Project DescriptionApply decision-making frameworks to IT-rela.docx

Project Description
Apply decision-making frameworks to IT-related ethical issues
There are several ethical theories described in Module 1:
Ethical Theories. Module 2: Methods of Ethical Decision
Making, describes frameworks for ethical analysis. For this
paper, use the Reynolds Seven-Step approach to address the
following:
· Describe a current IT-related ethical issue; and define a
problem statement
· Analyze your problem using a decision-making framework
chosen from Module 2.
· Discuss the applicable ethical theory from Module 1 that
supports your decision.
· Prepare a minimum 3- 5 page, double-spaced paper.
· Use APA style and format. Provide appropriate American
Psychological Association (APA) reference citations for all
sources. In addition to critical thinking and analysis skills,
your paper should reflect appropriate grammar and spelling,
good organization, and proper business-writing style.
Each of Reynolds seven steps must be a major heading in your
paper.
Here are some suggested issues-
1. Workplace Issue.
2. Privacy on the Web. What is happening now in terms of
privacy on the Web? Think about recent abuses and
improvements. Describe and evaluate Web site policies,
technical and privacy policy protections, and current proposals
for government regulations.
3. Personal Data Privacy Regulations in Other Countries. Report

on personal data privacy regulations, Web site privacy policies,
and governmental/law enforcement about access to personal
data in one or more countries; e.g., the European Union. This is
especially relevant as our global economic community expands
and we are more dependent on non-US clients for e-Business
over the Internet. (Note: new proposed regulations are under
review in Europe.)
4. Spam. Describe new technical solutions and the current state
of regulation. Consider the relevance of freedom of speech.
Discuss the roles of technical and legislative solutions.
5. Computer-Based Crimes. Discuss the most prevalent types of
computer crimes, such as Phishing. Analyze why and how these
can occur. Describe protective measures that might assist in
preventing or mitigating these types of crimes.
6. Government surveillance of the Internet. The 9/11 attacks on
the US in 2001 brought many new laws and permits more
government surveillance of the Internet. Is this a good idea?
Many issues are cropping up daily in our current periodicals!
7. The Digital Divide. Does it exist; what does it look like; and,
what are the ethical considerations and impact?
8. Privacy in the Workplace: Monitoring Employee Web and E-
Mail Use. What are current opinions concerning monitoring
employee computer use. What policies are employers using?
Should this be authorized or not? Policies are changing even
now!
9. Medical Privacy. Who owns your medical history? What is
the state of current legislation to protect your health
information? Is it sufficient? There are new incentives with
federal stimulus financing for health care organizations to
develop and implement digital health records.
10. Software piracy. How many of you have ever made an
unauthorized copy of software, downloaded software or music
(free or for a fee), or used copyrighted information without
giving proper credit or asking permission? Was this illegal or
just wrong? How is this being addressed?
11. Predictions for Ethical IT Dilemma in 2020. What is your

biggest worry or your prediction for ethical concerns of the
future related to information technology?
12. Consumer Profiling. With every purchase you make, every
Web site you visit, your preferences are being profiled. What is
your opinion regarding the legal authority of these
organizations to collect and aggregate this data?
13. Biometrics & Ethics. Your fingerprint, retinal-vessel image,
and DNA map can exist entirely as a digital image in a
computer, on a network, or in the info-sphere. What new and
old ethical problems must we address?
14. Ethical Corporations. Can corporations be ethical? Why or
why not?
15. Social Networking. What are some of the ethical issues
surrounding using new social networks? How are these now
considered for business use? What are business social
communities? Are new/different protections and security
needed for these networks?
16. Gambling in Cyberspace. Is it legal? Are there national
regulations and/or licensing? What are the oversight and
enforcement requirements? Are there international implications?
What are the social and public health issues?
17. Pornography in Cyberspace For example, the U.S. Supreme
Court ruling protecting as free speech computer-generated child
pornography
18. Medicine and Psychiatry in Cyberspace. Some
considerations include: privacy issues; security; third-party
record-keeping; electronic medical records; access to
information, even by the patient (patient rights); access to
information by outsiders without patient knowledge; authority
to transfer and/or share information. Are there any policies
proposed by professional organizations?
19. Counterterrorism and Information Systems Your protection
versus your rights
20. Open-source Software versus Closed-source
Software Ethical ramifications and impact on intellectual
property law

21. Creative Commons Licenses How do they work and what are
the legal and ethical impacts and concerns?
22. Universal ID Card. What is the general position of the U.S.
government about issuing each individual a unique ID Card?
Which individual U.S. government agencies have already
provided a unique ID Card? What steps have been taken to
include individual ID information electronically in passports?
How is privacy and security provided?
23. Federal and State Law Enforcement’s Role to enforce
computer-based crime.
Module 1: Introduction to Ethical Theories
Introduction to Ethical Theories
The concepts of ethics, character, right and wrong, and good
and evil have captivated humankind since we began to live in
groups, communicate, and pass judgment on each other. The
morality of our actions is based on motivation, group rules and
norms, and the end result. The difficult questions of ethics and
information technology (IT) may not have been considered by
previous generations, but what is good, evil, right, and wrong in
human behavior certainly has been. With these historical
foundations and systematic analyses of present-day and future
IT challenges, we are equipped for both the varied ethical
battles we will face and the ethical successes we desire.
Although most of you will be called upon to practice applied
ethics in typical business situations, you'll find that the
foundation for such application is a basic understanding of
fundamental ethical theories. These ethical theories include the
work of ancient philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. This
module introduces the widely accepted core ethical
philosophies, which will serve to provide you with a basic

understanding of ethical thought. With this knowledge, you can
begin to relate these theoretical frameworks to practical ethical
applications in today's IT environment.
Let's start with a fundamental question: "Why be ethical
and moral?" At the most existential level, it may not matter. But
we don't live our lives in a vacuum—we live our lives with our
friends, relatives, acquaintances, co-workers, strangers, and
fellow wanderers. To be ethical and moral allows us to be
counted upon by others and to be better than we would
otherwise be. This, in turn, engenders trust and allows us to
have productive relationships with other people and in society.
Our ethical system, supported by critical thinking skills, is what
enables us to make distinctions between what is good, bad,
right, or wrong.
An individual's ethical system is based upon his or her personal
values and beliefs as they relate to what is important and is,
therefore, highly individualized. Values are things that are
important to us. "Values can be categorized into three areas:
Moral (fairness, truth, justice, love, happiness), Pragmatic
(efficiency, thrift, health, variety, patience) and Aesthetic
(attractive, soft, cold, square)" (Navran, n.d.). Moral values
influence our ethical system. These values may or may not be
supported by individual beliefs. For example, a person is faced
with a decision—he borrowed a friend's car and accidentally
backed into a tree stump, denting the fender—should he confess
or make up a story about how it happened when the car was
parked? If he had a personal value of honesty, he would decide
not to lie to his friend. Or, he could have a strong belief that
lying is wrong because it shows disrespect for another person
and, therefore, he would tell the truth. In either case, the ethical
decision making was influenced by his system of values or
beliefs. These may come from family, culture, experience,
education, and so on.
This discussion brings us to the term ethics. Frank Navran,
principal consultant with the Ethics Resource Center (ERC),
defines ethics as "the study of what we understand to be good

and right behavior and how people make those judgments"
(n.d.). Behavior that is consistent with one's moral values would
be considered ethical behavior. Actions that are inconsistent
with one's view of right, just, and good are considered unethical
behavior. However, it is important to note that determining what
is ethical is not just an individual decision—it also is
determined societally.
We will witness this larger social dimension in this course,
which is designed to provide you with an understanding of the
specific ethical issues that have arisen as information
technology has evolved over the last few decades. The very
changes that enhanced technology causes in society also create
ethical issues and dilemmas not previously encountered. The
lack of precedent in many areas, combined with the ease of
potentially operating outside of ethical paradigms, pose
significant challenges to end users, IT analysts, programmers,
technicians, and managers of information systems. We must be
prepared logically and scientifically to understand ethics and to
practice using ethical guidelines in order to achieve good and
right solutions and to plan courses of action in times of change
and uncertainty.
You can see from the benefits discussed above that knowledge,
respect for, and a deeper understanding of norms and laws and
their source—ethics and morals—is extremely useful. Ethical
thought and theories are tools to facilitate our ethical decision-
making process. They can provide the foundation on which to
build a great company, or to become a better and more
productive employee, a better neighbor, and a better person.
Still, some professionals may wonder "Why study ethics?"
Robert Hartley, author of Business Ethics: Violations of the
Public Trust (Hartley, 1993, pp. 322–324) closes his book with
four insights, which speak directly to this question for business
and IT professionals. They are:
· The modern era is one of caveat vendidor, "Let the seller
beware." For IT managers, this is an important reason to
understand and practice ethics.

· In business (and in life), adversity is not forever. But Hartley
points out that when business problems are handled unethically,
the adversity becomes a permanent flaw and results in company,
organization, and individual failure.
· Trusting relationships (with customers, employees, and
suppliers) are critical keys to success. Ethical behavior is part
and parcel of building and maintaining the trust relationship,
and hence business success.
· One person can make a difference. This difference may be for
good or evil, but one person equipped with the understanding of
ethical decision-making, either by acting on it or simply
articulating it to others, changes history. This sometimes takes
courage or steadfastness—qualities that spring from basic
ethical confidence.
In the world of information technology today and in the future,
the application of these ethical theories to day-to-day and
strategic decision making is particularly relevant. The ability to
garner personal, corporate, and governmental information and to
disseminate this data in thousands of applications with various
configurations and components brings significant
responsibilities to ensure the privacy, accuracy, and integrity of
such information. The drive to collect and distribute data at
increasing volume and speed, whether for competitive
advantage in the marketplace or homeland security cannot
overshadow the IT manager's responsibility to provide
appropriate controls, processes, and procedures to protect
individual and organizational rights.
Let's begin building our understanding of several predominant
ethical theories. Ethical theories typically begin with the
premise that what is being evaluated is good or bad, right or
wrong. Theorists seek to examine either the basic nature of the
act or the results the act brings about. As Deborah Johnson
(2001, p. 29) states in Computer Ethics, philosophical ethics is
normative (explaining how things should be, not how they are at
any given moment) and ethical theories are prescriptive
(prescribing the "desired" behavior). Frameworks for ethical

analysis aim to shape or guide the most beneficial outcome or
behavior. There are two main categories of normative ethical
theories: teleology and deontology. Telos refers
to end and deon refers to that which is obligatory. These
theories address the fundamental question of whether the
"means justify the end" or the "end justifies the means."
Deontological ethical systems focus on the principle of the
matter (the means), not the end result. In contrast, teleological
ethical systems address the resulting consequences of an action
(the ends).
Teleology (Consequentialism)
Teleological theories focus on maximizing the goodness of the
cumulative end result of a decision or action. In determining
action, one considers the good of the end result before the
immediate rightness of the action itself. These theories focus on
consequences of an action or decision and are often referred to
as consequentialism. Teleological theories include
utilitarianism, ethical egoism, and common good ethics.
Utilitarianism
The most prevalent example of a teleological theory
is utilitarianism, often associated with the writings of John
Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham. Utilitarianism looks for the
greatest good for the greatest number of people, including
oneself. Individual rights and entitlements are subservient to the
general welfare. There are two main subtypes: act-utilitarianism
(for which the rules are more like rules-of-thumb/guidelines)
and rule-utilitarianism (for which the rules are more tightly
defined and critical). Utilitarianism requires consideration of
actions that generate the best overall consequences for all
parties involved. This entails:
· cost/benefit analysis
· determination of the greatest good or happiness for the
greatest number
· identifying the action that will maximize benefits for the
greatest number of stakeholders of the organization
This quote explains a bit more: "The fathers of utilitarianism

thought of it principally as a system of social and political
decision, as offering a criterion and basis of judgment for
legislators and administrators" (Williams, 1993, p. 135).
Utilitarianism is geared to administrative and organizational
decision-making, given that in complex systems or
relationships, a single individual may not have the resources to
determine the overall benefit to the total number of people
affected by the decisions.
Ethical Egoism and Altruism
Egoism is maximizing your own benefits and minimizing harm
to yourself. This is sometimes thought of as
behavioral Darwinism, and clearly it guides decision-making
with an eye toward basic survival. Although different aspects of
this theory debate whether all human behavior is self-serving or
should be self-serving, it is impossible to know with certainty
what internally motivates an individual.
Altruism determines decisions and actions based on the interests
of others, the perceived maximized good for others, often at
one's own expense or in a way directly opposed to the egoist
alternative.
Further debate can be found over whether ethical egoism also
incorporates an element of altruism. For example, a network
engineer working for a vendor recommends to a client a network
security installation that generates a substantial commission for
the engineer. However, this installation also provides maximum
network security for the benefit of the client. Is this self-serving
or altruistic? The inability to distinguish pure motives in most
practical applications, along with the inherent conflict resulting
from competing self-interests, leads to an unsurprising result:
these theories are not typically used in generally accepted
frameworks for ethical decision-making.
The Common Good
The common-good approach comes from the teachings and
writings of Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and Rawls. It is based on an
assumption that within our society, certain general conditions
are equally advantageous to all and should therefore be

maximized. These conditions include health care, safety, peace,
justice, and the environment. This is different from
utilitarianism in that utilitarianism strives for the maximum
good for the most (but not necessarily all) people. The common-
good approach sets aside only those conditions that apply to all.
All teleological theories focus on the end result: what's best for
me, what's best for you, or what's best for some or all of us.
One important factor in using teleological frameworks as a
guide to action is that you need to be able to understand
accurately and project the end result for the variety of affected
groups. For egoism and altruism, this is perhaps not difficult.
For larger, more remote, and less-well-understood groups,
teleological theories can lead to acts that in turn become the
bricks paving the road of good intentions. However, in
information technology, where many people are affected either
positively or negatively by the acts of a few, teleological
theories can be very helpful.
Deontology (Rights and Duties)
Deontological theories focus on defining the right action
independently of and prior to considerations of the goodness or
badness of the outcomes. The prefix deon refers to duty or
obligation—one acts because one is bound by honor or training
to act in the right manner, regardless of the outcome.
Deontological theories include those that focus on protection of
universal rights and execution of universal duties, as well as
those that protect less universal rights and more specific duties.
These rights and duties are usually learned and are often
codified in some traditional way. For example, theologism is a
deontological theory based on the Ten Commandments. Boy
Scouts have a code that is intended as a guide to the rights of
others and personal duties. Deontology uses one's duty as the
guide to action, regardless of the end results.
Kant's Categorical Imperative
Deontological theories are most often associated with Immanuel
Kant and his categorical imperative. Kant's famous categorical
imperative takes two forms:

1. You ought never act in any way unless that way or act can be
made into a universal maxim (i.e., your act may be
universalized for all people), and
2. Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person
or that of another, always as an end and never only as a means.
Kant's duty-based approach might directly conflict with
teleological approaches, for in a utilitarian solution, individuals
could very easily serve as the means for other ends. Duty-based
ethical analysis leads a manager to consider the following
questions:
1. What if everyone did what I'm about to do? What kind of
world would this be? Can I universalize the course of action I
am considering?
2. Does this course of action violate any basic ethical duties?
3. Are there alternatives that better conform to these duties? If
each alternative seems to violate one duty or another, which is
the stronger duty?
Duty-Based Ethics (Pluralism)
A duty-based approach to ethics focuses on the universally
recognized duties that we are morally compelled to do. There
are several "duties" that are recognized by most cultures as
being binding and self-evident. These duties include being
honest, being fair, making reparations, working toward self-
improvement, and not hurting others. A duty-based approach
would put these obligations ahead of the end result, regardless
of what it may be. Pluralism includes the care-based ethical
approach based simply on the Golden Rule, "Do unto others as
you would have them do unto you."
Rights-Based Ethics (Contractarianism)
A rights-based approach to ethics has its roots in the social
contract philosophies of Rousseau, Hobbes, and John Locke.
These ideas are also at the foundation of the United States form
of government and history, and rights (whether natural or
granted by governments) are intensely held American
ideological values. Because the global information technology
leadership is fundamentally an American creation, contractarian

philosophical approaches in IT are widely used, even if we don't
think about it overtly. When invoking a rights-based or
contractarian framework, managers must carefully consider the
rights of affected parties:
· Which action or policy best upholds the human rights of the
individuals involved?
· Do any alternatives under consideration violate their
fundamental human rights (i.e., liberty, privacy, and so on)?
· Do any alternatives under consideration violate their
institutional or legal rights (e.g., rights derived from a contract
or other institutional arrangement)?
Fairness and Justice
The fairness-and-justice approach is based on the teachings of
Aristotle. It is quite simple: equals should be treated equally.
Favoritism, a situation where some benefit for no justifiable
reason, is unethical. Discrimination, a situation where a burden
is imposed on some who are not relevantly different from the
others, is also unethical. This approach is deontological because
it simply identifies a right and a duty, and does not specifically
consider the end result.
Virtue Ethics
Whereas teleological theories focus on results or consequences
and deontological theories relate to rights and duties, the virtue
ethics approach attributes ethics to personal attitudes or
character traits and encourages all to develop to their highest
potential. This theory includes the virtues themselves: "motives
and moral character, moral education, moral wisdom or
discernment, friendship and family relationships, a deep concept
of happiness, the role of emotions in one's moral life and the
fundamentally important questions of what sort of person I
should be and how I should live my life" (Hursthouse, 2003).
When faced with an ethical dilemma, a virtue ethicist would
focus on the character traits of honesty, generosity, or
compassion, for example, rather than consequences or rules.
Virtue ethics is included in the area of what is referred to as
normative ethics.

The table below helps to organize the various ethical theories
for you. Note that these theories have evolved over time, and
there are some overlapping ideas and theorists.
Major Ethical Theories
Theory
Key Players
Explanation
Utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill, Jeremy Bentham
Seeks the greatest good for the greatest number of people;
wants to make the world a better place
Egoism
Epicurus, Thomas Hobbes
Seeks to maximize one's individual benefit and minimize harm
to self; key idea: survival.
Altruism
Auguste Comte
Seeks to maximize decisions and actions based on interests of
others, even if at own individual expense; opposite of egoism.
Common Good
Plato, Aristotle, Cicero and Rawls
Based on the assumption that within society, we are all pursuing
common goals and values.
Duty-Based or Pluralism
Immanuel Kant
Based on Kant's categorical imperative: all acts can be made
into a universal maximum; act always as an end (not a means)
Rights-Based (Contractarianism)
Rousseau, Hobbes, and John Locke
Seeks action or policy that best upholds the human rights of

individuals involved (foundation for United States form of
government).
Fairness and Justice Approach
Aristotle
Equals should be treated equally; favoritism and discrimination
are unethical.
Virtue
Predominantly influenced by Plato and Artistotle
Seeks to encourage all to develop to their highest potential
Computer Ethics
What is computer ethics? This term can be used in a variety of
ways. It may refer to applying traditional ethical theories to IT
situations, or it may entail the broader application that we see
with the prevalence of ethical codes, standards of conduct, and
new areas of computer law and policy. There also is an
increasing interest in how sociology and psychology relate to
computing. Scholars generally agree that the study of computer
ethics began with Norbert Wiener, an MIT professor who
worked during World War II to develop an anti-aircraft cannon.
His work in the 1940s prompted Wiener and his associates to
create a new field of study that Wiener labeled cybernetics.
Their work fostered the development of several ethical
conclusions regarding the potential implications of this type of
advanced technology. Wiener published his book, The Human
Use of Human Beings, in 1950. Although the term computer
ethics was not used by Wiener and it was decades later that the
term came into general use, his work certainly laid the
foundation for future study and analysis. His book became a
cornerstone for the study of computer ethics. In it, Wiener talks
about the purpose of human life and the four principles of
justice, but he also offers discussion, application, and examples
of what would come to be recognized as computer ethics.
(Bynum, 2001)
It wasn't until the 1970s that computer ethics began to garner

interest. Walter Maner, a university professor then at Old
Dominion University, offered a course in computer ethics to
examine the ethical problems created, exacerbated, or changed
due to computer technology (Bynum, 2001). Through the 70s
and 80s, interest increased in this area, and in 1985, Deborah
Johnson (previously referenced in this module) authored the
first textbook on the subject, Computer Ethics. Both Maner and
Johnson advocated the application of concepts from the ethical
theories of utilitarianism and Kantianism. However, in 1985,
James Moor published a broader definition of computer ethics
in his article "What is Computer Ethics?" He states: "computer
ethics is the analysis of the nature and social impact of
computer technology and the corresponding formulation and
justification of policies for the ethical use of such technology"
(Moor, 1985, p. 266). His definition was in line with several
frameworks for ethical problem-solving rather than the specific
application of any philosopher's theory. With the potentially
limitless ability of computing comes a dynamic, evolutionary
flow of related ethical dilemmas. Moor indicated that as
computer technology became more entwined with people and
their everyday activities, the ethical challenges would become
more difficult to conceptualize and do not lend themselves to
the development of a static set of rules (Moor, 1985).
Throughout the 1990s and continuing into the new millennium,
we've seen tremendous developments in the field of technology.
Not surprisingly, with these developments, we've seen the wide-
spread adoption of computers to almost every application
imaginable, including the affordability and prevalence of
computers in homes and businesses. Professional associations
have adopted codes of conduct for their members, organizations
have developed ethical codes and standards of conduct for
employees, and the IT field has focused increased efforts in
addressing the ethical situations and challenges that have
unfolded.
In the following modules, we will explore how to apply these
traditional theories and analysis and problem-solving

frameworks to effectively understand and address ethical
challenges in the information age.
References
Bynum, T. (2001).Computer ethics: Basic concepts and
historical overview. In E.N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford
encyclopedia of philosophy (Winter 2001 ed.). Retrieved July 7,
2005, from
http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2001/entries/ethics-
computer/
Hartley, R. F. (1993). Business ethics: Violations of the public
trust. New York: John Wiley.
Hursthouse, R. (2003). Virtue ethics. In E.N. Zalta (Ed.), The
Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Fall 2003 ed.). Retrieved
July 2, 2005, from
http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2003/entries/ethics-virtue/
Johnson, D. G. (2001). Computer ethics (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Kidder, R. M. (1995). How good people make tough choices:
Resolving the dilemmas of ethical living. New York: Simon and
Schuster.
Narvan, F. Ask the expert: What is the difference between
ethics, morals and values? The Ethics Resource Center.
Retrieved June 19, 2005, from
http://www.ethics.org/ask_e4.html
Williams, B. (1993). A critique of utilitarianism. In J.J.C. Smart
& B. Williams (Eds.), Utilitarianism: For and against.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Module 2: Methods of Ethical Analysis
Application of Ethical Theories
In module 1, we acquired a foundation in classical ethical
theories. In this module, we will learn how to apply this
knowledge to ethical challenges in today's business world and,
more specifically, to the area of information technology.

As we learned in module 1, the main traditional ethical theories
tend to be either rule-based (deontological) or consequentialist
(teleological). Both types of theories provide a framework for
deciding whether actions are right, depending upon the
consequences that result from the action (consequentialist) or
whether the action follows the relevant rules for ethical
behavior (deontological). Traditional ethical theories were
intended to apply universally to ethical dilemmas and obviously
didn't factor in issues such as marketplace competition,
stockholders, and today's ever-changing world of information
technology. Today's IT manager needs to be able to address
ethical issues and to find resolutions in concrete business terms
rather than engage in a philosophical ethical debate. However,
we can use those theories to guide our ethical decision-making
process.
In addition to the ethical theories already presented, business
ethics attempts to take traditional ethics and apply them
practically to a business context. The normative theories of
business ethics (NTBE), introduced to the information systems
community in large part by Smith and Hasnas, provide three
basic approaches to ethical problems: stockholder, stakeholder,
and social contract theories (Smith, 2002). In this section, we
will introduce those theories as well as make connections to
classical theory.
Normative Theories of Business Ethics
As its name indicates, the stockholder theory of NTBE focuses
on making ethical decisions that benefit stockholders.
According to this theory, because stockholders have invested in
the company for their own profit, actions taken by the company
should be focused on benefiting the bottom line. A manager or
employee has a responsibility to use corporate resources in
ways that do not take away from the stockholders' benefits.
Stockholder theory instructs managers to act within legal
constraints. It does not instruct or encourage managers to ignore
ethical constraints.
Stakeholder theory expands a manager's responsibility beyond

the stockholders to include anyone with an interest in the firm.
This could include employees, customers, stockholders, and
potentially even competitors. Given that there is a potential
conflict among the interests of the various stakeholders, the
manager's challenge is to balance those interests and to provide
the best possible solution that does not substantially infringe on
any individual stakeholder group.
According to social contract theory, businesses have ethical
obligations to benefit society by fulfilling customer and
employee interests within the generally accepted rules or codes.
If there were a hypothetical contract between society and a
group of individuals who wished to establish a business, what
would the latter need from society—and what would society
expect in return? The terms of this hypothetical contract would
outline both those sets of expectations. Therefore, in giving the
group of individuals rights to act as an organization, use
resources, and hire employees, a society would have
expectations related to fair treatment of employees, appropriate
uses of natural resources, and so on. (Smith, 2002).
Figure 2.1 illustrates the various links between business ethics
and traditional ethical theories to show the continuing relevance
of the latter. To find out more about the connections between
NTBE and traditional ethics, click on the titles under Normative
Theories of Business Ethics and read the information contained
in the pop-up.
Figure 2.1
Linkages between Traditional Ethical and Business Ethics
Frameworks
(Adapted from Smith, H. J. (2002). Ethics and Information
Systems: Resolving the Quandaries. The DATABASE for
Advances in Information Systems (Summer 2002), p. 5.)
As you can see from the dotted lines in figure 2.1, the modern
and traditional elements do have connections and relationships
despite their various origins and applications. As you become
more familiar with each of these areas, the similarities and

differences will become clearer.
Methods for Ethical Analysis
Now that you've had some practice in working through an
ethical decision-making scenario, let's look at various structured
approaches for addressing such situations. There are several
ways to systematically approach an ethical dilemma. Each has
merits, and each will result in an ethical decision if
straightforwardly and honestly applied. As you will see, the
various approaches are similar yet have somewhat different
slants.
Reynolds Seven-Step Approach
George Reynolds uses a seven-step ethical decision-making
approach that is summarized in table 2.1.
Table 2.1
Reynolds' Seven-Step Ethical Decision-Making Approach
Steps
Description
1. Get the facts
Before proceeding, ensure that you have assembled the relevant
facts regarding the ethical issue that you're addressing.
2. Identify the stakeholders
Identify who is impacted by this situation and its subsequent
resolution. Define what their role is as well as what would be
the best-case outcome for each stakeholder group.
3. Consider the consequences
What are the benefits and/or harm that could come from your
decision to you individually, the stakeholders, and the
organization as a whole?
4. Evaluate the various guidelines, policies, and principles
First look to any applicable laws, then to any existing corporate
policies, ethical codes, and individual principles. Look at the
application of traditional ethical theories as well as Normative
Theories of Business Ethics.
5. Develop and evaluate options
You may identify several possible solutions and may find it
useful to support each with key principles that support the

recommendation. Your chosen solution should be ethically
defendable and, at the same time, meet the stakeholder and
organizational needs and obligations.
6. Review your decision
Review your decision in relationship to your personal and the
organization's values. Would others see this as a good and right
decision?
7. Evaluate the results
Did the final outcome achieve the desired results? This is an
important step to help develop and increase your decision-
making abilities.
(Adapted from Reynolds, G. W. (2003). Ethics in Information
Technology, pp.115-118.)
Kidder's Nine-Steps
In his book How Good People Make Tough Choices, Rushworth
Kidder presents a similar process; however, he defines four
dilemmas by which various moral issues could be categorized
(Kidder, 1995, p.18).
· Truth versus loyalty
· Individual versus community
· Short-term versus long-term
· Justice versus mercy
Kidder's Nine-Steps are:
1. Recognize that there is a moral issue.
2. Determine the actor (whose moral issue is it?).
3. Gather the relevant facts.
4. Test for right-versus-wrong issues.
5. Test for right-versus-right paradigms (what sort of dilemma
is this?).
6. Apply the resolution principles (ends-based, rule-based, or
care-based).
7. Investigate the "trilemma" options (look for common ground
or compromise).
8. Make the decision.
9. Revisit and reflect on the decision. (Kidder, 1995, p. 183-
187)

Kidder places "recognize that there is a moral issue" as the first
step in the analysis for two reasons. First, it helps to ensure that
issues receive the attention required. Secondly, it encourages a
person to adequately address moral questions and distinguish
moral issues from other situations involving social conventions
or contradictory values that could be "economic, technological,
or aesthetic" rather than moral issues (Kidder, 1995, p. 183).
After evaluating for legal compliance, Kidder advocates some
common sense checks such as "How would you feel if what you
are about to do showed up tomorrow morning on the front pages
of the nation's newspapers?" Then, he evaluates the issue to
identify which of the four dilemmas listed above apply to gain
better clarity around the dilemma, identifying the conflict at
hand. (Kidder, 1995, p. 184).
Spinello's Seven-Step Process
Richard Spinello provides a similar seven-step process for
ethical analysis designed specifically for IT professionals, and
it is geared toward development of public policy and law. His
sixth step entails adding an original normative conclusion: what
should happen? His seventh step includes the questions: "What
are the public-policy implications of this case and your
normative recommendations? Should the recommended behavior
be prescribed through policies and laws?" This approach can be
useful for IT organizations seeking to better structure and
define policies and procedures (Spinello, 1997, p. 45).
Here are all Seven-Steps:
1. Identify and formulate the basic ethical issues in each case.
Also, consider legal issues and whether ethical and legal issues
are in conflict.
2. What are your first impressions, your moral intuition about
the problem?
3. Consult appropriate formal guidelines, the ethical and/or
professional codes.
4. Analyze the issues from the viewpoint of one or more of the
three ethical frameworks.
5. Do the theories lead to a single solution, or do they offer

competing alternatives? If competing, which principle or avenue
of reasoning should take precedence?
6. What is your normative conclusion—what should happen?
7. What are the public-policy implications of this case and your
normative recommendations? Should the recommended behavior
be prescribed through policies and laws?
Many common business activities, such as process
improvement, problem solving, and project management, have
defined approaches to support their process. To effectively
make ethical decisions, it also is extremely useful to have a
structure to approach the problem. As a beginning step, have an
understanding of the available methodologies for approaching
the issue in an objective manner. Eventually, skill and
experience in applying the process will enable you to explain
your process and subsequent recommendations to other
stakeholders.
One of the challenges for those working in IT is the lack of
precedence in some situations. The more you can apply a well-
grounded methodology when faced with a new or ambiguous
ethical dilemma, the greater the likelihood that you can come to
an ethical solution that will effectively balance individual,
organizational, and/or social concerns with good business.
Ultimately, you need to use an analytical approach that works
for you and for your organization. It may be one of the
approaches we've discussed, or it may be a hybrid. Individual
values will also drive the approach. In addition to these
theories, corporations and professional associations have
attempted to provide guidance through corporate codes of
conduct or professional codes of ethics. Corporate codes of
conduct typically are intended to apply to all employees and,
therefore, do not specifically address IT issues. However, some
IT organizations establish additional policies related to software
use and so on. Professional associations, such as
the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), have
established code of ethics for its members to help guide their
activities.

Many of the ethical issues that arise within the field of
information technology fall into similar areas. Richard Mason, a
professor in Management Information Systems, has identified
four ethical areas in the Information Age that have been widely
accepted as key issues (Mason, 1986):
· Privacy
· Accuracy
· Property
· Accessibility
References
Barquin, R. C. (1992). Ten commandments of computer ethics.
Retrieved August 19, 2005, from
http://www.brook.edu/its/cei/overview/Ten_Commandments_of_
Computer_Ethics.htm
Kidder, R. M. (1995). How good people make tough choices:
Resolving the dilemmas of ethical living. New York: Simon and
Schuster.
Mason, R. O. (1986). Four ethical issues of the information
age. Management Information Systems Quarterly, 10, (1), 3.
Reynolds, G. W. (2003). Ethics in information
technology. Boston: Thomson Learning, Inc.
Smith, H. J. (2002). Ethics and information systems: Resolving
the quandaries. Database for Advances in Information Systems,
33, (3).
Spinello, R. A. (1997).Case studies in information and computer
ethics. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Criteria
Level 3
Level 2
Level 1
Problem Statement
3 points
Issue was well described and a relevant problem statement
defined.
1 point
Issue described but problem statement not relevant or well
defined.
0 points
Issue not described, no relevant problem statement defined.
Reynolds' Seven Step Framework
7 points
All seven steps accurately described and the decision made is
relevant to the problem.
4 points
Some steps not well described and/or the decision is not
relevant to the problem.
1 point
Steps not well described. Decision not relevant to the problem.
Ethical Theory
3 points
Applicable Ethical Theory is relevant to the issue and is well
described in the context of the issue.
2 points
Theory is not relevant to the issue or is not well described in

the context of the issue.
1 point
Theory not relevant and is not well described.
APA Compliance
1 point
Paper is in APA format. All sources and in-text citations were
referenced in accord with APA style requirements.
0.5 points
Paper follows some APA format.Only some of the sources and
in-text citations were referenced in accord with APA style
requirements.
0.2 points
Paper is not in APA format. All sources and in-text citations
were NOT referenced in accord with APA style requirements.
Mechanics
1 point
Grammar, personal pronouns, contractions, spelling, and
punctuation correctly applied.
0.5 points
Few grammar, personal pronouns, contractions, spelling, or
punctuation errors exist.
0.2 points
Numerous grammar, personal pronouns, contractions, spelling,
and punctuation correctly applied. Underline errors in MS Word
not correct.
Overall Score
Level 3
9 or more
Level 2

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