions.
One Dimensional Array
This document discusses one-dimensional arrays. It defines a one-dimensional array as a list of values with the same data type stored under a single name. Elements are stored in consecutive memory locations and can be accessed using the array name and index. Individual elements are referenced as array_name[index]. The size of an array is the number of elements, and the type refers to the data type of the values. Memory addresses for elements are calculated from the base address using the index and size. Examples are provided to demonstrate accessing elements and calculating memory addresses.
Array ppt
This document discusses arrays in three sentences or less:
Arrays allow storing and accessing multiple values under a single name, with each value stored in consecutive memory locations. Arrays come in one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and multi-dimensional forms and can be accessed using indexes. Common array operations include initialization, accessing elements, searching, sorting, and performing operations on all elements using loops.
Mnedel's dihybrid cross
A dihybrid cross is a breeding experiment between two organisms which are identical hybrids for two traits. In other words, a dihybrid cross is a cross between two organisms, with both being heterozygous for two different traits. The individuals in this type of trait are homozygous for a specific trait. These traits are determined by DNA .
Dihybrid Cross Examples. Mendel took a pair of contradicting traits together for crossing, for example colour and the shape of seeds at a time. He chose the green wrinkled seed and round-yellow seed and crossed them. He obtained only round-yellow seeds in the F1 generation. This indicated that round shape and yellow colour of seeds are dominant.
A dihybrid cross describes a mating experiment between two organisms that are identically hybrid for two traits. ... From his experiment, Mendel observed that the pairs of traits in the parental generation sorted independently from one another, from one generation to the next.
Stack and its operations
This document discusses stacks and their operations. It defines a stack as a linear data structure that follows LIFO (last-in, first-out) ordering. Elements are inserted and removed from one end only, called pushing and popping. Stacks have common real-world examples like decks of cards. They can be represented using arrays or linked lists. The core stack operations are push, which adds an element, and pop, which removes the top element. Additional operations check the stack status, like if it is full or empty. Pseudocode is provided for implementing push, pop, and status checks in both array-based and linked list-based stacks.
Biotechnological applications in Male Sterility and Hybrid Breeding
Male sterility refers to the inability of plants to produce or release functional pollen grains. There are several types of male sterility including genetic, cytoplasmic, and chemically-induced sterility. Male sterility is important for hybrid seed production as it allows for the elimination of manual emasculation. Various biotechnological techniques can be used to induce and control male sterility, such as targeting the tapetum tissue, using RNA interference to silence genes involved in pollen development, or developing inducible or two-component sterility systems. These methods allow for more efficient hybrid seed production.
ER Model in DBMS
The document presents information on Entity Relationship (ER) modeling for database design. It discusses the key concepts of ER modeling including entities, attributes, relationships and cardinalities. It also explains how to create an Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD) using standard symbols and notations. Additional features like generalization, specialization and inheritance are covered which allow ERDs to represent hierarchical relationships between entities. The presentation aims to provide an overview of ER modeling and ERDs as an important technique for conceptual database design.
Introduction of suffix tree
This document discusses suffix trees, including their definition, important contributors, construction, implementation, and applications. Key points:
- A suffix tree is a compressed trie representing all suffixes of a string. It allows efficient pattern matching in linear time.
- Important contributors include Weiner (1973), McCreight (1976), Ukkonen (1995), and Farach (1997) who developed faster construction algorithms.
- There are multiple ways to implement a suffix tree, including using sibling lists, hash maps, balanced search trees, or sorted arrays. External memory may be needed for very large trees.
- Applications include fast substring search, longest common substring problems, and data compression. References provide more details on
stability indices to decipher GxE interaction.ppt
The document discusses genotype-environment interactions and their significance for plant breeders. It provides definitions and models for analyzing stability and adaptation of crop varieties across multiple environments. Specifically, it summarizes four historical regression models - Finlay and Wilkinson (1963), Eberhart and Russell (1966), Perkins and Jinks (1968), and Freeman and Perkins (1971) - as well as the AMMI model. It also describes analyzing genotype-environment interactions using AMMI biplots and GGE biplots to identify stable, widely adapted genotypes through their mean performance and interaction patterns across environments.
Branching statements
BRANCHING STATEMENTS
if statement
if – else statement
if – else if ladder
Nested if
Goto
Switch case
programs
output
flowchart
Branching / Decision Making Statements
The statements in the program that helps to transfer the control from one part to other parts of the program.
Facilitates program in determining the flow of control
Involves decision making conditions
See whether the condition is satisfied or not
If statement; Execute a set of command line or one command line when the logical condition is true.
It has only one option
syntax with flowchart
If else if ladder; Number of logical statements are checked for executing various statement
If the first condition is true the compiler executes the block followed by first if condition.
If false it skips the block and checks for the next logical condition followed by else if.
Process is continued until a true condition is occurred or an else condition is satisfied.
Switch case; Multiway branch statement
It only requires one argument of any type, which is checked with number of cases.
If the value matches with the case constant, that particular case constant is executed. If not the default statement is executed.
Break statement – used to exit from current case structure
Nested if else; When a series of decisions are involved we use more than one if-else statement.
If condition is true control passes to first block i.e., if block. In this case there may be one more if block.
If condition is false control passes to else block. There we may have one more if block.
Linear data structure concepts
Basic implementation of linear data structure like Arrays, Linked list, stack and queue. with sample pseudo code
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Lecture 3 data structures and algorithms
This document provides information about data structures and algorithms. It begins by defining data structures and storage structures, and notes that a data structure is a logical model of data organization while a storage structure represents a data structure in computer memory. It then classifies data structures as linear or non-linear, and notes that linear data structures form a sequence. The document discusses representation of data structures in memory using arrays or linked lists, and common operations on linear structures like traversal, search, insertion and deletion. It provides detailed explanations of arrays and pointers.
Advanced biometrical and quantitative genetics akshay
Additive and Multiplicative Model
Shifted Multiplicative Model
Analysis and Selection of Genotype
Methods and steps to select the best model
Bioplot and mapping genotype
arrays of structures
An array is a collection of variables of the same type referenced by a common name. A structure groups variables of different types. An array of structures combines these concepts by creating an array where each element is a structure. For example, an array of fraction structures could be defined to hold multiple fractions. Each structure element in the array contains a numerator and denominator integer. The entire array of structures occupies a contiguous block of memory with each structure taking up the same amount of space. Individual structure elements can then be accessed using the array index and dot notation.
Molecular control of male fertility for crop hybrid breeding
Harnessing hybrid vigor or heterosis is a promising approach to tackle the current challenge of sustaining enhanced yield gains of field crops. More than half of the production of major crops such as maize, rice, sorghum, rapeseed, and sunflower comes from hybrid varieties.
Union in C programming
Unions allow a variable to hold objects of different types in the same memory location. All members of a union share the same memory location, which is the size of the largest member. This means unions save memory by storing all members in one block, but the programmer must ensure the correct member is being accessed based on the data currently stored. The example program defines a union called Student containing different data types, reads values into members, and displays the members to demonstrate unions share the same memory location.
Genetic engineering & transgenic breeding
This document discusses genetic engineering and transgenic breeding. It begins with an introduction and overview of cell culture and transformation methods like somatic embryogenesis and organogenesis that are used to obtain transgenic plants. Various plant transformation methods like direct transformation, biological delivery methods, and selecting transgenic events are described. The molecular biology behind plant transformation involving overexpression vectors, promoters, RNA interference, and zinc-finger nucleases is explained. Transgenic breeding or breeding with transgenics is then discussed, including improving crop traits through backcrossing transgenic plants with elite varieties. Examples are given of transgenic crops with increased yield or insect resistance.
02 Chromosomes, Genes & Alleles
1. Chromosomes contain DNA and package it into a smaller size. In eukaryotes, DNA is contained in linear chromosomes while prokaryotes have circular chromosomes.
2. Humans have 23 chromosome pairs including one sex chromosome pair that determines gender. Genes are located on chromosomes and can exist in different alleles that determine traits.
3. The genotype is an individual's combination of alleles, which determines their phenotype or physical traits. Dominant alleles will be expressed over recessive alleles. Many factors can influence the relationship between genotype and phenotype.
Chi Square
The document describes how to use a chi-square test to determine if observed offspring ratios from genetic crosses fit the expected ratios predicted by theories like Mendel's laws. It provides the chi-square formula and explains how to calculate expected values, degrees of freedom, and compare the calculated chi-square value to critical values in tables to determine if the observed ratios fit or reject the null hypothesis. An example using Mendel's pea plant data is shown to demonstrate applying the chi-square test.
Entity (types, attibute types)
An entity is a person, place, object, event or concept in the user environment about which the organization wishes to maintain data.
Control statements in c
Operator & control statements in C are used to perform operations and control program flow. Arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /, %) are used for mathematical calculations on integers and floating-point numbers. Relational operators (<, <=, >, >=, ==, !=) compare two operands. Logical operators (&&, ||, !) combine conditions. Control statements like if-else, switch, while, for, break, continue and goto alter program execution based on conditions.
One Dimensional Array
This document discusses one-dimensional arrays. It defines a one-dimensional array as a list of values with the same data type stored under a single name. Elements are stored in consecutive memory locations and can be accessed using the array name and index. Individual elements are referenced as array_name[index]. The size of an array is the number of elements, and the type refers to the data type of the values. Memory addresses for elements are calculated from the base address using the index and size. Examples are provided to demonstrate accessing elements and calculating memory addresses.
Array ppt
This document discusses arrays in three sentences or less:
Arrays allow storing and accessing multiple values under a single name, with each value stored in consecutive memory locations. Arrays come in one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and multi-dimensional forms and can be accessed using indexes. Common array operations include initialization, accessing elements, searching, sorting, and performing operations on all elements using loops.
Mnedel's dihybrid cross
A dihybrid cross is a breeding experiment between two organisms which are identical hybrids for two traits. In other words, a dihybrid cross is a cross between two organisms, with both being heterozygous for two different traits. The individuals in this type of trait are homozygous for a specific trait. These traits are determined by DNA .
Dihybrid Cross Examples. Mendel took a pair of contradicting traits together for crossing, for example colour and the shape of seeds at a time. He chose the green wrinkled seed and round-yellow seed and crossed them. He obtained only round-yellow seeds in the F1 generation. This indicated that round shape and yellow colour of seeds are dominant.
A dihybrid cross describes a mating experiment between two organisms that are identically hybrid for two traits. ... From his experiment, Mendel observed that the pairs of traits in the parental generation sorted independently from one another, from one generation to the next.
Stack and its operations
This document discusses stacks and their operations. It defines a stack as a linear data structure that follows LIFO (last-in, first-out) ordering. Elements are inserted and removed from one end only, called pushing and popping. Stacks have common real-world examples like decks of cards. They can be represented using arrays or linked lists. The core stack operations are push, which adds an element, and pop, which removes the top element. Additional operations check the stack status, like if it is full or empty. Pseudocode is provided for implementing push, pop, and status checks in both array-based and linked list-based stacks.
Biotechnological applications in Male Sterility and Hybrid Breeding
Male sterility refers to the inability of plants to produce or release functional pollen grains. There are several types of male sterility including genetic, cytoplasmic, and chemically-induced sterility. Male sterility is important for hybrid seed production as it allows for the elimination of manual emasculation. Various biotechnological techniques can be used to induce and control male sterility, such as targeting the tapetum tissue, using RNA interference to silence genes involved in pollen development, or developing inducible or two-component sterility systems. These methods allow for more efficient hybrid seed production.
ER Model in DBMS
The document presents information on Entity Relationship (ER) modeling for database design. It discusses the key concepts of ER modeling including entities, attributes, relationships and cardinalities. It also explains how to create an Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD) using standard symbols and notations. Additional features like generalization, specialization and inheritance are covered which allow ERDs to represent hierarchical relationships between entities. The presentation aims to provide an overview of ER modeling and ERDs as an important technique for conceptual database design.
Introduction of suffix tree
This document discusses suffix trees, including their definition, important contributors, construction, implementation, and applications. Key points:
- A suffix tree is a compressed trie representing all suffixes of a string. It allows efficient pattern matching in linear time.
- Important contributors include Weiner (1973), McCreight (1976), Ukkonen (1995), and Farach (1997) who developed faster construction algorithms.
- There are multiple ways to implement a suffix tree, including using sibling lists, hash maps, balanced search trees, or sorted arrays. External memory may be needed for very large trees.
- Applications include fast substring search, longest common substring problems, and data compression. References provide more details on
stability indices to decipher GxE interaction.ppt
The document discusses genotype-environment interactions and their significance for plant breeders. It provides definitions and models for analyzing stability and adaptation of crop varieties across multiple environments. Specifically, it summarizes four historical regression models - Finlay and Wilkinson (1963), Eberhart and Russell (1966), Perkins and Jinks (1968), and Freeman and Perkins (1971) - as well as the AMMI model. It also describes analyzing genotype-environment interactions using AMMI biplots and GGE biplots to identify stable, widely adapted genotypes through their mean performance and interaction patterns across environments.
Branching statements
BRANCHING STATEMENTS
if statement
if – else statement
if – else if ladder
Nested if
Goto
Switch case
programs
output
flowchart
Branching / Decision Making Statements
The statements in the program that helps to transfer the control from one part to other parts of the program.
Facilitates program in determining the flow of control
Involves decision making conditions
See whether the condition is satisfied or not
If statement; Execute a set of command line or one command line when the logical condition is true.
It has only one option
syntax with flowchart
If else if ladder; Number of logical statements are checked for executing various statement
If the first condition is true the compiler executes the block followed by first if condition.
If false it skips the block and checks for the next logical condition followed by else if.
Process is continued until a true condition is occurred or an else condition is satisfied.
Switch case; Multiway branch statement
It only requires one argument of any type, which is checked with number of cases.
If the value matches with the case constant, that particular case constant is executed. If not the default statement is executed.
Break statement – used to exit from current case structure
Nested if else; When a series of decisions are involved we use more than one if-else statement.
If condition is true control passes to first block i.e., if block. In this case there may be one more if block.
If condition is false control passes to else block. There we may have one more if block.
Linear data structure concepts
Basic implementation of linear data structure like Arrays, Linked list, stack and queue. with sample pseudo code
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Advanced biometrical and quantitative genetics akshay
Advanced biometrical and quantitative genetics akshay
Molecular control of male fertility for crop hybrid breeding
Molecular control of male fertility for crop hybrid breeding
Biotechnological applications in Male Sterility and Hybrid Breeding
Biotechnological applications in Male Sterility and Hybrid Breeding
PSI Exam Syllabus MPSC
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- 3. 4) ह ÍĘ ह - Ȍ (1885- 1947), ह¾ ´ Ë ¯ Ȓ , Î Ă « « ĝ © / , Î Ă « , ÍĘ . 5) ¶ घ - घ घ ´ ĢÎ ¾ , घ ह¾ / Í , Ȃ ğ ¶ , ȓ ¶ , ह¯ «Ë ¶ ´ « « ¾ - © , « Ëह , Î ĝ Â . 6) ह - 2005 7) ह ĝª - , ©ĝ , Ç , Ȕ ¯ , Âह ¾ Ģ Î (case law) Ǐ Çह ह ĝª ह ½ ह , ह ĝª Ǐ ¾ ɕ, «Ď , , Ǐ ह , ª ह , ह ह Ȃ ğ ¾ . 8) ह¯ É - Ê - ÍĘ ह¯ , ¾ ɕ ¶ घ , ह¯ - ĝ © , ह¯ , ह¯ ह½ ´ Î , , © , , - Î - Ȍ Ģ ° , (ȋह , ĥÍ , ह , , © Âह , ¾ .) ह Ë Î ह¯ Ģ Í ½ Ģ © ह¾ , ह¯ © 1955, ह¯ © 1993, ȋह ह © 2005, ȋह ह © 2005, ( ¾ Ģ ) 1989, ह 1961, ह ¾ ¯ . 9) 10) ह 11) ĢĎ ह - 1973 12) ( Indian Evidence Act. ) 3. - 100 3.1 ° © ह ȋ ĝ . ह Ê Î ɕ ȎÎ ह . 3.2 ह ´ « É घ½ . Ǘ ह Î ĝ .
- 4. 3.3 Ǘ ह (1) (7.260 . Đ ) - -15 (1) (4 . Đ ) - -20 (2) Ã ( ) - -20 ( 2) (200 «) - -40 (3) - -15 (3) ½ © (3 «) - - 40 (4) (800 «) - -50 3.4 ´ ह ´ « É / ह Ď Ê ¾ ¾ Ď « Ì ह. ± Ǘ ĝ ´ / घ½ Î ĝ ½ . ´ ĝ ´ / ȎÌ ½ . ´ ĝ É ¾ घ½ . ĝ É ¾ , Î ĝ घ½ . 3.5 ´ ¶ Ǘ ° ¯ ´ , © ´ घ . 3.6 Á 50% É ɕ Ê घ½ . ¾ Î ɕ ȎÎ ह . 4. - 4.1 ´ ´ ĝ Ê © ´ ½ . © 40 . 4.2 ĝ Ê ĝ ह / ह« / ȓ ĝ ´ ɕ Ë ĝ É घ . ह ĝ Ǘ É Lj ½ ¾ घ ह . ¾ ह ½ ह . 4.3 ĝ É ´ ´ «Ď ȎÌ Ê घ½ . 5. - ° © , Á Ģ Ã Ê ĝ Ǘ DŽ Ď ½ . DŽ Á É Ģ Â Ď (Ranking) " « " Á Ê ½ .
- 5. 6. :- (1) " « " Á Ê « Á ´ ´ ½ . (2) घ Ê ¯ ¯ , ¾ ¯ ½ ह ȋ ह ½ Ê ´ Ģ Á ½ . 7. Í ह ½ ± ह ¾ ह ह Lj . ´ ½ É ĢÌ Á ĢÌ ¶ « ¾ «Ë É , ª ´ ¶ Í ©ĝ ª Ģ Ã ¾ ©ĝ Ǐ घ , Đ ©ĝ ´ ȎÎ ¾ ह Đ ´ Î ĢÌ . 8. घ Ê ¯ ¯ , ¾ ¯ ½ ह ȋ ह ½ Ê ´ Ģ Á ½ . 9. Ģ¾ ĢÌ ĝ Î Ǘ , ,ĢÌ ° , , Æ Ď , Á ह ¾ Ģ ह . 10. « © / ° © ह ɕ ȎÌ ¾ ह . « : « ह« ȎÌ . ȋ ȓ , ह Ê ´ ° Ģ¾ ɕ ह ह« . 11. ȓ , ह ´ ´ ° Ê Ģ . 12. « © ह« Ģ Ã Ê ± Ô © Ģ . ° © ह« Ģ Ã Ê घ½ . ¯ © / Î ɕ ह ह . 13. DŽ ह ¾ ° © , , Á Ģ Ã Ê ĝ ह . 14. ȓ , ह ¾ ¾ Å Ê ° ¯ ´ DŽ Ď . 15. ȃ ǎ ह ÍĘ ¶ © Ȏ¯ ½ ´ Ģ © Ê . « ǓÍ ± ह ĝ Ê ¾ Ģ © ह . ह Ģ © ह Ê © « Ê ± ¾ © DŽȓ Ê ¯ ह . **************