This document provides an analysis of the print media landscape in Myanmar as it transitions from military rule to democracy. It begins with an overview of Myanmar's demographics and history of military dictatorship from 1962 to 2010. During this period, print media was under strict state control and censorship. The document then outlines the current print media landscape since 2011 under civilian government, which has undertaken phased reforms to gradually remove censorship. However, government still maintains some control over print media. The roles, coverage, and impact on journalists are also compared between the military and post-military periods. Overall, the document analyzes opportunities and challenges for Myanmar's print media as reforms progress.

1. L A N D
S H A D O W S
OF

2. Land that is caught between

3. I S O L A T I O N

4. and...

5. I N T E G R A T I O N

6. Land that is caught between

7. R E P R E S S I O N

8. and...

9. R E F O R M A T I O N

10. Land that is caught between

11. D
A
R
K

12. and...

13. L
I
G
H
T

14. MYANMAR [PRINT]
Land of Shadows

15. Analysis of media landscape in Myanmar; a
country that is transiting from military rule
to democracy political system.
Explore the opportunities and challenges of
print media that transiting countries like
Myanmar will have in the near future.
Research Topic

16. Contents
Part 1 [Introduction]
• Brief Country Profile
• Timeline of Print Media
Part II [Landscape of Print Media]
Comparison between Pre-media Reformation Efforts and
Present
• Overview
• Global Perspective
• Print Media Landscape
• Media - Government Relations
• Print Media Structure and Policies
• Print Media Ownership
• Roles of Print Media
• Comparative Print Media Coverage
• Impact on Journalists in Myanmar
Part III [Road to Freedom]
• Opportunities & Challenges
• Conclusion
• References

17. Population of 48 Million
4th Poorest Nation in SEA
135 Different Ethnic Groups
58.2% has Basic Education

18. 18th Largest Producer of Sunflower Seeds
Ranked 21st out of 177
Countries as a Failed State
Key industries include illegal
drug trafficking, gemstones, oil
and gas and tourism

19. Nominally Civilian Government (2011)
50Years of Military Dictatorship (1962 - 2010)

20. 0.2% Internet Penetration
1% Main Line and 2 % Cell Line Penetration
Poor Telecommunication Infrastructure and
Unreliable Power Supply

21. Post-colonisation Junta Period Junta Period Junta Period Junta Period Civilian Government
1948 - 1961 1962 - 1987 1988 - 2004 2005 - 2007 2008 2011 - Present
Timeline of Print Media

22. Print Media in Post-colonisation
1948 - 1961
‣ Temporary period of democracy - “Free” Press
‣ No. of print publications increased steadily
‣ No strict censorship regulations were in place
Post-colonisation Junta Period Junta Period Junta Period Junta Period Civilian Government
1948 - 1961 1962 - 1987 1988 - 2004 2005 - 2007 2008 2011 - Present

23. Print Media during Junta Period
1962 - 1987
‣ 1969: Privately-owned newspapers were
nationalized. Became state-owned papers
‣ Burma Press Council was formed (many editors
were arrested during government retaliation)
Post-colonisation Junta Period Junta Period Junta Period Junta Period Civilian Government
1948 - 1961 1962 - 1987 1988 - 2004 2005 - 2007 2008 2011 - Present

24. Print Media during Junta Period
1988 - 2004
‣ 8888 uprising resulted in only 3 daily newspapers
‣ Tightest censorship and control of print media
‣ Licenses were issued to publications
‣ Privately owned publications had to hire/apply
licenses
Post-colonisation Junta Period Junta Period Junta Period Junta Period Civilian Government
1948 - 1961 1962 - 1987 1988 - 2004 2005 - 2007 2008 2011 - Present

25. Post-colonisation Junta Period Junta Period Junta Period Junta Period Civilian Government
1948 - 1961 1962 - 1987 1988 - 2004 2005 - 2007 2008 2011 - Present
‣ Press Scrutiny and Registration Department (PSRD) was established and
controlled by military intelligence
‣ Newspaper drafts to be submitted to PSRD prior to publishing
‣ Strict censorship rules
‣ Heavy penalties implemented: serious warning, ban, and revocation of license
Print Media during Junta Period
2005 - 2007

26. Print Media during Junta Period
2008 (Relaxation of Censorship)
‣ Constitutional rights were brought into the picture
‣ examine existing practice of press policies and define how it should be
changed
Post-colonisation Junta Period Junta Period Junta Period Junta Period Civilian Government
1948 - 1961 1962 - 1987 1988 - 2004 2005 - 2007 2008 2011 - Present

27. Print Media during Civilian Government
2011 - Present
‣ Efforts to reform print media landscape
commences
‣ Gradual removal of censorship by Ministry of
Information for publications
Post-colonisation Junta Period Junta Period Junta Period Junta Period Civilian Government
1948 - 1961 1962 - 1987 1988 - 2004 2005 - 2007 2008 2011 - Present

28. OVERVIEW OF
PRINT MEDIA LANDSCAPE
Global Perspective
Print Media Landscape
Media-Govt Relations
Comparative Print Media Coverage
Implications on Journalists

29. GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
2011
169. Burma
170. Sudan
171.Yemen
172.Vietnam
173. Bahrain
174. China
175. Iran
176. Syria
177.Turkmenistan
178. North Korea
179. Eritrea
2007
164. Burma
165. Cuba
166. Iran
167.Turkmenistan
168. North Korea
169. Eritrea
Reporters without Borders
Press Freedom Index
Junta Period (1962 - 2010) VS Civilian Govt Period (2011 - Present)
Reporters without Borders
recognised the efforts (softening of
censorship laws, release of imprisoned
journalists, return of exiled journalists) to
reform print media landscape in Myanmar.
Hence, the increase in ranks since 2007.

30. Freedom of the Press
Freedom House
Myanmar remains as a country with
“Not Free” status by Freedom
House. Despite the reformation
efforts, there is still tight control by
the government (registration of
publication, sole source of news
from Myanmar News Agency)
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
Junta Period (1962 - 2010) VS Civilian Govt Period (2011 - Present)

31. COMMITTEETO PROTECT JOURNALISTS
WORLD’S WORST JAILERS OF JOURNALISTS
Myanmar
2007: 7
2008: 14
2009: 9
2010: 13
2011: 12
Global Perspective
CPJ ranked Myanmar 4th in the World’s Worst Jailers. Majority of the journalists
who were imprisoned were undercovers for exiled media (DemocraticVoice of
Burma). Minimal no. of journalists who works for domestic media were arrested.
Junta Period (1962 - 2010) VS Civilian Govt Period (2011 - Present)

32. LANDSCAPE OF PRINT MEDIA

33. LANDSCAPE OF PRINT MEDIA
(JUNTA PERIOD)
1962 - 2010
• Strict authoritarian media system since military coup in 1962
‣ State controls main publications and privately-owned are forced to do weekly or monthly publications.
Limited no. of international publications.Thai and Indian publications may appear at times but are removed
most of the time
‣ All publications (poetry, books, journals, magazines, newspaper) must pass through the censor board at the
Press Scrutiny and Registration Division set up by the Ministry of Information
• Instrumental use of media by Junta
‣ News covers activities of the ruling generals and progress in the implementation of policies
• Readers read newspapers for advertisements, weddings and obituaries

34. LANDSCAPE OF PRINT MEDIA
(CIVILIAN GOVERNMENT)
2011 - PRESENT
4 Phases of Reformation
Phase 1 (June 2011): Publications were divided into 2 groups
Grp A: Showbiz, entertainment, children and sports need not pass through censorship prior to
publishing
Grp B: News, politics, religion, business, education and crime need to pass through censorship
prior to publishing
Phase 2 (Dec 2011): Business, Crime and law journals, magazines and publications need not pass thru
censorship
Phase 3 (Feb 2012): Education related journals and magazines need not pass thru censorship.
Phase 4 (May 2012):All fictions were excluded from censorship

35. 3-step Media Reform Process (Current and Future)
• Phase 1 - Publish without prior approval from the Press Scrutiny and Registration Department
• Phase 2 - New print media law that ensures press freedom in accord with the Constitution and
replace the existing Registration of Printers and Publishers Law (1962)
• Ministry of Information will support the private media sector
LANDSCAPE OF PRINT MEDIA
(CIVILIAN GOVERNMENT)
2011 - PRESENT

36. MEDIA-GOVERNMENT RELATIONS

37. MEDIA-GOVERNMENT RELATIONS
(PRINT MEDIA STRUCTURE)

38. Media Ownership
State-Owned Privately-Owned Exiled
New Light of
Myanmar
Founded: 1914
Language:
Burmese, English
Circulation:
10k
The Mirror
Kyaymon
Founded: 1957
Language:
Burmese
Circulation:
180k
Myanmar
Ahlin
Founded:
1914
Language:
Burmese
Circulation:
220k
Owner: Myanmar
Consolidated Media
Co. Ltd
Editors: DrTinTun
Oo & Bill Clough
Founded: 2000
Language: Burmese
and English
Circulation: 25k in
Burmese and 3k in
English
Mandalay
Gazette
Owner: Group of
Exiled Journalists
Founded: 2006
Language:
English
Type: Monthly
Burmese News
TA: Overseas
Burmese
Circulation: 12k
Countries: US,
Canada, Singapore,
Thailand, Malaysia
and Japan
PRINT MEDIA OWNERSHIP
300 FORMS OF PRINT MEDIA

39. ROLES OF PRINT MEDIA
(POLITICAL)
‣ Portrays the government in good light and
covers activities of the government and
military officials, and progress in the
implementation of various policies

40. Social
Human/Lifestyle Stories. (Local and International) Sports, Movie
Reviews etc.
Cultural interests like Buddhism etc. (89% of Population are
buddhists)
News that impact the society negatively about racial riots (between
muslims and buddhists) were not covered extensively.
Economic
Advertisements.“Some say” readers actually read the newspapers
for its advertisements and sports news.
Initiatives and development by local investors.
ROLES OF PRINT MEDIA
(SOCIAL & ECONOMIC)

41. COMPARATIVE PRINT MEDIA
COVERAGE

42. COMPARATIVE PRINT MEDIA COVERAGE
News
Coverage
during
Junta
Period
(1962
-­‐
2010)
The Saffron Revolution
(August/September 2007)
The ruling Junta announced the
removal of fuel subsidies which caused
the price of diesel and petrol to
suddenly rise as much as 66% and the
price of compressed natural gas for
buses to increase by fivefold in less
than a week.
Approximately 15,000 Buddhist
monks led and were at the forefront
of the protest against Junta ruler.

43. COMPARATIVE PRINT MEDIA COVERAGE
News
Coverage
during
Print
Media
Reforma?on
Period
Opposition Leader, Aung San Suu Kyi won by-elections (April 2012)
Total of 45 seats were contested and Aung San Suu Kyi, leaded of National League for Democracy had a landslide win and for
the first time has a place in parliament.

44. COMPARATIVE PRINT MEDIA COVERAGE
News
Coverage
a@er
Abolish
of
Censorship
Opposition Party Leader, Aung San Suu Kyi for President in 2015 (September 2012)
Press conference was held in NewYork on 29 September 2012.
BBC asked PresidentThein Sein if he would accept Aung San Suu Kyi as president if the people vote for her in the election in
2015.
PresidentThein Sein said that the will of people will be respected whoever they choose in an election due in 2015

45. IMPLICATIONS ON JOURNALISTS
(LOCAL, EXILED, FOREIGN)

46. ROSS DUNKLEY
MYANMAR TIMES
EDITOR
IMPLICATIONS ON JOURNALISTS
JOURNALIST IMPRISONED (LOCAL)
• Founder and editor of MyanmarTimes was
arrested in February 2011
• He was convicted for assault of a prostitute
and for breaching immigration laws
• Dunkley’s business partners said the arrest
had come amid a dispute with Burmese
colleagues over the newspaper ownership,
future direction and senior leadership roles

47. IMPLICATIONS ON JOURNALISTS
JOURNALIST IN EXILE
AUNG ZAW
THE IRRAWADDY
FOUNDER
• Aung Zaw was a student activist who was
arrested in Rangoon University campus
during one of the student rallies against the
Junta
• Detained for a week in Rangoon’s notorious
Insein prison where he was severely tortured
during interrogation
• Continued to work with other underground
student groups and took part in student
protests
• Fled to capital after being tipped off by
neighbours who told him the military
intelligence officers were going to arrest him.
He hid in remote villages in the countryside
and finally left forThailand
• Few years later, he launchedThe Irrawaddy
Newsmagazine in Bangkok covering Burma
affairs.

48. • Killed by Burmese troops cracking down on antigovernment demonstrations
in Rangoon.
• Nagai appeared to be deliberately targeted by a Burmese soldier, according to
video footage shown on Japan's Fuji News Network.The footage shows Nagai
filming near a group of demonstrators before being pushed to the ground and
shot at near point-blank range.
•The Japanese embassy in Burma confirmed the killing and said that the path of
the bullet through Nagai's body was inconsistent with Burmese authorities'
claims that Nagai died as a result of a stray shot.
IMPLICATIONS ON JOURNALISTS
JOURNALIST KILLED (FOREIGN)
KENJI NAGAI
APF NEWS

49. CHALLENGES &
OPPORTUNITIES

50. CHALLENGES
• Lack of Journalism Capacity Building Efforts
• Lack of practical skills, training and formal degree courses for journalism
• Journalists learned from older journalists and through books written by their
seniors
• One institution (University ofYangon) offers a degree in Journalism
• What is Good Ethics after 50years of Military Dictatorship
• Objectivity vs. Emotional Reporting
• Lack of examples of good ethics practiced by journalists

51. CHALLENGES
• Democratic Transition
• Opening up to privately owned media agencies
• Capitalistic Media Approach (Profit-driven) or Libertarian Approach (Watchdog
of Public Interests)
• Balance between media independence with accountability (Higher demand of
accountability with lax in press policies in democratic transition)
• Will Media Imperialism Take Place with Influx of Investments
from the West?
• With the influx of foreign investments and the lift of economic sanctions, will
Myanmar be influenced by western media?
• Will they be lost in finding their very own identity in the midst of transition to
democracy?

52. OPPORTUNITIES
• Road to Press Freedom
• Lifting of censorship system marks a positive step for print media landscape in
Myanmar, as it transits towards democracy
• It is a door to many more opportunities of making social, economic and
political change
• Myanmar may not be as free as the Philippine press, but it is optimistic in
making the big step of change towards press freedom

53. • Print Media for Democratic Discourse
• Reformation efforts hope to offer more diverse types of print publications.
Possibly, a more knowledgeable society with the exposure of different
publications and perspectives. Foreign investments may bring about more
international publications into Myanmar, hence, offering diverse perspectives
of the world and empowering burmese to better their lives and eventually,
make social change
OPPORTUNITIES

54. • Return of Exiled Journalists/Print Media
• With the return of exiled journalists, will they value-add and increase the
existing standards of print media landscape in Myanmar? With their vast
experience to less or no restriction to print media censorship from all over
the world, how will they improve the underdeveloped media landscape in
Myanmar
• Reform state media along public services lines, with full editorial
independence and a pluralism of content that reflects all sections of society,
including the weakest
OPPORTUNITIES

55. OPPORTUNITIES
• Will One of the Theories from Critical Media Approach Take
Place?
• Critical theory teaches that knowledge is power.To understand the ways
one is oppressed enables one to take action to change and bring about a
more equal and fairer society
• Print media for democratic discourse plays an important role in political,
economic and social change in Myanmar
• With the knowledge that the burmese may acquire from consumption of
diverse print media publications, will they want to take action and bring
about a more equal and fairer society?

56. CONCLUSION
• Myanmar is the land of shadows. It is caught between the transition from authoritarian to
democracy political system
• Vast opportunities for its underdeveloped media system to evolve
• Overcoming challenges that it faces will not be an easy task. However, it’s exciting to contemplate
on what the future of print media in Myanmar might be
• Will they adopt the Libertarian Model? Or will they adopt Developmental Approach if they are not
able to release sole ownership of major news outlet in Myanmar
• It’s an exciting future for Myanmar
Fun Fact: Did you know that Junta is pronounced as Hoon-Ta? :) ala Javier is pronounced as Ha-Vier

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58. REFERENCES
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