Vaccines are proved to be boon for the prevention of infectious diseases and provide acquired immunity against life threatening infections. The lethality of infectious diseases has decreased due to vaccination as it is one of the safe and effective measure to control various infectious diseases. A protein which acts as the vaccine, present in food and consumed as the internal composition of food is known as the edible vaccine. As the name suggests, the term “Edible vaccines” was first used by Charles Arntzen in 1990 and refers to plants that produce vitamins, proteins or other nourishment that act as a vaccine against a certain disease. These vaccines are capable to stimulate the body’s immune system to recognize the antigen. Edible vaccines have been the newer form of vaccines which have the power to cover the risks associated with conventional vaccines. The main mechanism of action of edible vaccines is to activate the systemic and mucosal immunity responses against a foreign disease-causing organism. Edible vaccines are produced by the incorporation of the selected desired genes into the plants and then modified to produce the encoded proteins, providing immunity for certain diseases. Identification, isolation and characterization of a pathogenic antigen is important for making an edible vaccine. At present edible vaccine are developed for various veterinary and human diseases such as cholera, measles, hepatitis and foot and mouth diseases. Current review highlights the importance of edible vaccines which could prove to be cost effective, efficient and safe and would not require refrigeration, making them more accessible to poor people as compared to traditional vaccines.
Edible vaccines hold great promise as a cost-effective, easy-to-administer, easy-to-store, fail-safe and socioculturally readily acceptable vaccine delivery system, especially for the poor developing countries. It involves introduction of selected desired genes into plants and then inducing these altered plants to manufacture the encoded proteins. Introduced as a concept about a decade ago, it has become a reality today. A variety of delivery systems have been developed. Initially thought to be useful only for preventing infectious diseases, it has also found application in prevention of autoimmune diseases, birth control, cancer therapy, etc. Edible vaccines are currently being developed for a number of human and animal diseases. There is growing acceptance of transgenic crops in both industrial and developing countries. Resistance to genetically modified foods may affect the future of edible vaccines. They have passed the major hurdles in the path of an emerging vaccine technology. Various technical obstacles, regulatory and non-scientific challenges, though all seem surmountable, need to be overcome. This review attempts to discuss the current status and future of this new preventive modality.
Edible vaccines hold great promise as a cost-effective, easy-to-administer, easy-to-store, fail-safe and socioculturally readily acceptable vaccine delivery system, especially for the poor developing countries. It involves introduction of selected desired genes into plants and then inducing these altered plants to manufacture the encoded proteins. Introduced as a concept about a decade ago, it has become a reality today. A variety of delivery systems have been developed. Initially thought to be useful only for preventing infectious diseases, it has also found application in prevention of autoimmune diseases, birth control, cancer therapy, etc. Edible vaccines are currently being developed for a number of human and animal diseases. There is growing acceptance of transgenic crops in both industrial and developing countries. Resistance to genetically modified foods may affect the future of edible vaccines. They have passed the major hurdles in the path of an emerging vaccine technology. Various technical obstacles, regulatory and non-scientific challenges, though all seem surmountable, need to be overcome. This review attempts to discuss the current status and future of this new preventive modality.
Edible Vaccine involves introduction of selected desired genes into plant and then inducing these altered plants to manufacture the altered protein.
These types of vaccines are antigenic proteins that are genetically engineered into a consumable crop. The strategy is that the plant food product haves the protein witch is obtained from some disease causing pathogen. People eat the plant food, the food is digested
In this topic take about public health microbiology because of people are not aware about virus or disease vaccine is more essential for human being save our lives from the virus it is major requirements for people
The word "vaccine" originates from the Latin word “vacca”, meaning “cow” a virus (cowpox) which manly effect the cow. which Edward Jenner demonstrated in 1798 could prevent smallpox in humans.
Vaccinations are essential for maintaining public health and are a cornerstone of contemporary healthcare. Vaccines prime the body to successfully combat a range of infectious diseases by boosting the immune system without generating the illness itself.
Antimicrobial resistance as an emerging food-borne infectious diseaseJean Jacques Bernatas
Food safety is also about acquired antimicrobial resistance in big farms, and its spread in the environment. Be a smart consumer, a smart producer, and a smart patient to contributing to get antimicrobial resistance under control.
Vaccines have been revolutionary for the prevention of infectious diseases. Despite worldwide immunization of children against the six devastating diseases, 20% of infants are still left un-immunized; responsible for approximately two million unnecessary deaths every year, especially in the remote and impoverished parts of the globe. This is because of the constraints on vaccine production, distribution and delivery. One hundred percent coverage is desirable, because un-immunized populations in remote areas can spread infections and epidemics in the immunized safe areas, which have comparatively low herd immunity. For some infectious diseases, immunizations either do not exist or they are unreliable or very expensive. Immunization through DNA vaccines is an alternative but is an expensive approach, with disappointing immune response. Hence the search is on for cost-effective, easy-to-administer, easy-to-store, fail-safe and socio-culturally readily acceptable vaccines and their delivery systems. As Hippocrates said, Let thy food be thy medicine, scientists suggest that plants and plant viruses can be genetically engineered to produce vaccines against diseases such as dental caries; and life-threatening infections like diarrhea, AIDS, etc (Lal et al., 2007)
Vaccine Victories Against Microbial Resistance - Dr. Donald F. GersonPnuVax
Vaccine and novel immunotherapies offer a window of opportunity to combat emerging infectious disease as well as the rising threat of antibiotic resistance.
Plausible State-Specific Plans and Recommendations to Avert COVID-19 Communit...Dr Varruchi Sharma
Current article emphasizes upon the strategy to increase the number of tests at the state-level so that majority of the suspected cases could be traced out, isolated and quarantined in order to contain them from becoming a source of infection and coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) dissemination. The objective of the recommended testing is to contain the spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. Lessons learnt so far points to the fact that earlier the identification and isolation of infected person, lesser are the chances that it would spread. Considering an example of Maharashtra which has reported cases above 20,000 in the last 7 days with 90,000 tests carried out each day with a test positive report (TPR) of 22%-25%. So, assuming that even if 20% of a particular locality in Maharashtra is infected, then at this rate, we shall be able to isolate only 20,000 each day, while rest of the untraced cases already existing in the locality would pass it on to other people, before being isolated. The only solution to stop this cycle is to outnumber the rate of growth of new cases by increasing the number of tests at a very fast pace. In order to contain the infection, our testing rate has to be much higher than the case growth rate.
Edible Vaccine involves introduction of selected desired genes into plant and then inducing these altered plants to manufacture the altered protein.
These types of vaccines are antigenic proteins that are genetically engineered into a consumable crop. The strategy is that the plant food product haves the protein witch is obtained from some disease causing pathogen. People eat the plant food, the food is digested
In this topic take about public health microbiology because of people are not aware about virus or disease vaccine is more essential for human being save our lives from the virus it is major requirements for people
The word "vaccine" originates from the Latin word “vacca”, meaning “cow” a virus (cowpox) which manly effect the cow. which Edward Jenner demonstrated in 1798 could prevent smallpox in humans.
Vaccinations are essential for maintaining public health and are a cornerstone of contemporary healthcare. Vaccines prime the body to successfully combat a range of infectious diseases by boosting the immune system without generating the illness itself.
Antimicrobial resistance as an emerging food-borne infectious diseaseJean Jacques Bernatas
Food safety is also about acquired antimicrobial resistance in big farms, and its spread in the environment. Be a smart consumer, a smart producer, and a smart patient to contributing to get antimicrobial resistance under control.
Vaccines have been revolutionary for the prevention of infectious diseases. Despite worldwide immunization of children against the six devastating diseases, 20% of infants are still left un-immunized; responsible for approximately two million unnecessary deaths every year, especially in the remote and impoverished parts of the globe. This is because of the constraints on vaccine production, distribution and delivery. One hundred percent coverage is desirable, because un-immunized populations in remote areas can spread infections and epidemics in the immunized safe areas, which have comparatively low herd immunity. For some infectious diseases, immunizations either do not exist or they are unreliable or very expensive. Immunization through DNA vaccines is an alternative but is an expensive approach, with disappointing immune response. Hence the search is on for cost-effective, easy-to-administer, easy-to-store, fail-safe and socio-culturally readily acceptable vaccines and their delivery systems. As Hippocrates said, Let thy food be thy medicine, scientists suggest that plants and plant viruses can be genetically engineered to produce vaccines against diseases such as dental caries; and life-threatening infections like diarrhea, AIDS, etc (Lal et al., 2007)
Vaccine Victories Against Microbial Resistance - Dr. Donald F. GersonPnuVax
Vaccine and novel immunotherapies offer a window of opportunity to combat emerging infectious disease as well as the rising threat of antibiotic resistance.
Plausible State-Specific Plans and Recommendations to Avert COVID-19 Communit...Dr Varruchi Sharma
Current article emphasizes upon the strategy to increase the number of tests at the state-level so that majority of the suspected cases could be traced out, isolated and quarantined in order to contain them from becoming a source of infection and coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) dissemination. The objective of the recommended testing is to contain the spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. Lessons learnt so far points to the fact that earlier the identification and isolation of infected person, lesser are the chances that it would spread. Considering an example of Maharashtra which has reported cases above 20,000 in the last 7 days with 90,000 tests carried out each day with a test positive report (TPR) of 22%-25%. So, assuming that even if 20% of a particular locality in Maharashtra is infected, then at this rate, we shall be able to isolate only 20,000 each day, while rest of the untraced cases already existing in the locality would pass it on to other people, before being isolated. The only solution to stop this cycle is to outnumber the rate of growth of new cases by increasing the number of tests at a very fast pace. In order to contain the infection, our testing rate has to be much higher than the case growth rate.
Microbial biotechnology by the participation of microorganism also along with microbial derivatives results in useful products for human welfare. In this process the conversion of natural substances to the processed food is done. The processed substrates can be of diverse range such as enzymes, organic acids, alcohols, polymers, and many more. In reference to human health secondary metabolites are significantly important, such an economically important has deeply benefitted humans by establishing variety of industrial microbial strains. In this chapter we have tried in explaining the microbial role in diverse fields in food production.
Ab-initio density functional and docking studies of α-Santalol molecule deriv...Dr Varruchi Sharma
α-Santalol (a sesquiterpene), an organic compound found in sandalwood was assessed for its reactive potential by computing bond length, Mullikan atomic charges, electrostatic potential surfaces, vibrational frequencies, polarizability, dipole moment and IR spectra with different basis sets implying Hartree Fock and Density functional theory (DFT) Redistribution of charges on α-Santalol was reported to be over a larger range along with the the Bond length values of C32-O39 reportedly higher than the corresponding values of O39-H40 suggestive of its reactivity mainly attributed to hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to C32.Molecular docking studies of α-Santalol with the Monkeypoxgp158 protein further indicate that the designed best probable ligand compound showed significant binding affinity i.e ΔG-8.4Kcal/mole across the binding cleft, suggestive of the therapeutic potential of α-Santalol against monkeypox. Quantum mechanical study of electronic structure, ground state properties and electrostatic potential surface study further supports the reactive sites present in α-Santalol.
Computational Docking Study of the Phytochemical Constituent, Silybin (Silybu...Dr Varruchi Sharma
SARS-CoV-2 is continually evolving with the emergence of new variants with increased viral pathogenicity. The emergence of heavily mutated Omicron (B.1.1.529) with spike protein mutations are known to mediate its higher transmissibility and immune escape that has brought newer challenges for global public health to contain SARS-CoV-2 infection. One has to come up with a therapeutic strategy against the virus so as to effectively contain the infection and spread. Natural phytochemicals are being considered a significant source of bioactive compounds possessing an antiviral therapeutic potential. Being a promising anticancer and chemo-preventive agent, Silybin holds a significant potential to be used as a therapeutic. In the present study, molecular docking of Silybin with Omicron spike protein (7QNW) was carried out. Molecular docking results showed greater stability of Silybin in the active site of the Omicron spike protein with suitable binding mode of interactions. The study reveals that Silybin has the potential to block the host ACE2 receptor-viral spike protein binding; thereby inhibiting the viral entry to human cells. Therefore, Silybin may be further developed as a medication with the ability to effectively combat SARS-CoV-2 Omicron.
Role of plant secondary metabolites as potential antimalarial drugs Dr Varruchi Sharma
Malaria is a global problem affecting a large population without any demarcation between developed and developing world communities. The already approved compounds for the treatment of the disease hold significant efficacy but the emergence of resistant strains and reduced efficacy of drugs against the disease leave the scope for the identification of noval natural products as potential therapeutic agents. There are seven major classes of antiplasmodium agents which are plant secondary metabolites and can be used as a potential antimalarial drugs. In the present review, the focus is on the antimalarial compounds which have been isolated from plants which could be potentially used as antimalarial drugs.
PI3Kinase/AKT/mTOR Pathway in Breast Cancer; Pathogenesis and Prevention with...Dr Varruchi Sharma
The most recurrent and considered second most frequent cause of cancerrelated death in women is the breast cancer worldwide. In breast cancer cases patients are usually diagnosed in the beginning at the curable stage. However, its treatment remains a great clinical challenge. A number of studies have been carried out for the treatment of breast cancer which includes the targeted therapies and increased survival rates in women. Essential PI3K/mTOR signaling pathway activation is observed in most breast cancers. The cell growth and tumor development in this case involves phosphoinositide 3 kinase (PI3K)/ Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway. It has been observed, through preclinical and clinical trials, that there are a number of other inhibitors of PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway, which either alone or in combination with other agents can be used for treatment of cancer. Pre-clinical studies have confirmed that P13K, Akt and mTOR inhibitors achieve anticancer effects by targeting different levels of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway. This chapter evaluates the role of mTOR along with some of its inhibitors and the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway in the pathogenesis and prevention of breast cancer.
BIOINFORMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH AND I...Dr Varruchi Sharma
Bioinformatics in integration to computational biology is a novel field which applies computer to biology, with which biologists are able to make detailed use of biological data for its advancement. In bioinformatics, the computers are used for the storage followed by the processing and analyzing, along with retrieval of large amounts of biologic and genomic data. In recent years, the field of Bioinformatics is gaining more interest. Earlier, the methodology adopted by the researchers to generate, collect followed by the analysis of various types of scientific data, which is the most time consuming and quite expensive for the work to be carried out. On the other hand with the help of computational tools & techniques, software & databases, one can process a large amount of biological data in a short span such as computer-aided drug designing (CADD). Environment and its protection in today’s word are the most challenging. The problems associated with its protection, planning can be resolved by the best bases of Information technology.
Current Perspective on Dominant Negative Mutations: Trends, Scope and Relevance Dr Varruchi Sharma
Despite the advancements in tools and technologies implicated in identifying and characterizing novel genes, there are still a significant number of unknown function proteins. Moreover, the practices employed in order to characterize such proteins have proven to be a futile exercise so far because of many limitations associated with such traditional approaches. Dominant-negative mutations have shown great promise in this direction as the introduction of mutation in the target protein may abolish the protein function and inhibit the function of the simultaneously expressed wild-type protein. These dominant mutations have broader applications in biological processes to study various proteins in terms of their functional aspects, etiological factors, and mechanism of action, paving the way to diagnose many dreadful diseases, including cancer. Considering these facts, the current review emphasizes utilizing the full potential of such dominant-negative mutations in deciphering protein functions and their broad-spectrum applications in biology
An In-Silico Approach for Designing a Potential Antagonistic Molecule Targeti...Dr Varruchi Sharma
One of the largest families of membrane proteins, the G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) has been a very important target of drug discovery as they are involved in having a regulatory role in a variety of signaling pathways at the cellular level in response to external stimuli. Modern in-silico and crystallographic approaches have further made it easier to peep into their structures. In this study, β2 adrenergic receptor (β2AR) has been targeted, and a new ligand molecule using the de-novo approach has been proposed. Using 1-Amino-3-(2,3-dihydro-1H-indol-4-yloxy)-propan-2-ol, the best fitting binding fragments were established with a significant dissociation constant value of 5-7 nanomolar. The flexibility of specific active sites was also investigated, and it was observed that residues 114 (V), 117 (V), 203 (S), 286 (W), and 289 (F) played a crucial role in accommodating ligand for the best binding. Upon examination of the bioavailability parameters, the ligand var9 exhibited significant inhibitory characteristics having lower toxicity values and high drug likeliness properties. Findings certainly hold significance in terms of targeting GPCRs in getting insight into structure-based drug designing and drug discovery.
Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) has been considered to be the most common malignancy of the head and neck region. OSCC develops as a result of certain genetic and epigenetic variations in the squamous epithelium, which in turn leads to a series of consequences leading to the definitive stage of invasive squamous cell carcinoma. Majority of oral malignancy cases have been associated with specific exposure to certain risk factors such as smoking, smokeless tobacco products, heavy consumption of alcohol, poor oral hygiene, human papilloma virus infection along with other lifestyle factors and dietary changes. There are certain genes named as BIRC2 and BIRC3 belonging to the inhibitors of apoptosis protein (IAP) family which become over-expressed and upregulated during the course of OSCC. The proteins made are pronounced as cIAPs which are inhibitors of specific caspases leading to the suppression of apoptosis induced by a variety of triggering factors.
Current review has brought together all such concrete studies along with diagnostic and therapeutic relevance to OSCC at a single platform so as to understand the etiological factors, mechanism and regulation in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Moreover, the recent emergence of microbiome as a diagnostic and therapeutic target has also been discussed in order to find a sustainable and reliable therapeutic solution to OSCC.
Essence of PTEN: a Broad-Spectrum Therapeutic Target in Cancer Dr Varruchi Sharma
The levels of protein tyrosine phosphorylation within a cell is regulated by protein tyrosine kinases and protein tyrosine phosphatases. These protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTP) can act both as positive and negative regulators during cell cycle progression and signal transduction. Phosphatase activity is shown by Phosphatase and Tensin homolog (PTEN) protein encoded by PTEN gene localized on human chromosome 10. Earlier findings established the role of PTEN as a tumor suppressor in Cowden’s disease, where PTEN mutations resulted in disease outcomes. Subsequent studies found the role of PTEN mutations in various human cancers, making it one of the vastly studied tumor suppressor genes. The current review has been planned to get a deeper insight into the potential role of PTEN in a variety of physiological processes involved in normal development like cell growth, migration, and differentiation along with the factors, regulation, and underlying mechanism
Current Paradigms to Explore the Gut Microbiota Linkage to Neurological Disor...Dr Varruchi Sharma
It has been suggested that an intricate communication link exists between the gut microbiota and the brain and its ability to modulate behaviour of an individual governing homeostasis. Metabolic activity of the microbiota is considered to be relatively constant in healthy individuals, despite diff erences in the composition of microbiota. The metabolites produced by gut microbiota and their homeostatic balance is often perturbed as a result of neurological complications. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to explore the link between gut microbiota and brain function and behaviour through neural, endocrine, and immune pathways. This current review focusses on the impact of altered gut microbiota on brain functions and how microbiome modulation by use of probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics might prove benefi cial in the prevention and/or treatment of neurological disorders. It is important to carefully understand the complex mechanisms underlying the gut–brain axis so as to use the gut microbiota as a therapeutic intervention strategy for neurological disorders.
GENDER-BIAS SUSCEPTIBILITY OF CORONA VIRUS DISEASE : PEEPING INTO THE FACTORS...Dr Varruchi Sharma
Recent pandemic of corona virus disease caused by a novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 in humans is the third outbreak by this family of viruses, which is reminiscent of the SARS-COV outbreak happened in the year 2003. General characteristics of the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) especially in regards to the disease susceptibility amongst males and females have been focused providing a better understanding of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in males, females and children. A thorough literature search for articles in major databases such as PubMed and Google Scholar etc. has been carried out. COVID-19 has been known to have varied symptoms ranging from mild flu-like symptoms to acute respiratory distress syndrome, multiple organ failure and death. Ageing, genetics, comorbidities and many other associated factors may play a crucial role in predisposing an individual towards COVID-19 disease as there exists chronic inflammation, thrombosis and immune response impairment due to SARS-CoV-2 providing a therapeutic window. Current study emphasizes upon the role of gender in morbidity and mortality in patients with COVID-19 with men higher at risk to COVID-19 than women in terms of mortality despite having the similar prevalence of the disease. The study has been well supported by the data available from the hot-spots affected states from Indian subcontinent. However, current evidence is not sufficient to conclude on the gender-bias susceptibility but certainly men have an edge over women in terms of susceptibility towards COVID-19.
Cancer Chemoprevention by Flavonoids, Dietary Polyphenols and Terpenoids Dr Varruchi Sharma
The world population is aging, and cancer is always considered to be one of the major causes of death all over the globe. The advent of recent drug-targeted therapies undoubtedly is going to reduce the incidence of cancer over the coming years. However, the frequency of occurrence of such chronic diseases like cancer would continue to increase. Therefore, the search for a safer and cost-effective treatment is urgently needed. Phytochemicals found in plants, foods, vegetables, tea, etc. have emerged as proven therapeutic compounds modulating signaling pathways involved in cancer. We carried out a structured search of bibliographic databases for peer-reviewed research literature using the keywords: cancer chemoprevention, flavonoids, dietary polyphenols, terpenoids, bioactive, microbiota. Quality of the retrieved papers and characteristic outcomes of the articles included in the study was assessed by employing standard tools and deductive qualitative content analysis methodology. The development of personalized supplements comprising particular phytochemicals has been the key, especially dealing with chronic inflammatory disorders like cancer. Better understanding at the molecular level explains the influence of phytochemicals on human health, which has been extensively covered through this review. Moreover, the wide collection of dietary polyphenols that has significant properties in reference to human health has been highlighted. Furthermore, the etiology of end products of such phytochemicals, especially on the modulation of gut microbiota and the host-microbial interactions thereof, need to be properly understood. The present study summarizes the chemoprevention and treatment of cancer using the bioactive components, including flavonoids, dietary polyphenols, and terpenoids. Likewise, the effect of dietary polyphenols on the human gut microbiota has been realized more recently. However, more research is needed in this field, especially focused on the communications, interlinks between the gut microbiota and polyphenols with the precise mechanism of action.
MULTIFACETED POTENTIAL OF EICHHORNIA CRASSIPES (WATER HYACINTH) LADENED WITH ...Dr Varruchi Sharma
Being an aquatic weed which is growing dense and widespread across many lakes and water bodies, it is of paramount importance to utilize Eichhornia crassipes (commonly known as water hyacinth) for the benefit of the mankind, especially for its value added and medical properties, such as bio-fuel, biogas, bioremediation and therapeutics. Many of the bird sanctuaries and water-bodies have been drastically invaded by this aquatic weed which is really affecting ecological niche and bird migrations. Several researchers have successfully demonstrated the use of water hyacinth in the bio-remediation and as a potential source of renewable energy. Different heavy and toxic metals showing biomagnifications and therefore creating health hazards, could be remediated by using water hyacinth. The process of decontaminating agro-industrial waste polluted with heavy metals, organic and inorganic pollutants could possibly be done using water hyacinth. Current review focuses towards the efforts to utilize this weed for different value added and therapeutic properties. Furthermore the article emphasizes upon the need to gain more insight into the mechanism with concrete randomized controlled studies to find out the effects of this weed on human health and a sustainable solution to exploit and manage this invasive otherwise harmful weed into a beneficial entity for the mankind.
Disease can occur due to alterations in many physiological processes. A variety of factorsare known to be involved in the progression of cancer, a chronic diseasethat occurs due to permissible proliferative signaling, avoiding growth suppressors, resisting cell death, allowing replicative immortality, induction of angiogenesis, and inducing invasion and metastasis, along with reprogramming of metabolic pathways involved in energy production and avoiding the host immune response for cell destruction. Treatment of such a multifactorial disease has very less cure rate because of the singular agents tried in the past for targeting. Molecular level studies with deeper insight are urgently neededthat focus on the most promising herbal-derived bioactive substances for which thorough research was carried out in the literature in various data-bases such as PUB-MED, MEDLINE, SCOPUS indexed journals etc. to look for systematic reviews of the protocols or data interpretation, natural drug/immunological properties and validation. As immune system plays avery important role in the proliferation or suppression of cancer and other autoimmune diseases, It is the dire need to study the effect of such natural compound on the immune system so that a possible drug target or epitope can be identified for the treatment of such diseases. In nutshell there are many nonclinical in vitro and in vivo studies on herbal medicines which commonly supports the traditional therapeutic claims. It has been seen from the previos studies in literature that the yield and composition of bioactive compounds derived from plants are dependent upon the production source,culturing conditions and extraction protocols.Therefore appropriate optimization conditions would certainly assist the medical and scientific fraternity to accept herbal products as potential candidates for cancer treatment. In this article we explored the different natural products, their immunological effects concerning cancer with no or negligible side effects. However,one has to look for potential herb–drug or herb-epitope interactions and how immune system responds to such drugs.
Role of plant secondary metabolites as potential antimalarial drugsDr Varruchi Sharma
Malaria is a global problem affecting a large population without any demarcation between developed and developing world communities. The already approved compounds for the treatment of the disease hold significant efficacy but the emergence of resistant strains and reduced efficacy of drugs against the disease leave the scope for the identification of noval natural products as potential therapeutic agents. There are seven major classes of antiplasmodium agents which are plant secondary metabolites and can be used as a potential antimalarial drugs. In the present review, the focus is on the antimalarial compounds which have been isolated from plants which could be potentially used as antimalarial drugs.
Targeting Omicron (B.1.1.529) SARS CoV-2 spike protein with selected phytoche...Dr Varruchi Sharma
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus -2 (S ARS-CoV-2) emerging variants particularly those of concern contain numerous mutations that influence the behavior and transmissibility of the virus and could adversely affect the efficacies of existing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccines and immunotherapies. The emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants have resulted in different waves of the pandemic within the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. On 26 November 2021 World Health Organization designated omicron (B.1.1.529) as the fifth variant of concern which was first reported from South Africa on November 24, 2021, and thereafter rapidly spread across the globe owing to its very high transmission rates along with impeding efficacies of existing vaccines and immunotherapies. Omicron contains more than 50 mutations with many mutations (26-32) in spike protein that might be associated with high transmissibility. Natural compounds particularly phytochemicals have been used since ancient times for the treatment of different diseases, and owing to their potent anti-viral properties have also been explored recently against COVID-19. In the present study, molecular docking of nine phytochemicals (Oleocanthal, Tangeritin, Coumarin, Malvidin, Glycitein, Piceatannol, Pinosylnin, Daidzein, and Naringenin) with omicron spike protein (7QNW (electron microscopy, resolution 2.40 Å) was done. The docking study revealed that selected ligands interact with the receptor with binding energy in the range of -6.2 to-7.0 kcal/mol. Pinosylnin showed the highest binding energy of -7.0 kcal/mol which may be used as potential ligands against omicron spike protein. Based on the docking studies, it was suggested that these phytochemicals are potential molecules to be tested against omicron SARS-CoV-2 and can be used to develop effective antiviral drugs.
tecovirimat as a Potential Bioavailable inhibitor against MPXVgp158 establish...Dr Varruchi Sharma
Monkeypox is a zoonotic viral infection caused by monkeypox virus which belongs to the Poxviridae family of genus Orthopoxvirus. Usually the virus transmission happens when the individual comes in contact with the infected person through body fluids, animal lesions, respiratory droplets or through virus contaminated materials. Clinical presentation of the monkeypox has shown significant resemblance to that of smallpox and chickenpox, belonging to the same orthopoxvirus genus but were eradicated during 1980s globally. Monkeypox may lead to a range of medical complications including clinical symptoms like fever, rashes, headaches, back pain, myodynia and swollen lymph nodes. As far as the treatment modalities are concerned,the antiviral therapeutic agents developed for the smallpox treatment, were also permitted to be used for the monkeypox treatment. However, there is no proven treatment for human monkeypox. in the current study, we have focused on designing of a best probable ligand against the target MPXVgp158 (Monkeypox virus protein). Since tecovirimat is an FDA approved compound known as an antipoxviral drug, the study aimed to develop a Monkeypox virus protein MPXVgp158 inhibitor which is bioavailable and biocompatible as well through drug designing using computational tools. Molecular docking (MD) analysis displayed tecovirimat with lesser binding energy, higher non-bonded interaction capability, and more stability against MPXVgp158, with efficient binding mode of interactions. Hence, tecovirimat was adjudged to be the potential candidate against MPXVgp158 inhibition.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
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Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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PROBING INTO THE EDIBLE VACCINES: NEWER PARADIGMS, SCOPE AND RELEVANCE
1. PlantArchivesVolume 20 No.2,2020 pp.5483-5495 e-ISSN:2581-6063 (online),ISSN:0972-5210
PROBING INTO THE EDIBLE VACCINES: NEWER PARADIGMS,
SCOPEAND RELEVANCE
Shweta Khadwal1
, Raman Singh2
, Kuldeep Singh2
, Varruchi Sharma3
and Anil K. Sharma1
*
1
Department of Biotechnology, Maharishi Markandeshwar (Deemed to be University),
Mullana, Ambala (Haryana), India.
2
Department of Chemistry, M.M. Engineering College, Maharishi Markandeshwar
(Deemed to be University), Mullana, Ambala (Haryana), India.
3
Department of Biotechnology, Sri Guru Gobind Singh College Sector-26, Chandigarh (UT) India.
Abstract
Vaccines are proved to be boon for the prevention of infectious diseases and provide acquired immunity against life
threatening infections. The lethality of infectious diseases has decreased due to vaccination as it is one of the safe and
effective measure to control various infectious diseases. A protein which acts as the vaccine, present in food and consumed
as the internal composition of food is known as the edible vaccine. As the name suggests, the term “Edible vaccines” was
first used by Charles Arntzen in 1990 and refers to plants that produce vitamins, proteins or other nourishment that act as a
vaccine against a certain disease. These vaccines are capable to stimulate the body’s immune system to recognize the
antigen. Edible vaccines have been the newer form of vaccines which have the power to cover the risks associated with
conventional vaccines. The main mechanism of action of edible vaccines is to activate the systemic and mucosal immunity
responses against a foreign disease-causing organism. Edible vaccines are produced by the incorporation of the selected
desired genes into the plants and then modified to produce the encoded proteins, providing immunity for certain diseases.
Identification, isolation and characterization of a pathogenic antigen is important for making an edible vaccine. At present
edible vaccine are developed for various veterinary and human diseases such as cholera, measles, hepatitis and foot and
mouth diseases. Current review highlights the importance of edible vaccines which could prove to be cost effective, efficient
and safe and would not require refrigeration, making them more accessible to poor people as compared to traditional
vaccines.
Key words: Vaccine, Edible, Immunity, Diseases, Protection, Mechanism
Introduction
It is better to prevent a disease than to cure it and
the best way to prevent a disease is to have antibodies
through immunization while the most effective way to
get immunized is by vaccination. Vaccination has been
the most cost-effective health care intervention so far.
Majority of the vaccines in use today are against viral or
bacterial infections. When it comes to the constituents of
a vaccine, it mainly comprises of either live attenuated
microorganisms, inactivated whole microorganisms or
subunit preparations. Some live viral vaccines have been
regarded as the most successful of all human vaccines,
with even one or two administrations of the same may
induce long lasting immunity. Inactivation of
microorganisms is thebasis of vaccines displayingvarying
efficacy. Compared to attenuated vaccines, inactivated
vaccines need to be administered in substantially larger
doses and sometimes even more frequently. In subunit
vaccines, the generation of antibodies that prevents
infection by both intra and extracellular microorganisms,
has been regarded as the prime requirement of a vaccine.
The epitopes recognised by such antibodies are usually
confined to one or a fewproteins or carbohydrate moieties
present externally on the surface of the microorganisms.
Isolation of such components formed the basis of the
first viraland bacterial subunit vaccine(Anderson & May,
1985; Robinson,Farrar, &Wiblin,2003).Table1highlights
some of the major vaccines currently approved for
therapeutic use in humans.
*Author for correspondence : E-mail:anibiotech18@gmail.com
2. Expression of bacterial and viral antigens in plants
has been well documented in earlier studies (Giddings,
Allison, Brooks,& Carter, 2000). Inthe veryfirst published
clinical trial, volunteers were fed raw potato tubers
expressing the binding subunit of an E. coli heat-labile
enterotoxin (Tacket et al., 1998; Tacket et al., 2000).
The serum antibodies produced by these volunteers were
able to neutralize enterotoxic E. coli in vitro.
Edible vaccines are currently being developed for a
number of human and animal diseases, including measles,
cholera, foot and mouth diseases and hepatitis B & C
(Giddings et al., 2000). Many of these diseases are likely
to require booster vaccinations or multiple antigens to
induce and maintain protective immunity. Plants have the
capacity to express more than one transgene, allowing
delivery of multiple antigens for repeated inoculations
(Conrad & Fiedler, 1994).
The research into edible vaccines holds promise for
the public health of many developing countries, where
diseases like cholera (whichareeasilypreventablethrough
sanitation) kill as many as 10 million inoculated children
everyyear (WilliamHR Langridge, 2000). Initially, cholera
outbreaks could be controlled by antibiotics. But since
1980, resistant cholera strains have appeared and the
common antibiotics such as ampicillin, streptomycin and
tetracycline are not effective against these strains. An
injectable cholera vaccine exists, but even inexpensive
Table 1: Existing viral and bacterial vaccines against diseases.
S.No. Type ofVaccines Examples Reference
1. Live attenuated
Live vaccines use a weakened (or Viral-Measles, mumps, rubella, yellow (Arts et al., 2018;
attenuated) form of the germ that fever, influenza, oral polio vaccine, Higgins et al., 2016;
causes a disease. Immune response is vaccinia Bacterial- BCG (Bacillus Calmette Jensen et al., 2014;
similar to natural infection Guerin), typhoid (Salmonella (Ty21a)) Krone, Kölmel, Henz,
2. Killed or Inactivated vaccines Viral- Inactivated polio vaccine (IPV), & Grange, 2005;
Vaccines use the killed version of the Hepatitis-A, Influenza, Rabies, Japanese Minton, 1973;
germ that causes a disease. encephalitis. Bacterial- Pertussis, Morales & Eidinger,
Immune response is mostly humoral Typhoid, cholera, Plague 1976; Rosario et al.,
3. Toxoids 2010; Rowland et al.,
Toxoid vaccines use a toxin (harmful Tetanus, Diphtheria 2012;Tamuzi, Muyaya,
product) made by the germ that &Tshimwanga, 2017)
causes a disease. In general (Miller & McCann, 2000)
toxoids are highly efficacious and (Deforest et al., 1988;
safe immunizing agents Farrington et al., 1995;
4. Subunit Vaccines Bacterial: Streptococcus pneumonia, Higgins et al., 2016;
Subunit, recombinant, polysaccharide, Salmonella typhi VI, conjugated toxoids: Usonis et al., 2005)
and conjugate vaccines use specific Clostridium tetani, Viral: H. influenza,
pieces of the germ — like its protein, type b Conjugated Vaccines: Viral-Measles,
sugar, or capsid (a casing around the germ). Mumps, Rubella (MMR); Bacterial-
Highly Efficacious and safe Diphtheria pertussis tetanus (DPT)
vaccines are beyond the reach of countries in which the
annual public health expenditure average $10 per person
(Feikin, Flannery, Hamel, Stack, & Hansen, 2016; Hsiao,
Hall, Mogasale, & Quentin, 2018; Jeuland & Whittington,
2009). The new recombinant DNA vaccines are very
expensive (A. Sharma & G. Khuller, 2001; A. K. Sharma
& G. Khuller, 2001). Anew injectable hepatitis vaccine is
safer and more effective than conventional treatments,
but it can cost up to $100 per person (Lancaster, Elam,
& Kaiser, 1989). At the same time, AIDS and the risk of
contaminated needles are potential health risk in some
third world countries (Heise, 1988; Hu, Kane, &
Heymann, 1991). The edible vaccine, in development,
would probably be no more effective than most vaccines
available today, but they would be cheaper and easier to
distribute. Edible vaccines, which aim to increase the
vaccination coverage, have to provide clear advantages
over the existing ones (Toonen, 1996). Therefore, a new
approachhas to scorebetter on four criteria of vaccination,
i.e. it should be easilyavailable, accessible, and acceptable
to the consumer and should be effective as well (Nair,
2002).
The success of immunization strategies depends
principally on reducing the susceptible proportion of the
population to levels below which disease can remain
endemic (Gay, Hesketh, Morgan-Capner, & Miller, 1995).
Despite advances in medical science, the goal of herd
5484 Shweta Khadwal et al.
3. Probing into the Edible Vaccines: Newer Paradigms, Scope and Relevance 5485
immunity remains unattainable for most of the world’s
population, largely because of constraints on vaccine
productiondistribution anddelivery. One possiblesolution
may be the production of edible vaccines grown in
genetically modified food crops (Giddings et al., 2000).
Such plants could be grown locally at a reduced cost,
transport requirements and dependence on foreign supply.
Vaccine antigens expressed in plant storage organs such
as seeds are frequently stable at room temperature,
eliminating the need for refrigeration during transport and
storage (Mett, Farrance, Green, & Yusibov, 2008; Sala
et al., 2003). Oral administration reduces the need for
skilled personnel to give injection. In addition, oral
vaccination may stimulate both systemic and mucosal
immunity(Arakawa, Chong & Langridge, 1998).Another
potential advantage is that, plant derived vaccines are
subunit vaccines. They contain only a small part of the
pathogen and are unable to establish an infection. This
offers an additional level of vaccine safety, particularly
inimmuno-compromised individuals.
Merits of an edible vaccine
An edible vaccine holds a number of advantages over
other conventional vaccines such as the scaling up for
commercial production of plant-based vaccines has been
seen to be faster and less costly. It is envisaged that one
gram of raw material could be multiplied to about 40,000
grams in eight months and 8,000 kg in a year. On the
other hand, the cost of per gram of raw material from
transgenic plants is around 10 cents as compared to $1
for other systems (L.J. Richter, Thanavala, Arntzen &
Mason, 2000; Tacket et al., 1998). Moreover, the need
for purification of the product, maintenance of lower
temperature during transport, use of needles and syringes
for administration, are eliminated(Tacket & Mason, 1999;
Tacket et al., 1998). Also, the oral intake of medicine
has been found to be much more convenient than by
injection. The chances of cross contamination with animal
or human pathogens are also less likely for production of
biomedical materials from plants. Furthermore, farming
has been an important and established part of our
economy. Growing plants for production of vaccine and
other therapeutic agents are certainly going to support
global farming and economies (Tacket et al., 2000). The
same group of researchers reported that because one
plant can express several antigens simultaneously,
vaccines against a variety of pathogens can be produced
in a single plant (Tacket et al., 2000). In addition,
contamination risks associatedwithmammalian cell lines,
yeast or bacterial production system are also eliminated
(Shah, Trivedi, Vachhani, & Joshi, 1990).
Demerits of edible vaccines
Several technical and logistical problems are required
to be resolved before an edible plant vaccine becomes a
reality in practice. Most transgenes are expressed at very
low level in plants for which development of efficient
promoters are the prerequisite especially to target the
productionof proteins intoediblepart of plants (Chaitanya
& Kumar, 2006; Jacob, Cherian, Sumithra, Raina &
Sankar, 2013; Jelaska, Mihaljevic & Bauer, 2005). The
stability of vaccine proteins when transgenic fruits or
leaves are stored at ambient conditions is another cause
of concern. Another problem encountered with edible
vaccines is the dosage as it may vary depending upon
the conditions where and when they are grown. Optimal
dosage levels are required to be developed in order to fix
this issue (Shah et al., 1990). Another complication with
oral vaccines is the oral tolerance especially when the
antigen is taken up in food repeatedly (Strobel & Mowat,
1998), resulting in the suppression of the antibody
production. The induction of oral tolerance is both time
and dose-dependent. The antigenic dose necessary to
induce protection is generally smaller than that required
to produce tolerance (Chaitanya & Kumar, 2006; Tsuji,
Mizumachi, & Kurisaki, 2001).
Insight into the mechanism of action of edible
vaccines
Mucosal immunity is known to be stimulated as a
result of edible vaccine with the involvement of both the
adaptive and innate arms of T and B cells. Primarily there
is activation of the mucosal immune response system
(MIS) against a pathogen forming thefirst line of defence.
Almost all human pathogens invade at mucosal surfaces
via gastrointestinal, respiratory and urogenital tract
(McGhee& Fujihashi, 2012; Mor, Gómez-Lim & Palmer,
1998). The antigen gains entry into the gut mucosal layer
through M cells and macrophages. M cells transport the
antigens to the T cells (Siebers & Finlay, 1996). M cells
are known to capture a wide range of macromolecules
from lumens in the small intestine to antigen submucosal
cells (APCs) on Peyer’s patches effectively (Mabbott,
Donaldson, Ohno, Williams, & Mahajan, 2013). Dendritic
(DC) cells have been shown to be powerful antigenic
cells totrigger an adaptive immune reaction in thepriming
naive T cells (Mildner & Jung, 2014). The antigenic
epitopes present on the APC surface along with the
assistance of helper T cells, further activate B cells. Upon
activation, activated B cells migrate to the Mucosal
associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) where they mature
into plasma cells and to secrete immunoglobulin A (IgA)
(Scadding, 1990;A.K. Sharma,Verma,Tewari, & Khuller,
1999). IgA then forms the secretory IgA, which is then
transported into the lumen where they interact with
4. 5486 Shweta Khadwal et al.
antigens and neutralize the invading pathogen Fig. 1
(Brandtzaeg, Kiyono, Pabst, & Russell, 2008; Walmsley
& Arntzen, 2000). Not only the lymphoid mucosal-
associatedtissues (MALT) but secretoryimmunoglobulin
(SIgA) also plays a vital role in protection against
microbial adhesion and toxins of mucosal surfaces.
Therefore the challenge lies in fact that new platforms
are needed for the delivery of pathogens or toxin-specific
SIgA and systemic IgG which is extremely important for
improving the vaccine efficacy (Dietrich, Griot-Wenk,
Metcalfe, Lang, & Viret, 2003).
Edible vaccines versus diseases
Edible vaccine against diarrhoeal disease
Transgenic potatoes expressing -subunit of the E.
coli heat-labile toxin were fed to human volunteers in
1997 for the first time which resulted in increase in serum
antibodies to about 4-fold in 80% of the volunteers [20].
Similarly, in another trial at the Boyce ThompsonInstitute
(Cornell University, USA) in which potatoes containing
theNorwalk virus responsible for vomiting and diarrhoea,
95% volunteers were reported to have induced antibodies
in serum [20]. Another study revealed that transgenic
tomatoes expressing protein specific to Norwalk virus
could induce antibodies in a mice model.
In the recent studies at US (Cornell University),
researchers have established their research on the
transgenic tomatoes especially against Norwalk virus
(causing severe diarrhoea). It was observed that the
tomatoes produce a specific surface protein. In mice,
the same tomatoes have shown an enhanced immune
reaction in response to the virus (Chaitanya & Kumar,
2006; L. Richter, Mason, & Arntzen, 1996). Similarly,
banana also has been explored as another source, due to
its ease of availability and being a locally grown plant.
The expression of a protein in banana will depend on the
identification of a tissue specific promoter. Other
examples include rabies glycoprotein being expressed in
viral vectors in spinac and hepatitis B surface antigen in
lettuce and potato. (Kapusta et al., 1999; M. Sharma &
Sood, 2011; Yusibovet al., 2002). Main issuewithpotato-
based edible vaccine is that they are required to be eaten
raw as cooking results in protein denaturation, making it
ineffective. Therefore, Banana was tried as an edible
vaccine successfully as it does not require cooking and
its ease of availability.
Edible vaccines against measles
Globally, measles causes over 8,70,000 deaths every
year. However, mortality rate was reduced by 60%, to
345 000 deaths during 1999-2005 because of pneumonia
or encephalitis (Wolfson et al., 2007). Currentlyavailable
measles vaccine holds promise in terms of its effectivity
(95% seroconversion rate) and being safe (Cutts, Henao-
Restrepo, & Olive, 1999; Simons et al., 2012). However,
the measles live attenuated vaccine (LAV) has no oral
efficacy and could be destroyed upon maintenance of a
“cold-chain” of refrigeration posing challenges as far as
distribution and storage is concerned (Oyefolu et al.,
2007). Another challenge is that the efficacy of the above
Live attenuated vaccine (LAV) gets reduced by the
presence of maternal antibodies. These challenges and
Fig. 1: Potential advantages and limitations of edible vaccines along with the proposed mechanism of action.
5. Probing into the Edible Vaccines: Newer Paradigms, Scope and Relevance 5487
hinderances are attributed for not able to achieve the
complete eradication of measles (Osterhaus, van
Amerongen, & van Binnendijk, 1998). The veryfirst step
to develop an edible vaccine comprises of choosing an
antigen which is to be expressed in plants. Subsequently,
antibodies are produced which have the MV-neutralising
activityas has been seen in earlier studies where
hemagglutinin(H) antibodies tendtohave thepredominant
neutralizing effect that can be well-correlated with
immunoprotection against measles. There are two major
surface proteins i.e. hemagglutinin(H) and fusionproteins
reported in measles virus which have the potential to be
developed as edible vaccines (R. T. Chen et al., 1990).
The attenuated Edmonston Vaccine strain derived from
H protein subunit was shown to provide
immunoprotection, hence forming the basis for an edible
vaccine against measles (Das, 2009). There are number
of ways reported in literature for the generation of
transgenic plants. Typical example of the use of
Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a naturally occurring soil
bacterium to transfer the DNA segment into the plant
genome through a process named as transformation
leading tothe generation of wholeplant fromanindividual
plant cell. Transgenic plants generation is known to be
species dependent and moreover, it is a time-consuming
process usually taking 3-9 months (Huang, Dry, Webster,
Strugnell, & Wesselingh, 2001). There was another study
where Measles virus, MV-H gene was expressed in the
tobacco plant and upon orla administration resulting in
the induction of serum antibodies production in mice. The
study affirmed the retention of immunogenicity by the
plant derived MV-H protein. Tobacco plant has been
extensively exploited in the plant biotechnology
laboratories as it is easyto growin most soils andclimates
as well. Moreover, it also provides large amounts of tissue
and it is easier to process and inexpensive as well.
Furthermore, tobacco is an established product in global
economy with higher gross profit and relatively more
stabilityin terms of price, making tobaccoas a goodmodel
system as far as evaluation of transgenic or recombinant
proteins are concerned.
However, from vaccine delivery perspective, it is
unsuitable because of its tendency to produce many toxic
compounds (Tacket et al., 2000). Other model plants
such as potatoes and lettuce have also been exploited for
antigenic expression, resulting in the induction of
immunological responses (Kapusta et al., 1999; Tacket
et al., 2000). More so rice, has been commonly used in
baby foods because of its lower allergenicity. Moreover,
rice is easily mixed with baby foods, water and breast
milk, hence can be conveniently delivered to infants. Ease
of storage, transport and stability in terms of protein
expression in rice are some other positive attributes of
using rice (Hanba, Wada, Osaki, & Nakamura, 1996;
Webster, Thomas, Strugnell, Dry, & Wesselingh, 2002).
Stoger et al. further reported that mammalian proteins
can be successfully expressed at higher levels in the
transgenic rice (W.H. Langridge, 2000). On the negative
side, rice has a slower growth profile and requires
specialised glass house conditions, making it a restrictive
species for preliminary studies.
Oral vaccination requires higher antigenic dose than
either intranasal or parentalvaccination. Threesuccessful
human trails have shown that adequate doses of antigen
can be achieved with plant based vaccines (Kapusta et
al., 1999; Streatfield et al., 2001; Tacket et al., 1998).
Preliminary analysis of MV- H transgenic lettuce plants
suggested that 35-50 g of lettuce should be sufficient to
deliver doses of MV-H protein comparable to those used
in clinical trials (Lal, Ramachandran, Goyal, & Sharma,
2007; J. Saxena & Rawat, 2014). MV-specific immune
responses upon vaccination with plant extract could be
further induced and made more consistent by the use of
mucosal adjuvant (Giddings et al., 2000; Huang et al.,
2001). Actually the mucosal adjuvant may enhance
immunological responses at mucosal surfaces and
simultaneouslyreduces the oral dosage required to induce
an immune response. Moreover, edible vaccine can be
more effective in terms of immunogenenicity if the
delivery system employed is intact such as using intact
plant material. Hence, encapsulation of an antigen within
a biological plant material (such as within the tough plant
cell wall and membrane compartments) provides
increased protection from intestinal degradation (Kwon,
Verma, Singh, Herzog, & Daniell, 2013; Modelska et al.,
1998). Not only the encapsulation but also the route of
administration and vaccine types could play a pivotal role
in increased protective immune responses. This was
evident in a study when a single dosage of MV-H DNA
inoculation given orally followed by multiple MV-H
boosters, could induce MV neutralising antibodies
significantly(with enhancedneutralizing titres >20 folds)
in comparison to vaccination with a DNA or plant derived
vaccine alone (Huang et al., 2001; Stittelaar et al., 2002).
Edible vaccine versus foot and mouth disease
Though vaccinations have kept a significant check
on the spread of this dreadful livestock, foot and mouth
viral (FMDV) disease, still with its recent outbreak has
really questioned the efficacy and safety of the available
inactivated and attenuated edible vaccines. VP1, one of
the structural proteins of FMDV harbours key epitope
6. 5488 Shweta Khadwal et al.
regions responsible for inducing VP1 specific antibodies
(Brown, Sprecher, & Keller, 1991). Transgenic constructs
have been used extensively for the development of an
edible vaccine in order to treat the disease. Many
transgenic vaccines have been reported in the past few
years including transgenic alfalfa plant with structural
proteins of FMDV, tobacco mosaic virus infected plants
genetically modified with FMDV structural protein
(Wigdorovitz et al., 1999) or bacterial plasmids containing
genes coding for FMDV proteins (Wong et al., 2000).
For efficient vaccine delivery, genetically modified (GM)
organisms were employed and proven effective in
protecting farm animals. However, the protocols followed
are quite cumbersome and suffers from many limitations.
Oral tolerance has been attributed to be one of the major
complications in case of oral vaccines. This is evident
from the fact that when the antigen is taken up repeatedly
in food, the systemic immunity gets suppressed as the
antigen may suppress or lower down the production of
antibodies. Some studies revealed that the trans placental
exposure to the edible vaccine may cause the foetus to
be viral tolerant and thus, becoming a carrier of the virus
without showing symptoms (Lal et al., 2007; J. Saxena
& Rawat, 2014).
There are a variety of vaccines available for the
treatment of FMD (foot and mouth disease) including
inactivated vaccines such as oil-emulsion, aqueous, or
aluminum-based vaccines. These vaccines are
monovalent, bivalent, or multivalent in nature but have
been reported to be unstable. These vaccine formulations
could be stored and kept unspoiled for a longer period of
time in liquid nitrogen medium (Kamel, El-Sayed, &
Vazquez, 2019). BHK-21 cells were used extensively
for the preparation of mouse-attenuated live FMD
vaccines, which have been utilized efficiently for
immunization of cattles (G. Mowat, Brooksby, & Pay,
1962). However, another study revealed that the live
attenuated vaccine used for the treatment of FMD,
resulted in development of lesions in animals. Recently
introduced attenuated FMD vaccines, have been proven
to be more stable as they have lesser risk of reverting to
virulence than traditional ones (Kamel et al., 2019).
DNA and Peptide vaccines have also been shown to
have a positive impact on the treatment of FMD. DNA
vaccines expressing B-cell and T-cell epitopes were
shown to protect mice from FMDV infection despite the
lack of a specific humoral response upon challenge
(Borrego et al., 2006). On the other hand, the peptide
vaccines have additional advantages of being cost
effective and relatively more stable against infectious
FMDV. Such vaccines have been shown to have a single
linear peptide structure corresponding to FMDV capsid
proteins or those containing T-cell and/or B-cell epitopes
(Wang et al., 2002). On VP1 protein of FMDV type A,
a conformational neutralizing epitope named
“135YxxPxxxxxGDLG147” has been characterized and
used for the epitope-based vaccination (Liu, Yang, Wang,
Liang, et al., 2017; Liu, Yang, Wang, Wang, et al., 2017;
Soria et al., 2017). A CTBVP1 fusion protein which
showed weak but significant binding affinity for GM1
ganglioside, was successfully expressed in
Chlamydomonas in bulk quantities. Hence, this fusion
protein holds promise to be used as a potential mucosal
vaccine (M. Sun et al., 2003).
Edible vaccines versus autoimmune disorders
Antigens are known to be produced in the target
tissues resulting in diseases such as arthritis, diabetes
and multiple sclerosis which are also termed as
autoimmune disease conditions (A.M. Mowat, 1987).
Feedingthe target antigenfor example, collagen in arthritis
may relieve or suppress the symptoms of autoimmune
conditions. Therefore, current research is focusing on
introducing target antigens for autoimmune diseases into
crop plants so as to express them suitably and manage
the symptoms of autoimmune disorders. Again the issue
of oral tolerance comes into the picture when the oral
vaccine is regularly being taken through general food
supplies which may suppress immunity to the disease
normally protected by the vaccine (Weiner, 1997).
Therefore, one must take appropriate measures so that
food vaccines could be prevented from dissemination to
the general food supply.
Edible vaccines against human papilloma viral
disease
Human papilloma virus (HPV) disease is one of the
most common sexually transmitted diseases worldwide.
HPV is known to be a major cause of cervical cancer in
women as well. Urgent attention is required to develop
an edible vaccine which could confer protection against
HPV. A study revealed the isolation of a genetic sequence
for the synthesis of HPV protein envelope and virus like
particles (VLPs) were generated using this sequence.
Moreover, these VLPs were reported to be non-infectious
in nature and were speculated to be effective oral
immunogens for the prevention of HPV disease (Rose
et al., 1999).
Edible vaccines versus dental caries
Transgenic plants are the majorly considered for
vaccine production system especially in case of the edible
vaccines which have wider implications against variety
of diseases including dentalcariosity.The expressedgenes
7. Probing into the Edible Vaccines: Newer Paradigms, Scope and Relevance 5489
encoding the antigens of viral and bacterial pathogens,
are known to maintain the inherent immunogenic
characteristics. Moreover, these vaccines have major
composition of antigenic proteins while pathogenic genes
aredeficient. Edible vaccineafter ingestion, as the vaccine
gets digested, the protein move into the blood stream
where infectious protein is neutralized due to the immune
response (Khan et al., 2019). Plants have been
extensively modified to produce many drugs such as
albumin, serum protease and interferon which are
otherwise difficult or expensive to produce (Daniell,
Streatfield, & Wycoff, 2001; FernándezSanMillán, Mingo
Castel, Miller, & Daniell, 2003; Loesche, 1986; Philip,
Suneja, & Walsh, 2018). Similar strategy was adopted in
order to produce antibodies in transgenic plants against
Streptococcus mutans, which is a common tooth decay
bacterium. The plant produced specific antibodies could
easilyneutralize thepathogen providing protectionagainst
the dental disease. However, in order to get effective
protection against dental disease, individual transgenic
plant producing single antibody chains are required to be
developed initially which can further be hybridized to
develop a plant producing complete antibodies consisting
of heavy and light chains.
Edible vaccine versus cholera
The gene encoding cholera toxin antigen was inserted
into cells of an organism that cause a plant disease called
crown gall (Osterhaus et al., 1998). New genes were
transformed into the alfalfa plant by infecting it with the
transformed crown gall disease and the cells of the new
infected plant were culturedcontaining the cholera antigen
and the alfalfa plant was regenerated from that infected
cells. The transgenic plant was reported to confer
protective immunity to cholera in animals that eat the
alfalfa plant (Arakawa,Yu, & Langridge, 1999;Walmsley
& Arntzen, 2000). In another study, the fusion of PA20,
ipaD and CTxB was generated and transformed into
tomato plants, for the production of vaccine against
cholera. The expression analysis of the antigens revealed
that the green fruits had the highest expression of the
recombinant proteins, which were further subjected to
immunogenicity analysis for a suitable vaccine candidate
(Davod, Fatemeh, Honari, & Hosseini, 2018).
Edible vaccine against Hepatitis-B
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is probably the
single most important cause of persistent viremia in
humans affecting more than350 million people worldwide
(Gunasekaran& Gothandam, 2020; Lavanchy, 2004).The
HPV infectionmay cause a serious liver infection resulting
in jaundice, cirrhosis and liver cancer as well (Moss,
Cutts, & Griffin, 1999). Currently, there are two forms
of injectable HBV vaccines, including the one purified
from the serum of infected individuals while the other
comprises of a recombinant antigen expressed and
purified from yeast. Hepatitis B surface antigen HBsAg
(usuallyisolated from high-titer patients) has been widely
used as a vaccine for a while now. The conventional
hepatitis B vaccine utilises a single protein HBs Ag,
produced in yeast. The protein after polymerizationforms
a complex which can mimic the structure of the actual
virus. After injection, this protein complex is known to
triggers the immune system providing protection against
hepatitis. However, a study reported that upon oral
administration, production of vaccine antigen in plants
often fails to meet the minimum level required to produce
an immune response (Conrad & Fiedler, 1994). Towards
overcoming this limitation, another group of researchers
studied a variety of ways to increase plant production of
the HBs Ag and with its ability to initiate an immune
response when injected into mice (Khamsi, 2005;
Washam, 1997). Another study successfully analysed the
ability of plant produced HBsAg to trigger an immune
response when administered orally (Cutts et al., 1999).
It was realized that for the development of hepatitis B
virus (HBV) vaccine, the key determinant is to identify
an immunogenic HBV protein that could stimulate the
human immune system to produce protective antibodies
(L.J. Richter et al., 2000). Moreover, one has to optimize
and establish a quantitative measure of the success of
vaccination for which optimisation of dosage levels and
timings are quintessential.
A group of researchers took a lead to extract HBs
Ag from transgenic tobacco leaves containing virus like
particles (VLPs).Upon parenteral immunization of mice
with the above extract, it was found to elicit B and T-cell
responses, endorsing protective effects similar to those
of a commercial vaccine (Guan, Guo, Huo, Guan, & Wei,
2010;A.K. Sharma et al., 1999; Thanavala, Yang, Lyons,
Mason, & Arntzen, 1995). A study reported that the
HBsAg human antibody CL4mAb, could be successfully
expressed in an algal expression vector, Phaeodactylum
tricornutum (Yano, Maeda, & Takekoshi, 2004).
Another study looked into the transformation of the
HBsAg gene into algal strain Dunaliella salina through
electroporation. The study observed large scale
expression of HBsAg by D.salina with ability to induce
immune responses (Y. Chen, Wang, Sun, Zhang, & Li,
2001; Geng, Wang, Wang, Li, & Sun, 2003).
Edible vaccines against other diseases
The E2 protein of Classical swine flu virus (CSFV)
was reported to have major antigenic properties which
8. could effectively neutralize its respective antibodies (He
et al., 2007; Markowska-Daniel, Collins, & Pejsak, 2001).
Upon expression in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, and
further analysis, it was observed that this protein had
immunogenic properties as evident from the increase
in serum antibody against CSFV when the extract was
administered subcutaneously (He et al., 2007;
Markowska-Daniel et al., 2001).
Fibronectin-binding protein expressed by S.
aureus was alsofound tobeimportant for its pathogenicity
which was fused with the cholera toxin B (CTB) resulting
in improvement of the antigen-specific systemic and
mucosal immune response upon expression inchloroplast
of the microalgae, C. reinhardtii (Dreesen, Charpin-El
Hamri, & Fussenegger, 2010; J.B. Sun, Holmgren, &
Czerkinsky, 1994). As we know that Staphylococcus
aureus is a human pathogen responsible for
bacteremia after infecting the nasal mucosa and skin
along with secondary infections such as endocarditis,
pneumonia, meningitis etc (Moreillon & Que, 2004).
Plasmodium falciparum, a parasitic protozoan is
known to cause malaria responsible for more than 100
million deaths annually (Gunasekaran & Gothandam,
2020).TheRTS, S/ASO2Ais a vaccine currentlyavailable
against malarial sporozoite. Granule bound starch
synthase (GBSS) fused to three malarial vaccine
candidates were expressed in the microalgae, C.
reinhardtii resulting in accumulation of starch-antigen
inthe chloroplast sufficient toprovide protectiveimmunity
against otherwise lethal doses of Plasmodium
falciparum in the mice model (Dauvillee et al., 2010).
Moreover, starch provided extra stability to the vaccine
as well. Furthermore, this microalga has a GRAS status
(Generally regarded as safe) with ease of scaling up and
cultivation as well. In another study, pfs25 and pfs28
malarialsubunit(malaria transmissionblockingcandidates)
vaccines were expressed in C. reinhardtii (Gregory et
al., 2012; A.K. Saxena et al., 2006). Another study
concluded that a-pfs25 displayed significant malarial
transmission-blockingcapabilitiesin comparisontoa-pfs28
(Gozar et al., 2001; Gozar, Price, & Kaslow, 1998).
Keeping in view of the above findings onecould speculate
that future belongs to these edible vaccines having the
potential to wipe-out a variety of diseases including
diarrhoea, cholera, malaria, autoimmune and viral diseases
etc.
Clinical studies of edible vaccine
Human clinical trials of an edible vaccine which is
incorporated into the genome inside a food (rawpotatoes)
haveindicated some promising outcomes against diseases
as evidenced through the induction of protective immune
response upon its consumption. Researchers are hoping
to wipe out wide-spectrum of diseases including
diarrhoea, cholera, FMD, malaria etc. by using vaccines
raised in transgenic plants that require no refrigeration
(Walker, Steele, Aguado, & Committee, 2007). In the
first phase of human testing (trials approved by the Food
and DrugAdministration, thepotatoes eaten byvolunteers
contained a vaccine against travel diarrhoea, a common
enteric condition resulting from intestinal infection by E.
coli (Steffen, Castelli, Dieter Nothdurft, Rombo, & Jane
Zuckerman, 2005). Volunteers were given to eat 50g or
100g of genetically altered potatoes in a six monthly
double-blind trial with each volunteer consuming three
servings of potatoes over a period of three-weeks (Oakes,
Shewmaker, & Stalker, 1991). No side effects were
noticed in the study upon consumption of transgenic
potatoes.Antibodysecreting cells were found in theblood
serum of the volunteers who ate the genetically modified
potatoes. Moreover, antibodies were reportedly found in
both blood and stool samples. Techniques to create edible
vaccine in bananas are now under way at Boyson
Thomson Institute (BTI) (Park Jr et al.,), but the crop
takes much longer to mature and produce edible fruit. A
delicious vaccine containing food, particularlybananas, a
favourite fruit among children could be inexpensive and
plentiful (Mibei, Ambuko, Giovannoni, Onyango, &
Owino, 2017). Delivery of vaccine in plant cells may
provide additional protection to the antigen as it passes
through the acid environment of the stomach.
Challenges and future perspectives
Plant cultivation with desired bioactivityhas been the
mainstay of modern medicines with extended medicinal
applications including delivery of vaccines. Edible
vaccines have shown promise in terms of their heat
stability, ease of administration and cost effective with
regards to production having merits over traditional
vaccines in terms of production, administration and
delivery. Moreover, a successful edible vaccine could
potentially transform the health policy and practice of
any nation. However, there are challenges how to manage
the issue of oral tolerance, safety issues of genetically
modified organisms and optimal vaccine dosages.
An edible vaccine harbours DNA fragments coding
for proteins present more often on the surface of the
pathogen, stimulating the body’s immune response. The
biggest challenge is whether the antigen withstands the
hostile and acidic environment of the human stomach
and trigger the immune system in the righteous manner.
Another challenging aspect is about the vaccine dosages
and its regulation, as at higher doses it may induce
5490 Shweta Khadwal et al.
9. tolerance. Genetically modified foods and the
complications associated with them have further posed a
challenge for a successful edible vaccine.
Undoubtedly vaccines have been realized as the
major public health initiatives of the modern era However
resistance towards genetically modified foods is a major
threat to the commercial use of edible vaccines.
Contaminationencounteredduring transgenesis is another
challenge and a concern to be dealt with utmost care.
There are other hurdles as well such as WHO
certifications before the launch of the vaccine for human
applications along withascertainingquality, efficiencyand
associated environmental effects.
Conclusions
Advancements in the vaccine technology, with the
advent of oral DNA vaccines (A. Sharma & G. Khuller,
2001;Woo,Wong, Zheng, &Yuen, 2001), internaldelivery
(Plante et al., 2001) and plant-derived edible vaccines,
may further lead to safe, easy to produce, distribute, ease
of delivery and cost effectiveness of a vaccine
overcoming the drawbacks of traditional vaccines. Hence
one could foresee a promising healthcare future in terms
of using plant derived vaccines because of their safety
and efficient immunization. The need is to develop an
efficient, economical and safe delivery system at a larger
scale in the form of edible vaccines, paving the way for
protecting individuals from diseases by simply eating a
fruit or vegetable.
Acknowledgements
We greatly acknowledge Maharishi Markandeshwar
(Deemed to be University) Mullana (Ambala) Haryana,
India for providing the conducive ambience and facilities
to carry out the said work.
Conflict of interest
The authors claim no conflict of interest inpublication
of this manuscript in Plant Archives Journal.
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