Lecture Note

1. Ethiopian Civil Service University
College of Urban Development & Engineering
Homelessness
By : Goitom Abraha Baraki(PhD)
Portion Three

2. Defining Homelessness
 Homelessness includes a variety of housing circumstances ranging
from those without any accommodation at all (rough sleepers) to
those living in hostels, or squats.
 The United Nations Statistical Division (UNSD; 2008) defined
homelessness by dividing it into two broad categories:
 (a) Primary homelessness (or rooflessness). This category includes
persons living in streets or without a shelter or living quarters.
 (b) Secondary homelessness. This category may include persons
with no place of usual residence who move frequently between
various types of accommodation (including dwellings, shelters or
other living quarters); and persons usually resident in long-term
‘transitional’ shelters or similar arrangements for the homeless.

3. Defining Homelessness…Cont’d
 Homelessness is multidimensional.
 Homelessness is not just a matter of lack of shelter, a lack of a roof
over one’s head.
 It involves deprivation across a number of different dimensions –
physiological (lack of bodily comfort or warmth), emotional (lack of
love or joy), territorial (lack of privacy), ontological (lack of
rootedness in the world or lack of existence and sense of worth) and
spiritual (lack of hope, lack of purpose).
 The homeless population may be divided into those who are
officially accepted as homeless and the unofficial homeless
population.
 To the issue of homelessness consists three important concepts.
 These are Homelessness, Housing Exclusion and Adequate
Housing.

4. Domains of Homelessness
 Having a home can be understood as: having a decent dwelling (or
space) adequate to meet the needs of the person and his/her family
(physical domain or habitability); being able to maintain privacy and
enjoy social relations (social domain or Privacy) and having exclusive
possession, security of occupation and legal title (legal domain or
security of tenure).
 Therefore, homelessness is the exclusion of residents from physical,
legal, social and other related domains.
 According to this three domains i.e., physical, social, and legal
domains, a population can be categorized into three groups at the
time of enumeration:
 i) the homeless population.
 ii) the population experiencing housing exclusion.
 iii) the adequately housed population (not experiencing
homelessness or housing).

5. Domains of Homelessness…Cont’d
Broad homelessness
category
Living situation Domains that define
housing adequacy
Physical Social Legal
Without accommodation 1 Living rough ✗ ✗ ✗
2 Improvised dwelling ✗ ✗ ✗
Temporary accommodation 3 Night shelter ✓ ✗ ✗
4 Women’s refuge ✓ ✗ ✗
5 Accommodation for the homeless ✓ ✗ ✗
6 Camping ground / motor camp ✓ ✗ ✗
7 Commercial collective
accommodation (e.g. boarding
houses, motels, hotels)
✓ ✗ ✗
8 Marae (Māori meeting house) ✓ ✗ ✗
Sharing accommodation 9 Sharing a permanent private
dwelling (staying with friends or
relatives)
✓ ✗ ✗
Uninhabitable housing 10 Legally tenured dwelling
without adequate amenities
✗ ✗ ✓

6. Domains of Homelessness…Cont’d
 These broad homelessness category and the living situations
were identified by systematically applying the three domains(
physical, social and legal) to the official standard classification of
places of habitation.
 The classification of the homeless population is done by living
situation such as ‘sharing accommodation’ and ‘uninhabitable
housing’.
 Therefore, the population at risk of homelessness should be
specifically defined, measured and reported including those due
to be evicted into homelessness.

7. Domains of Homelessness …Cont’d

8. Domains of Homelessness …Cont’d
 Four broad categories of living situations below the minimum
adequacy standard are identified at the areas of intersection in
the above figure:
 Intersection 1: Physically inadequate, socially inadequate, and
legally insecure living situations. It is called ‘Without
accommodation’.
 Intersection 2: Socially inadequate and legally insecure living
situations. It contains ‘Temporary accommodation’.
 Intersection 3: Physically inadequate and legally insecure living
situations. It lacks basic physical requirements.
 Intersection 4: Physically and socially inadequate living situations.
It is called ‘Uninhabitable housing.
 Therefore, Homelessness and Housing Exclusion (HHE) are
extreme forms of social exclusion that need to be addressed.

9. Homelessness and Housing Exclusion
Conceptual
Category
Operational Category Living situation
Roofless 1 People living rough Public space or external space
2 People staying in a night
shelter
Night shelter
Houseless
3 People in accommodation for
the homeless
Homeless hostel,
Temporary accommodation,
Transitional supported accommodation
4 People in a women’s shelter Women’s shelter accommodation
5 People in accommodation for
immigrants
Temporary accommodation, reception
centre, Migrant workers’
accommodation
6 People due to be released
from institutions
Penal institutions, Medical institutions,
Children’s institutions/homes
7 People receiving longer-term
support (due to homelessness)
Residential care for older homeless
people,
Supported accommodation for formerly
homeless persons
Homelessness

10. Homelessness and Housing Exclusion…Cont’d
Conceptual
Category
Operational Category Living situation
Insecure
8 People living in insecure
accommodation
Temporarily with family/friends,
No legal (sub) tenancy, Illegal
occupation of land
9 People living
under threat of eviction
Legal orders enforced
(rented), Repossession
orders (owned)
10 People living
under threat of violence
Police recorded incidents
Inadequate
11 People living in temporary/
non-conventional structures
Mobile homes, Non-
conventional building,
Temporary structure
12 People living in unfit housing Occupied dwelling
unfit for habitation,
13 People living in extreme
overcrowding
Highest national norm
of overcrowding
Housing
Exclusion

11. Causes and Effects of Homelessness
 Homelessness exists in all countries and most communities in the
world. It's estimated that, about 150 million people or 2% of the
world’s population are homeless. While 1.6 billion more lack adequate
housing.
 Homelessness is often a symptom and cause of poverty and social
exclusion.
 Therefore, it is known that homelessness is the biggest social problem
which the whole world faces in the twenty first century.
 That means that homelessness is an international issue that exists in a
lot of societies and every locality.
 Homelessness is often a root cause and an effect of complex social
and economic problems.
 Homelessness undoubtedly needs to be well researched and
examined in order to develop a functional and effective strategy for
addressing it.

12. Causes Homelessness
 Not all members of the population may have access to housing.
 Homelessness is a result of various factors that have accumulated
over time.
 Causes of homelessness can be attributed to diverse and
multifaceted factors, including a lack of housing affordability,
speculation in housing and land for investment purposes,
privatization of civic services, ethnic and armed conflict, and rapid
ill-planned urbanization.
 The lack of secure tenure and forced eviction are conditions that
could lead to homelessness.
 In addition, research shows that poverty and personal difficulties
such as mental illness, substance use, and health problems leave
people vulnerable to homelessness.
 The primary driver of homelessness is the lack of affordable
housing.

13. Causes Homelessness…..Cont’d
 Insufficient income, high rates of poverty, and unemployment
also lead to homelessness.
 Additionally, because urban areas face persistent poverty, a high
number of people are continually at-risk of homelessness.
 In some countries the biggest causes of homelessness is the end
of tenancy and relationship breakdown.
 The domestic violence and other forms of abuse are also
common causes that lead to homelessness.
 Lack of policy, federal priorities and programs that focus on
homelessness is also another cause.
 As mentioned, homelessness is caused by various factors. It can
be economic, social, health, or a combination of all three.

14. Causes Homelessness…..Cont’d
 Economic Factors:
 Lack of Adequate Income
 No Access to Affordable Housing.
 Foreclosure(the action of taking possession of a mortgaged property
when the mortgagor fails to keep up their mortgage payments).
 Lack of housing finance.
 Lack of Education.
 Social Factors:
 Failed Relationships: A divorce or a bad break-up can cause someone
to end up homeless. This is especially true for women and children.
 Death of a Loved One: For children, the loss of a parent or both
parents can put them in homelessness.
 Rental Discrimination.

15. Causes Homelessness…..Cont’d
 Health Factors:
 Lack of Access to Medical Care
 Addictions
 Lack of Mental Health Support
 Political Factors:
 Homelessness also represent both a policy problem and a
political quandary.
 Lack of public awareness.
 Lack of inclusive policy.

16. Effects Homelessness
 Homelessness affects not just the individual, it leaves an impact
on society and country as whole too. Effects of homelessness can
be categorized: health, economic and social problems.
 Homelessness can also lead to other human rights violations,
arising from the homeless person’s consequent vulnerability and
lack of security of person.
 Health Problem:
 Homelessness is a public health problem. Without their own
housing and the social status to use restrooms in businesses or
other public places, people who are homeless often have to
relieve themselves outside.
 They lack access to health care and often have chronic illnesses,
made worse by tough living conditions: sleeping outside in all
weather, and being in close quarters at social service agencies
with other unhealthy people.

17. Effects Homelessness…Cont’d
 Economic Problem:
 Homelessness is an economic problem. People without housing are
high consumers of public resources and generate expense, rather
than income, for the community.
 Based on a study conducted a few years ago, it can cost our
community as much as $23,000 for one person to be chronically
homeless for one year (shelter stays, jail time, emergency room visits,
etc.).
 Tourism-driven economy, homelessness is bad for business and can be
a deterrent to downtown visitors.
 Social Problem:
 Homelessness widens the existing social barriers(marginalization). It
underscores the wealth gap in the country which, in turn, fuels hate
and division among the people. Persons who are homeless are often
unable to exercise their rights to vote and to access services.

18. Preventing and Reducing Homelessness
 Many families and the most vulnerable citizens those growing older,
those living with disabilities, low-income children, and youth will fall
through the into homelessness.
 Housing First (HF) have become internationally promoted housing
issue for homeless people.
 The complex social problem of homelessness has no simple solution.
 The first precondition of creating an effective strategy is in describing
the phenomenon in an understandable way, defining it clearly it in a
broader social context.
 To achieve policy objectives it is necessary to include the situations of
people living in insecure housing, those forced to continuously
alternate between various forms of inadequate housing and those
forced to live in dwellings unfit for habitation according to generally
accepted norms.

19. Preventing and Reducing Homelessness …Cont’d
 Research on homelessness is essential for policy‐makers, program
planners, service providers, and community groups.
 This knowledge can play an important role in public education and
awareness campaigns, policy decisions, resource allocation, program
development, and program or policy evaluation.
 It is important to bear in mind that different policy contexts will
affect in preventing and reducing homelessness in a number of
ways.
 Social Inclusion Strategy, should be developed to:
1. Prevent homelessness,
2. Tackle the causes of homelessness,
3. Reduce the level of homelessness,
4. Reduce the negative effects on homeless people and their families,
5. Ensure that formerly homeless people can sustain permanent
independent housing.

20. Preventing and Reducing Homelessness …Cont’d
 Preventing the occurrence of homelessness is the most economic
way of ending homelessness.
 To end homelessness governments and communities and other
stakeholders should employ new, research-driven and -supported
approaches, including permanent supportive housing and rapid re-
housing programs.
 These strategies, hailed as a significant “paradigm shift” in how
communities respond to homelessness.
 However, the economic crisis is making it difficult for local and
national governments to keep up with the increased demand for
homeless services and state and local budgets are reporting large
deficits, leaving little for investing in housing programs..
 Despite the significant buildup of emergency and transitional
housing, homelessness has remained a problem, leaving many
communities frustrated and hopeless.

21. Homelessness and Health
 Homelessness has a direct adverse impact on health.
 Housing has long been identified as a prerequisite for good health.
 There is the relationship between poor housing and high mortality
rates. These observations resulted in the development of legislation
to improve public health by the provision of adequate housing.
 Homelessness can result in exposure to tuberculosis or infectious
disease, and long periods of walking and standing and prolonged
exposure of the feet to moisture and cold can lead to different types
infection.
 Homeless people are at increased risk of tuberculosis (TB) due to
alcoholism, poor nutritional status and AIDS.
 Among the homeless population, risk factors for HIV infection
include survival sex, multiple sexual partners, inconsistent use of
condoms and injection drug use.
 The prevalence of mental illness and substance abuse is much higher
among homeless adults than in the general population.

22. Homelessness and Health…Cont’d
 Sexual and reproductive health are major issues for street youth.
 Studies of street‐involved youth have documented high rates of
involvement in survival sex, sexually transmitted diseases and
unplanned pregnancy.
 Homeless people have higher rates of premature mortality than
the rest of the population, especially from suicide and
unintentional injuries, and an increased prevalence of a range of
infectious diseases, mental disorders, and substance misuse.
 Rates of morbidity and mortality in homeless people are high
compared with the general population, in both relative and
absolute terms.
 In some countries, clinical guidelines have identified homeless
people as a high-risk group who need targeted interventions.

23. Psychological Perspectives on Homelessness
 It is important to emphasize that not all people who have
experienced homelessness will have suffered traumatic childhood
experiences or would be diagnosed as experiencing complex
trauma.
 However, there is growing evidence that a significant proportion
particularly of those with very complex needs such as entrenched
rough sleepers or young people who have endured sustained
traumatic experiences before facing homelessness may suffer from
complex trauma.
 Developing services that acknowledge the psychological and
emotional needs of people with complex trauma issues may have
been adversely affected by the experience of homelessness
 Adopting a psychologically skilled approach will provide positive
outcomes with those who have received a medical diagnosis, to
maintain healthy relationships or accommodation.

24. Psychological Perspectives on Homelessness…Cont’d
 Experiencing a traumatic childhood due to homelesness may
underpin many of the emotional and behavioral issues which
cause and perpetuate homelessness and lead to further mental
health problems, drug and alcohol misuse.
 These problems can also be compounded by further trauma in
adult life, thus perpetuating the cycle of homelessness.
 In recognizing the psychological and emotional needs of people
who are homeless or living in insecure accommodation, there are
clear implications for the commissioning of services and for the
training and support of key working and resettlement staff.
 It is a need for joined up input and support from primary care
services, including support to general practitioners, emergency
health services and specialist mental health services engaging
with this client group, to enhance the capacity within
accommodation services to meet these needs.

25. Criminological Perspectives on Homelessness
• People experiencing homelessness, particularly chronic
homelessness, often lack reasonable alternatives to living in
public.
• It is generally accepted that a person’s living situation, in
particular their experience of homelessness and housing stress,
can have both long-lasting and wide-ranging consequences.
 People may face problems of in finding food, shelter and work.
 Crime is often a product of poverty, labor strife and personal
calamities.
 Homelessness, together with relative deprivation and monetary
dissatisfaction, is one of a number of ‘strains’ that can influence
individuals to engage in criminal activity .
 The homeless are forced to experience the world as an insecure,
uncertain and troubled place.

26. Criminological Perspectives on Homelessness…Cont’d
 Homeless people are often victims of crime, rather than
perpetrators.
 Life on the street is particularly dangerous for girls and single
women.
 Homeless people live in constant fear of sexual abuse,
harassment and theft.
 Homeless people often have a conflicted relationship with the
police.
 On the other hand, single males, in particular, described having
an antagonistic relationship with police officers, who frequently
chase them away from their regular sleeping spots at bus stops
and other public spaces.

27. Criminological Perspectives on Homelessness…Cont’d
 It is not unreasonable to see the street-life people as victims
themselves often of sexual abuse when children, mental illness, drug
and alcohol dependency rather than necessarily as aggressive
troublemakers.
 Individuals who experience homelessness are frequent victims of
nonfatal crimes as well, including burglary, petty larceny, motor
vehicle theft, robbery, and physical assaults, and have been the
target of offensive speech, threats, and insults.
 For example, acts of violence against the homeless were reported in
the United States, and the total number of homeless individuals
killed was nearly triple the number of individuals murdered from all
other protected classes combined during this period.
 These included individuals who were killed based on the
perpetrators’ biases against members of their race, color, nationality,
ethnicity, religion, ability status, or sexual orientation.

28. Criminological Perspectives on Homelessness…Cont’d
• Homeless individuals typically enter the criminal justice system for
minor offenses that are often the direct result of being homeless
(e.g., public disorder or petty theft).
• In the literature, a number of different explanations are commonly
used to describe the correlation between homelessness and crime,
including that:
1. By virtue of living in a public place, people who are homeless are
more susceptible to committing public order offences;
2. Those without stable accommodation may have little choice but to
engage in ‘survival offending’ such as shoplifting and squatting;
3. Substance abuse as a coping mechanism may lead to offending
behavior in order to fund habits; and
4. Police may specifically target homeless populations because
homeless populations are more visible to street policing
operations.

29. Criminological Perspectives on Homelessness…Cont’d
 Is homelessness a crime?
 The criminalization of homelessness can be defined as the passage
of laws or ordinances that prohibit sitting, sleeping, panhandling,
sharing food, or religious practice in public spaces.
 Without an address and without sufficient financial resources,
homeless people are often unaware of or unable to respond to these
conditions.
 The inherent trauma of homelessness is exacerbated by punitive
laws and policies that criminalize homelessness.
 When they fail to do so, because of conditions such as sickness, lack
of money, lack of transportation, mental illness, or some other
common barrier, violation of law can mutate into a crime.
 These conditions are extremely difficult for chronically homeless
individuals.

30. Criminological Perspectives on Homelessness…Cont’d
 Homelessness can be dangerous, and leave people at risk of
abuse, assault and exploitation.
 Some governments across the world have been punishing
people for not having a home( being homeless).
 For example, In California, sleeping in vehicles and camping,
sitting or lying down in public, is criminalized.
 But , according Human Rights Watch and other International
Human Rights Organizations, being homeless is not a crime.

31. Hidden Homelessness
• Hidden homeless people are those without a place to call home, but
who are hidden from official statistics and not receiving support.
 They can find themselves in precarious situations, including sofa
surfing, sleeping rough, squatting and sleeping on public transport.
 Young people are most likely to be affected and this affects people
who aren’t eligible for homelessness.
 People who are hidden homeless frequently don’t identify themselves
as being homeless.
 This is often because they don’t see themselves as a ‘stereotypical’
homeless person, typified by rough sleeping.
 Often people tend to see themselves as simply ‘between homes’ –
although this can last for extended periods.
 The specific vulnerable groups may be especially prone to becoming
hidden homeless.

32. Feminist Perspectives on Homelessness
 The inherently gendered nature of homelessness, are routinely
ignored in housing research.
 Women continue to experience some forms of housing exclusion at a
higher rate than men.
 Women have historically been subjected to violence and domination
at the hands of men.
 Homeless women do maintain intimate relationships and are subject
to abuse by their husbands, boyfriends, and lovers.
 Homeless women are often stigmatized, marginalized and
alienated by society.
 Women’s disadvantage in housing markets, reflecting women’s
greater experience of relative and absolute economic marginalization.
 Women appear more likely to rely on relatives, friends and
acquaintances to keep themselves accommodated when they become
homeless.

33. Thanks