Abstract
The physical layer of an optical network may be attacked in numerous ways, such as by jamming, assaults on the physical infrastructure, eavesdropping, and interception. As the requirement for network capacity develops, the physical layer of the optical network must be kept secure. In this overview article, specialists look at security problems in optical networks and discuss a variety of novel approaches to defending optical networks. In the first section of this study, researchers discuss a variety of security issues that might harm the optical layer of an optical network. These weaknesses include jamming, physical infrastructure assaults, eavesdropping, and interception. Enhanced optical network security has gained a lot of interest in the sectors described above. Real-time signal processing is essential in order to apply security measures at the physical layer without slowing down the pace of optical communications. The key advantages of optical processing for optical layer security include rapid reaction, wide-band operation, resilience to electromagnetic fields, compact size, and low latency. In the second part of this research, we look into optical steganography, optical encryption, optical code-division multiple access (CDMA) secrecy, self-healing, survivable optical rings, anti-jamming, and optical CDMA confidentiality.
I. Introduction
Introduction Optical communication systems are employed in many different fields, including business, the military, and personal communication. Optical networks are unusual in that their data speeds are greater than 40 GB/s, and this figure will only increase as time goes on. Physical layer security measures have to function in real time, which is not achievable with standard electronic computing. Side-channel assaults are less likely to emerge in optical communication networks because optical components don’t leave electromagnetic traces. With optical encryption, communications may be encrypted fast and with minimum latency (at speeds not attainable with standard electrical implementations) (at rates not possible with conventional electrical implementations). In addition to data encryption, optical steganography may be used to obscure the flow of data over an open transmission channel.
II. Threats and defenses in optical networks at the optical layer
There are many different forms of optical networks, from local area networks to the backbone networks of the Internet. Each network may tackle a particular threat type in a different manner. Researchers investigate the optical layer to examine whether there are any threats to privacy, availability, authentication, and secrecy (Skorin-Kapov, 2016).
A. Confidentiality
Even though optical networks don’t have an electromagnetic signature, an attacker may nonetheless listen in on them by physically tapping into the optical fiber or by pretending as a lawful subscriber and listening to residual crosstalk from an adjacent channel. It is not hard to tap an
9 Aab32 Dd Bdb9 137 E Ca2184 F057753212 154710guestbd2263
The document proposes a new scheme for secure communication in fiber optic systems using broadband optical noise. In the scheme, Alice and Bob receive identical replicas of a truly random broadband optical noise signal. They extract identical random binary sequences from the noise to use as an encryption key. The key is distributed through the use of identical optical scramblers by Alice and Bob, whose structures are not known to an eavesdropper Eve. The scheme allows for high data rates like conventional fiber systems and can be integrated into existing infrastructure.
The document is a seminar report on secure communication over fiber optic networks submitted by Fiona Rozario. It discusses optical networks and various security issues in optical networks including issues in network transmission, optical amplifiers, and optical cross-connects. It then covers different encryption systems that can provide security in optical networks such as optical CDMA, quantum cryptography, chaos-based encryption, and optical steganography.
REAL TIME SECURING OF ALL-OPTICAL NETWORKS AGAINST SECURITY ATTACKS AT THE PH...IJNSA Journal
The document describes protocols for securing all-optical networks against physical layer security attacks. It proposes:
1. Calculating security indices for network components and storing them in databases at source nodes. This is used to establish secure lightpaths avoiding attacked components.
2. Establishing lightpaths using fiber diversity between nodes for redundancy against fiber attacks.
3. Monitoring components for attacks during data transfer. Attacked components are partially restored on-the-fly to minimize data loss instead of tearing down lightpaths.
REAL TIME SECURING OF ALL-OPTICAL NETWORKS AGAINST SECURITY ATTACKS AT THE PH...IJNSA Journal
This paper deals with protecting all-optical networks (AON) from security attacks at the physical level. It firstly presents an overall high level protocol for establishment, management and on-the-fly restoration of optimal secure lightpaths established by applying constraint-based open shortest path first (OSPF) source routing using proposed security databases of components. Secondly it presents a protocol for using fiber diversity between adjacent nodes to protect against attacks on fiber links. Thirdly it presents analytical models of propagation of security attacks on optical amplifiers and switches. These models are then used to develop security envelopes around these components, to calculate security indices and on-the-fly real-time restoration of components in case of an attack. Fourthly it presents simulation results for evaluation of the performance of these on-the-fly restoration schemes. These on-the-fly restoration schemes eliminate need for tearing down of attacked lightpaths and prevent consequent loss of large amount of data.
A collaborative physical layer security schemeIJECEIAES
High level of security is essential in wireless 5G communications. The last few years there has been an increase in research interest in the potential of the radio channel’s physical properties to provide communications security. These research efforts investigate fading, interference, and path diversity to develop security techniques for implementation in 5G New Radio (NR). In this paper, we propose a collaborative scheme to existing physical layer security schemes, taking advantage of the characteristics of the OFDM technique. An OFDM symbol includes the pilot subcarriers, typically essential for the pilot channel estimation process performed at the legitimate receiver. In this work we propose the positions of the subcarriers to change on every OFDM symbol following a probability distribution known only to the legitimate transmitter and legitimate receiver. An eavesdropper, does not have access to the information of the pilot subcarriers positions so, it performs blind channel estimation. The theoretical analysis is based on the information theoretic problem formulation and is confirmed by simulations. The performance metrics used are the secrecy capacity and the outage probability. The proposed scheme is very simple and robust, strengthening security in multimedia applications.
Review of the Security Challenges of Fiber Optics Technologies in Network Con...inventionjournals
The increasing number of people who transfer data from one place to another daily demands that the telecom industries develop a sophisticated strategy to guaranty quality data transferred without compromise or interception. Some of these industries in a bid to meet up with this demand employ any means of data transfer possible to them. Internet connectivity requires physical transfer of data from one place to another. This can be achieved either through wire or wirelessly. Connection through wire could be by UTP, Coaxial or Fiber Optics. Experience showed that wired is more advantageous when considering bandwidth utilization, performance, reliability, resiliency and security, many people are toeing this way and fiber optics their major choice. Fiber optics can be bundled as cable and used for data transmission through which light propagates with little attenuation, which makes it advantageous for long distance communication. The massive choice of fiber optics of recent has increase the security challenges bedevilling it, as it is now the prime target of network attackers. This has increased its vulnerability. Fiber optic is experiencing some security issues like splicing, clamping, cutting and tapping in developing countries like Nigeria. The paper tries to evaluate the security challenges bedevilling the optic fiber
Review of the Security Challenges of Fiber Optics Technologies in Network Con...inventionjournals
The increasing number of people who transfer data from one place to another daily demands that the telecom industries develop a sophisticated strategy to guaranty quality data transferred without compromise or interception. Some of these industries in a bid to meet up with this demand employ any means of data transfer possible to them. Internet connectivity requires physical transfer of data from one place to another. This can be achieved either through wire or wirelessly. Connection through wire could be by UTP, Coaxial or Fiber Optics. Experience showed that wired is more advantageous when considering bandwidth utilization, performance, reliability, resiliency and security, many people are toeing this way and fiber optics their major choice. Fiber optics can be bundled as cable and used for data transmission through which light propagates with little attenuation, which makes it advantageous for long distance communication. The massive choice of fiber optics of recent has increase the security challenges bedevilling it, as it is now the prime target of network attackers. This has increased its vulnerability. Fiber optic is experiencing some security issues like splicing, clamping, cutting and tapping in developing countries like Nigeria. The paper tries to evaluate the security challenges bedevilling the optic fiber
Li-Fi is a technology that uses light from light-emitting diodes (LEDs) for high-speed data transmission. It can transmit data through illumination at speeds up to 500 Mbps, which is faster than current Wi-Fi technologies. Li-Fi uses visible light communication (VLC) which involves varying the intensity of light from an LED to transmit data. It takes advantage of unused spectrum in the electromagnetic spectrum and has several advantages over traditional Wi-Fi such as higher bandwidth, more secure communication, and lower costs. Some potential applications of Li-Fi include indoor networking, traffic light communication systems, and "underwater communications."
9 Aab32 Dd Bdb9 137 E Ca2184 F057753212 154710guestbd2263
The document proposes a new scheme for secure communication in fiber optic systems using broadband optical noise. In the scheme, Alice and Bob receive identical replicas of a truly random broadband optical noise signal. They extract identical random binary sequences from the noise to use as an encryption key. The key is distributed through the use of identical optical scramblers by Alice and Bob, whose structures are not known to an eavesdropper Eve. The scheme allows for high data rates like conventional fiber systems and can be integrated into existing infrastructure.
The document is a seminar report on secure communication over fiber optic networks submitted by Fiona Rozario. It discusses optical networks and various security issues in optical networks including issues in network transmission, optical amplifiers, and optical cross-connects. It then covers different encryption systems that can provide security in optical networks such as optical CDMA, quantum cryptography, chaos-based encryption, and optical steganography.
REAL TIME SECURING OF ALL-OPTICAL NETWORKS AGAINST SECURITY ATTACKS AT THE PH...IJNSA Journal
The document describes protocols for securing all-optical networks against physical layer security attacks. It proposes:
1. Calculating security indices for network components and storing them in databases at source nodes. This is used to establish secure lightpaths avoiding attacked components.
2. Establishing lightpaths using fiber diversity between nodes for redundancy against fiber attacks.
3. Monitoring components for attacks during data transfer. Attacked components are partially restored on-the-fly to minimize data loss instead of tearing down lightpaths.
REAL TIME SECURING OF ALL-OPTICAL NETWORKS AGAINST SECURITY ATTACKS AT THE PH...IJNSA Journal
This paper deals with protecting all-optical networks (AON) from security attacks at the physical level. It firstly presents an overall high level protocol for establishment, management and on-the-fly restoration of optimal secure lightpaths established by applying constraint-based open shortest path first (OSPF) source routing using proposed security databases of components. Secondly it presents a protocol for using fiber diversity between adjacent nodes to protect against attacks on fiber links. Thirdly it presents analytical models of propagation of security attacks on optical amplifiers and switches. These models are then used to develop security envelopes around these components, to calculate security indices and on-the-fly real-time restoration of components in case of an attack. Fourthly it presents simulation results for evaluation of the performance of these on-the-fly restoration schemes. These on-the-fly restoration schemes eliminate need for tearing down of attacked lightpaths and prevent consequent loss of large amount of data.
A collaborative physical layer security schemeIJECEIAES
High level of security is essential in wireless 5G communications. The last few years there has been an increase in research interest in the potential of the radio channel’s physical properties to provide communications security. These research efforts investigate fading, interference, and path diversity to develop security techniques for implementation in 5G New Radio (NR). In this paper, we propose a collaborative scheme to existing physical layer security schemes, taking advantage of the characteristics of the OFDM technique. An OFDM symbol includes the pilot subcarriers, typically essential for the pilot channel estimation process performed at the legitimate receiver. In this work we propose the positions of the subcarriers to change on every OFDM symbol following a probability distribution known only to the legitimate transmitter and legitimate receiver. An eavesdropper, does not have access to the information of the pilot subcarriers positions so, it performs blind channel estimation. The theoretical analysis is based on the information theoretic problem formulation and is confirmed by simulations. The performance metrics used are the secrecy capacity and the outage probability. The proposed scheme is very simple and robust, strengthening security in multimedia applications.
Review of the Security Challenges of Fiber Optics Technologies in Network Con...inventionjournals
The increasing number of people who transfer data from one place to another daily demands that the telecom industries develop a sophisticated strategy to guaranty quality data transferred without compromise or interception. Some of these industries in a bid to meet up with this demand employ any means of data transfer possible to them. Internet connectivity requires physical transfer of data from one place to another. This can be achieved either through wire or wirelessly. Connection through wire could be by UTP, Coaxial or Fiber Optics. Experience showed that wired is more advantageous when considering bandwidth utilization, performance, reliability, resiliency and security, many people are toeing this way and fiber optics their major choice. Fiber optics can be bundled as cable and used for data transmission through which light propagates with little attenuation, which makes it advantageous for long distance communication. The massive choice of fiber optics of recent has increase the security challenges bedevilling it, as it is now the prime target of network attackers. This has increased its vulnerability. Fiber optic is experiencing some security issues like splicing, clamping, cutting and tapping in developing countries like Nigeria. The paper tries to evaluate the security challenges bedevilling the optic fiber
Review of the Security Challenges of Fiber Optics Technologies in Network Con...inventionjournals
The increasing number of people who transfer data from one place to another daily demands that the telecom industries develop a sophisticated strategy to guaranty quality data transferred without compromise or interception. Some of these industries in a bid to meet up with this demand employ any means of data transfer possible to them. Internet connectivity requires physical transfer of data from one place to another. This can be achieved either through wire or wirelessly. Connection through wire could be by UTP, Coaxial or Fiber Optics. Experience showed that wired is more advantageous when considering bandwidth utilization, performance, reliability, resiliency and security, many people are toeing this way and fiber optics their major choice. Fiber optics can be bundled as cable and used for data transmission through which light propagates with little attenuation, which makes it advantageous for long distance communication. The massive choice of fiber optics of recent has increase the security challenges bedevilling it, as it is now the prime target of network attackers. This has increased its vulnerability. Fiber optic is experiencing some security issues like splicing, clamping, cutting and tapping in developing countries like Nigeria. The paper tries to evaluate the security challenges bedevilling the optic fiber
Li-Fi is a technology that uses light from light-emitting diodes (LEDs) for high-speed data transmission. It can transmit data through illumination at speeds up to 500 Mbps, which is faster than current Wi-Fi technologies. Li-Fi uses visible light communication (VLC) which involves varying the intensity of light from an LED to transmit data. It takes advantage of unused spectrum in the electromagnetic spectrum and has several advantages over traditional Wi-Fi such as higher bandwidth, more secure communication, and lower costs. Some potential applications of Li-Fi include indoor networking, traffic light communication systems, and "underwater communications."
A survey on security threats and detection2013Amina RIYAHI
This document provides an overview of security threats facing cognitive radio networks (CRNs). It discusses how CRNs aim to address spectrum scarcity by opportunistically using licensed spectrum bands when they are not in use. However, CRNs introduce new security vulnerabilities beyond those of traditional wireless networks. Specifically, adversaries can exploit the cognitive and reconfigurable aspects of CRNs to launch attacks like emulating primary users or falsifying spectrum sensing data. The document surveys current research on detecting such attacks and securing CRNs.
SPECTRUM SENSING STRATEGY TO ENHANCE THE QOS IN WHITE-FI NETWORKSIJCNC Journal
The rapidly growing number of wireless devices running applications that require high bandwidths, has
resulted in increasing demands for the unlicensed frequency spectrum. Given the scarcity of allocated
unlicensed frequencies, meeting such demands can become a serious concern. Cognitive Radio (CR)
technology opens the door for the opportunistic use of the licensed spectrum to partially address the issues
relevant to the limited availability of unlicensed frequencies. Combining CR and Wi-Fi to form the socalled
White-Fi networks, has been proposed for achieving higher spectrum utilization. This article
discusses the spectrum sensing in White-Fi networks and the impacts that it has on the QoS of typical
applications. It also reports the analysis of such impacts through various simulation studies. Our results
demonstrate the advantages of an adaptive sensing strategy that is capable of changing the related
parameters based on QoS requirements. We also propose such a sensing strategy that can adapt to the
IEEE 802.11e requirements. The goal of the proposed strategy is the enhancement of the overall QoS of the
applications while maintaining efficient sensing of the spectrum. Simulation results of the scenarios that
implement the proposed mechanisms demonstrate noticeable QoS improvements compared to cases where
common sensing methods are utilized in IEEE802.11 networks.
SPECTRUM SENSING STRATEGY TO ENHANCE THE QOS IN WHITE-FI NETWORKSIJCNCJournal
The rapidly growing number of wireless devices running applications that require high bandwidths, has resulted in increasing demands for the unlicensed frequency spectrum. Given the scarcity of allocated unlicensed frequencies, meeting such demands can become a serious concern. Cognitive Radio (CR) technology opens the door for the opportunistic use of the licensed spectrum to partially address the issues relevant to the limited availability of unlicensed frequencies. Combining CR and Wi-Fi to form the socalled White-Fi networks, has been proposed for achieving higher spectrum utilization. This article discusses the spectrum sensing in White-Fi networks and the impacts that it has on the QoS of typical applications. It also reports the analysis of such impacts through various simulation studies. Our results demonstrate the advantages of an adaptive sensing strategy that is capable of changing the related parameters based on QoS requirements. We also propose such a sensing strategy that can adapt to the IEEE 802.11e requirements. The goal of the proposed strategy is the enhancement of the overall QoS of the applications while maintaining efficient sensing of the spectrum. Simulation results of the scenarios that implement the proposed mechanisms demonstrate noticeable QoS improvements compared to cases where common sensing methods are utilized in IEEE802.11 networks.
This document discusses security issues in fiber optic networks and various encryption techniques used to secure communication over these networks. It first provides background on optical fibers and fiber optic communication systems. It then outlines some common security issues like network attacks that disrupt service or allow tapping of data. Various encryption schemes are discussed like optical CDMA, quantum cryptography, chaos-based encryption, and steganography. Each technique has advantages but also limitations in terms of things like synchronization requirements, vulnerability to jamming, or limited transmission range.
This document discusses free space optics (FSO) technology, which uses lasers to transmit data through the air instead of fiber optic cables. It provides details on how FSO systems work and their advantages over fiber, including significantly lower costs and faster deployment times. However, it also notes challenges like signal attenuation from weather conditions like heavy rain or fog. The document examines applications of FSO including extending metro networks and enterprise campus connectivity as well as potential issues like beam misalignment from building sway.
This document discusses free space optics (FSO) technology. It provides details on:
- How FSO works by transmitting data through the air using lasers between optical wireless units.
- The advantages of FSO over fiber include significantly lower costs, faster deployment, and easy scalability of bandwidth.
- Challenges for FSO performance include weather conditions that can cause signal attenuation, as well as physical obstructions and atmospheric effects like scintillation.
FUTURE TRENDS IN FIBER OPTICS COMMUNICATIONIJCI JOURNAL
This document discusses future trends in fiber optic communication. It begins with an introduction to fiber optic communication and how advances in technology have increased data transmission capacity through optical fibers. The document then discusses several potential future trends, including all optical communication networks that process data entirely in the optical domain, multi-terabit optical networks enabled by dense wavelength division multiplexing, and intelligent optical transmission networks that can dynamically allocate resources. Overall, the document outlines how fiber optic communication is expected to continue advancing to support higher data rates, more advanced switching techniques, and smarter network architectures.
The aim of this paper is to determine the viability of Indoor Optical Wireless Communication System. This paper introduces Visible Light Communication along with its merits, demerits and applications. Then the main characteristics of VLC system are described, around which the project is designed. Multiple Input-Multiple Output (MIMO) technique is used in the project in order to enhance the data rate of transmission. Instead of using a system of only one LED and one APD, which transmits only one bit at a time, a system of 4 LEDs and 4 APDs is introduced, which increases the data rates by 300% from the previous case. We observe the signal, noise, SNR, BER etc. across the room dimension. Finally, in the last chapter we summarize our results on the basis of MATLAB simulations and propose some modifications to this model that can be implemented in future.
Performance of symmetric and asymmetric links in wireless networks IJECEIAES
Wireless networks are designed to provide the enabling infrastructure for emerging technological advancements. The main characteristics of wireless networks are: Mobility, power constraints, high packet loss, and lower bandwidth. Nodes’ mobility is a crucial consideration for wireless networks, as nodes are moving all the time, and this may result in loss of connectivity in the network. The goal of this work is to explore the effect of replacing the generally held assumption of symmetric radii for wireless networks with asymmetric radii. This replacement may have a direct impact on the connectivity, throughput, and collision avoidance mechanism of mobile networks. The proposed replacement may also impact other mobile protocol’s functionality. In this work, we are mainly concerned with building and maintaining fully connected wireless network with the asymmetric assumption. For this extent, we propose to study the effect of the asymmetric links assumption on the network performance using extensive simulation experiments. Extensive simulation experiments were performed to measure the impact of these parameters. Finally, a resource allocation scheme for wireless networks is proposed for the dual rate scenario. The performance of the proposed framework is evaluated using simulation.
Establishment Network by Using FSO Link Based on MD Code for Hybrid SCM-SAC-O...IJECEIAES
Since the wireless systems are working under nature environments and influenced by turbulence, weather in Iraq that leads to extended amount of fading signal, dissipation or attenuation. Basic “hybrid Subcarrier Multiplying Spectral Amplitude Coding (SCM-SAC) of Optical Code Division Multiple Access (OCDMA)" indoor or outdoor optical system depends on generally “Multi-Diagonal (MD)" security code by using optical space known as “Free Space Optic (FSO)" that was proposed in this work. It is found that the mention hybrid wireless systems can be used in operating mesh networks. The main proposed idea of hybrid optical technique was analyzed and simulated by normally taking into simulation account that the directly effecting by rain and haze attenuations. In addition, there are mention and description for atmospheric effects, FSO mesh network, modulation scheme, simulation, and the data security. From simulation results, the hybrid system using MD code produces reduced “bit-error rate (BER)" at heavy storm rain to distance or range of 500 m and at drizzle rain up to 2500 m range. And also investigates the performance of using the proposed system with radio over fiber (RoF) for UWB signals through indoor propagation in building applications of wireless channel.
Machine learning based lightweight interference mitigation scheme for wireles...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
The interference issue is most vibrant on low-powered networks like wireless sensor network (WSN). In some cases, the heavy interference on WSN from different technologies and devices result in life threatening situations. In this paper, a machine learning (ML) based lightweight interference mitigation scheme for WSN is proposed. The scheme detects and identifies heterogeneous interference like Wifi, bluetooth and microwave oven using a lightweight feature extraction method and ML lightweight decision tree. It also provides WSN an adaptive interference mitigation solution by helping to choose packet scheduling, Acknowledgement (ACK)-retransmission or channel switching as the best countermeasure. The scheme is simulated with test data to evaluate the accuracy performance and the memory consumption. Evaluation of the proposed scheme’s memory profile shows a 14% memory saving compared to a fast fourier transform (FFT) based periodicity estimation technique and 3% less memory compared to logistic regression-based ML model, hence proving the scheme is lightweight. The validation test shows the scheme has a high accuracy at 95.24%. It shows a precision of 100% in detecting WiFi and microwave oven interference while a 90% precision in detecting bluetooth interference.
THE UWB SOLUTION FOR MULTIMEDIA TRAFFIC IN WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKSijwmn
Several researches are focused on the QoS (Quality of Service) and Energy consumption in wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks. Those research projects invest in theory and practice in order to extend the spectrum of use of norms, standards and technologies which are emerged in wireless communications.
The performance of these technologies is strongly related to domains of use and limitations of their characteristics. In this paper, we give a comparison of ZigBee technology, most widely used in sensor networks, and UWB (Ultra Wide Band) which presents itself as competitor that present in these work better results for audiovisual applications with medium-range and high throughput.
Simulation And Analysis Of 10 Gbps Optical Communication...Amanda Brady
This document summarizes the key advantages of fiber optic networks over traditional copper wire networks. It discusses how fiber optic cables can carry much more information than copper wires and are less susceptible to electromagnetic interference. Fiber optic networks allow for transmission over longer distances at higher bandwidths and data rates. The document also provides a brief overview of the history and development of fiber optic technology.
Free-Space Optical Networking Using the Spectrum of Visible LightIJTET Journal
Radio frequency technology suffers from limited bandwidth and electromagnetic interference. The recent
developments in solid-state Light Emitting Diode (LED) materials and devices are driving resurgence into the use of Free-Space Optical (FSO) wireless communication. LED-based network transceivers have a variety of competitive advantages over RF
including high bandwidth density, security, energy consumption, and aesthetics. They also use a highly reusable unregulated part of the spectrum (visible light). Many opportunities exist to exploit low-cost nature of LEDs and lighting units for widespread deployment of optical communication. The prime focus is to reducing cost, and for that, we have to make appropriate selection
of system’s components, e.g. modulation, coding, filtering. The objective is to describe the viability of an optical free-space visible light transceiver as a basis for indoor wireless networking and to achieve acceptable bit error rate (BER) performance for indoor use, with a low cost system.
Optical Wireless Communication (OWC) has attracted the researchers as an alternative broadband technology for wireless communication. In OWC optical beams are used to transport data through atmosphere or even vacuum. We have proposed an OWC model and analyze the transmission performance of OW channel for indoor/ outdoor application. The performance has been judged on the basis of key parameters like BER and OSNR. A theoretical model has also been presented and validated by the simulation results. The proposed OWC channel was simulated in Optisystem which is a powerful tool of Optical communication System
This paper deals with different loss mechanisms within the single mode fiber (SMF) in optical fiber communication. A number of mechanisms are responsible for the signal attenuation within optical fibers. As the optical signal propagates over long stretch of fiber, it becomes attenuated because of absorption,
scattering, fiber bends by material impurities, and other effects. The transmission using high bandwidth
can handle vast amounts of information, which can be further improved by reduction in fiber losses,
increase in data rates and distances, and using appropriate operating wavelength in optical fiber communication. The recent development in the area of fiber optic communication as well as the advances in different fiber types and their properties such as attenuation or loss and bandwidth are also discussed in this paper. The performance improvement of the proposed different loss, such as Rayleigh scattering, Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS), Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS), and bending loss within the various loss mechanisms in fiber optic communication is shown through simulations.
Intersatellite laser crosslinks provide significantly higher data throughput than traditional RF communication systems. They take advantage of lasers' small wavelengths and highly directed beams to transmit data over long distances with minimal losses. A laser crosslink system consists of a transmitter, receiver, acquisition subsystem to initially align the links, and a tracking subsystem to maintain the alignment during data transmission. Optical communications offer wide bandwidths and high data transmission rates well beyond what is possible with RF technologies. Various laser crosslink systems are discussed to understand their subsystems and implementations.
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research(IJCER)ijceronline
1. The document discusses selective jamming attacks in wireless networks. Selective jamming attacks target important messages to degrade network performance.
2. The authors develop three schemes that combine cryptographic techniques with physical layer attributes to prevent real-time packet classification and mitigate selective jamming attacks.
3. The schemes are analyzed for their security and computational and communication overhead. The schemes aim to prevent adversaries from identifying important messages to selectively jam on the physical layer.
This document evaluates Wi-Fi network performance in indoor environments under different conditions. It measures parameters like throughput, latency, and packet loss for both line-of-sight and non-line-of-sight scenarios at distances of 10, 20, and 12 meters. The results show that throughput decreases and latency increases with distance, and non-line-of-sight conditions yield lower throughput than line-of-sight. Packet loss is also higher with increased distance and non-line-of-sight obstacles between the transmitter and receiver.
Data Security via Public-Key Cryptography in Wireless Sensor NetworkIJCI JOURNAL
This document discusses using public-key cryptography for data security in wireless sensor networks. It begins with an abstract that introduces public-key infrastructure for sensor networks to allow services like digital signatures. It then provides background on wireless sensor networks and discusses their limitations, including limited resources and vulnerability of nodes. It reviews different techniques for distributing public keys, including public announcement, publicly available directories, using a public-key authority, and public-key certificates. It analyzes whether a public-key infrastructure is feasible for sensor networks given their constraints. The document concludes by discussing potential public-key schemes that could work for wireless sensor networks.
Essentials of Automations: The Art of Triggers and Actions in FMESafe Software
In this second installment of our Essentials of Automations webinar series, we’ll explore the landscape of triggers and actions, guiding you through the nuances of authoring and adapting workspaces for seamless automations. Gain an understanding of the full spectrum of triggers and actions available in FME, empowering you to enhance your workspaces for efficient automation.
We’ll kick things off by showcasing the most commonly used event-based triggers, introducing you to various automation workflows like manual triggers, schedules, directory watchers, and more. Plus, see how these elements play out in real scenarios.
Whether you’re tweaking your current setup or building from the ground up, this session will arm you with the tools and insights needed to transform your FME usage into a powerhouse of productivity. Join us to discover effective strategies that simplify complex processes, enhancing your productivity and transforming your data management practices with FME. Let’s turn complexity into clarity and make your workspaces work wonders!
A survey on security threats and detection2013Amina RIYAHI
This document provides an overview of security threats facing cognitive radio networks (CRNs). It discusses how CRNs aim to address spectrum scarcity by opportunistically using licensed spectrum bands when they are not in use. However, CRNs introduce new security vulnerabilities beyond those of traditional wireless networks. Specifically, adversaries can exploit the cognitive and reconfigurable aspects of CRNs to launch attacks like emulating primary users or falsifying spectrum sensing data. The document surveys current research on detecting such attacks and securing CRNs.
SPECTRUM SENSING STRATEGY TO ENHANCE THE QOS IN WHITE-FI NETWORKSIJCNC Journal
The rapidly growing number of wireless devices running applications that require high bandwidths, has
resulted in increasing demands for the unlicensed frequency spectrum. Given the scarcity of allocated
unlicensed frequencies, meeting such demands can become a serious concern. Cognitive Radio (CR)
technology opens the door for the opportunistic use of the licensed spectrum to partially address the issues
relevant to the limited availability of unlicensed frequencies. Combining CR and Wi-Fi to form the socalled
White-Fi networks, has been proposed for achieving higher spectrum utilization. This article
discusses the spectrum sensing in White-Fi networks and the impacts that it has on the QoS of typical
applications. It also reports the analysis of such impacts through various simulation studies. Our results
demonstrate the advantages of an adaptive sensing strategy that is capable of changing the related
parameters based on QoS requirements. We also propose such a sensing strategy that can adapt to the
IEEE 802.11e requirements. The goal of the proposed strategy is the enhancement of the overall QoS of the
applications while maintaining efficient sensing of the spectrum. Simulation results of the scenarios that
implement the proposed mechanisms demonstrate noticeable QoS improvements compared to cases where
common sensing methods are utilized in IEEE802.11 networks.
SPECTRUM SENSING STRATEGY TO ENHANCE THE QOS IN WHITE-FI NETWORKSIJCNCJournal
The rapidly growing number of wireless devices running applications that require high bandwidths, has resulted in increasing demands for the unlicensed frequency spectrum. Given the scarcity of allocated unlicensed frequencies, meeting such demands can become a serious concern. Cognitive Radio (CR) technology opens the door for the opportunistic use of the licensed spectrum to partially address the issues relevant to the limited availability of unlicensed frequencies. Combining CR and Wi-Fi to form the socalled White-Fi networks, has been proposed for achieving higher spectrum utilization. This article discusses the spectrum sensing in White-Fi networks and the impacts that it has on the QoS of typical applications. It also reports the analysis of such impacts through various simulation studies. Our results demonstrate the advantages of an adaptive sensing strategy that is capable of changing the related parameters based on QoS requirements. We also propose such a sensing strategy that can adapt to the IEEE 802.11e requirements. The goal of the proposed strategy is the enhancement of the overall QoS of the applications while maintaining efficient sensing of the spectrum. Simulation results of the scenarios that implement the proposed mechanisms demonstrate noticeable QoS improvements compared to cases where common sensing methods are utilized in IEEE802.11 networks.
This document discusses security issues in fiber optic networks and various encryption techniques used to secure communication over these networks. It first provides background on optical fibers and fiber optic communication systems. It then outlines some common security issues like network attacks that disrupt service or allow tapping of data. Various encryption schemes are discussed like optical CDMA, quantum cryptography, chaos-based encryption, and steganography. Each technique has advantages but also limitations in terms of things like synchronization requirements, vulnerability to jamming, or limited transmission range.
This document discusses free space optics (FSO) technology, which uses lasers to transmit data through the air instead of fiber optic cables. It provides details on how FSO systems work and their advantages over fiber, including significantly lower costs and faster deployment times. However, it also notes challenges like signal attenuation from weather conditions like heavy rain or fog. The document examines applications of FSO including extending metro networks and enterprise campus connectivity as well as potential issues like beam misalignment from building sway.
This document discusses free space optics (FSO) technology. It provides details on:
- How FSO works by transmitting data through the air using lasers between optical wireless units.
- The advantages of FSO over fiber include significantly lower costs, faster deployment, and easy scalability of bandwidth.
- Challenges for FSO performance include weather conditions that can cause signal attenuation, as well as physical obstructions and atmospheric effects like scintillation.
FUTURE TRENDS IN FIBER OPTICS COMMUNICATIONIJCI JOURNAL
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Data Security via Public-Key Cryptography in Wireless Sensor NetworkIJCI JOURNAL
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PHYSICAL LAYER SECURITY OF OPTICAL NETWORKS.pdf
1. PHYSICAL LAYER SECURITY
OF OPTICAL NETWORKS
Abstract
The physical layer of an optical network may be attacked in numerous ways,
such as by jamming, assaults on the physical infrastructure, eavesdropping, and
interception. As the requirement for network capacity develops, the physical layer
of the optical network must be kept secure. In this overview article, specialists
look at security problems in optical networks and discuss a variety of novel
approaches to defending optical networks. In the first section of this study,
researchers discuss a variety of security issues that might harm the optical layer
of an optical network. These weaknesses include jamming, physical
infrastructure assaults, eavesdropping, and interception. Enhanced optical
network security has gained a lot of interest in the sectors described above.
Real-time signal processing is essential in order to apply security measures at
the physical layer without slowing down the pace of optical communications. The
key advantages of optical processing for optical layer security include rapid
reaction, wide-band operation, resilience to electromagnetic fields, compact size,
and low latency. In the second part of this research, we look into optical
steganography, optical encryption, optical code-division multiple access (CDMA)
secrecy, self-healing, survivable optical rings, anti-jamming, and optical CDMA
confidentiality.
I. Introduction
Introduction Optical communication systems are employed in many different
fields, including business, the military, and personal communication. Optical
networks are unusual in that their data speeds are greater than 40 GB/s, and this
figure will only increase as time goes on. Physical layer security measures have
2. to function in real time, which is not achievable with standard electronic
computing. Side-channel assaults are less likely to emerge in optical
communication networks because optical components don’t leave
electromagnetic traces. With optical encryption, communications may be
encrypted fast and with minimum latency (at speeds not attainable with standard
electrical implementations) (at rates not possible with conventional electrical
implementations). In addition to data encryption, optical steganography may be
used to obscure the flow of data over an open transmission channel.
II. Threats and defenses in
optical networks at the optical
layer
There are many different forms of optical networks, from local area networks to
the backbone networks of the Internet. Each network may tackle a particular
threat type in a different manner. Researchers investigate the optical layer to
examine whether there are any threats to privacy, availability, authentication, and
secrecy (Skorin-Kapov, 2016).
A. Confidentiality
Even though optical networks don’t have an electromagnetic signature, an
attacker may nonetheless listen in on them by physically tapping into the optical
fiber or by pretending as a lawful subscriber and listening to residual crosstalk
from an adjacent channel. It is not hard to tap an optical cable that is out in the
open and has no physical protection. For example, the protective coating and
cladding of an optical fiber may be peeled away to allow a small quantity of light
to escape (Rahouma, 2021). A component of the optical signal that is required
may be collected by inserting a second fiber near where light is exiting the first
wire. In reality, this is a tricky approach to tapping an optical connection since you
3. can only retrieve a tiny fraction of the optical signal without getting noticed. The
eavesdropper’s signal-to-noise ratio must be exceedingly low for the signal loss
to be unnoticeable (Zhang et al., 2016).
B. Authentication
For authentication, researchers and the individuals who will utilize the information
must agree on a precise technique to code and decode the information. The
structure of the code is used to figure out who the user is. In a physical optical
connection, an optical signal can reach any destination if it has the right
wavelength (in a wavelength-division-multiplexing (WDM) network) or temporal
synchronization (in a time-division-multiplexing (TDM) network). An OCDMA
coding/decoding system uses a specific OCDMA code that both the sender and
the person the message is meant for agree on as a way to verify the message.
Without the code, unauthorized users can’t figure out what the OCDMA signal
says when there is other OCDMA traffic around. In other words, OCDMA codes
not only allow for multiple access, but they also allow two users to prove who
they are (Fok et al., 2011).
C. Privacy
Steganography could make communication networks more private by hiding
messages so that only the sender and the person to whom they are sent know
about a transfer. Optical steganography makes it possible to send data over a
secret channel called a “stealth channel” that can be hidden while “public
channels” are in use. For this to work, the data rate on the stealth channel must
be higher than on the public channel. This could be useful for applications that
need more privacy than what a low-bitrate, high-priority channel can offer. Figure
1 shows the idea behind optical steganography (Etemad et al., 2007).
It uses a dispersive optical element with high group-velocity dispersion (GVD) to
make a series of short light pulses that are spread out in time (stealth pulse). In
contrast to the high-dispersion component, which makes each wavelength
component move at a different speed, short optical pulses have a naturally wide
4. spectrum width. With a high GVD, the peak amplitudes of stealth pulses are
brought down to a level below the noise in the system, such as the noise that is
made by optical amplifiers when they are turned up. If there is also a public
signal, the stretched stealth pulses may be hidden by both the background noise
of the network and the public signal, as shown in the middle figure of Fig. 1.
Figure 1’s bottom figure shows that the stealth signal can have a wide range and
blend in with background noise, or it can have a narrow range and work
alongside the public channel. The goal is to make sure that the stealth signal
can’t be found by its spectrum (Rothe et al., 2020).
5.
6. Figure 1 shows, at the top, an example of a schematic for optical
steganography that makes use of group velocity dispersion. (a) a measured
temporal profile of the stealth channel before it spreads, and (b) a
measured temporal profile of the stealth channel after it has spread. In the
middle is a graphic showing the measured public signal eye (a) without a
stealth signal, and (b) with a stealth signal. Bottom: Spectral masking of the
stealth transmission (a) spectrum without stealth transmission; (b)
spectrum with the stealth signal present; and (c) spectrum of the stealth
signal on its own (Fok et al., 2011).
D. Availability
Experts say that optical networks can be attacked in many different ways,
including through physical infrastructure attacks and signal jamming. Any setting
can cause a service to be denied. Even though denial of service may not always
lead to the theft of information, it can lead to the loss of network resources (like
bandwidth), the disruption of many users, and large financial losses for the
network operator. A damaged optical fibre could be done on purpose or by
accident. For example, construction workers digging around a buried fiber optic
cable could accidentally cut it, or an attacker could just cut a part of the fibre that
isn’t covered. No matter what the goal is, optical networks are often built with
redundant channels to help them fix problems quickly and keep service from
going down. Self-healing ring topologies make sure that both service availability
and survivability are met. Commonly used in the infrastructure of local and
metropolitan area networks for telecommunications. Guaranteed to fix broken
connections in 60 milliseconds or less (Zhang et al., 2016).
III. Optical Layer Security:
Confidentiality
A. Optical Encryption
7. In an encrypted system, an eavesdropper can’t figure out what the data is from
the ciphertext if they don’t have the encryption key. So, encryption is a good way
to protect signals and keep networks private. A lot of money has been spent on
developing optical structures so that encryption operations can be done quickly in
the optical domain. Part of the reason for this work is that optical processing can
work at data rates that are many times faster than those of electrical
components. Also, optical components are less likely to have side channels than
electrical ones because they don’t give off any electromagnetic emissions that
can be seen. Several researchers have looked into optical XOR logic, for
example, as a way to start making optical encryption methods (Fok et al., 2011).
The result is that the optical XOR gates don’t leave any electromagnetic traces
that a spy could use to track them. Cross-polarization and cross-gain modulation
in a semiconductor optical amplifier, four-wave mixing for phase- and
polarization-modulated signals, cross-phase modulation in interferometric-based
optical devices, and pump depletion with sum and difference frequency
generation in a periodically poled lithium niobate (PPLN) waveguide have all
been proposed and shown to work as optical XOR gates. Figure 2 shows that an
optical encryption system can use a variety of XOR gates to do encryption at the
transmitter and decryption at the receiver (Yousefi et al., 2020).
Figure 2: This figure shows how the parts of an all-optical encryption
system are put together. Quantum key distribution is what QDK stands for
(Fok et al., 2011).
8. B. Coherent OCDMA technique
As explained in Section II, the type of OCDMA codes that are used affects how
secret the system is. OCDMA codes are often put into two groups: those that
make sense and those that don’t. Spectral-phase encoding (SPE) is a
well-known coherent OCDMA technique. It shifts the phase of many coherent
spectral components in different ways. The decoder at the receiver does
conjugate phase shifts to bring all of the spectral components into phase and
make an autocorrelation peak for data reception. Incoherent OCDMA, direct
detection, and intensity modulation are used to build the system. Researchers
focus on wavelength-hopping time-spreading (WHTS), which is a common
two-dimensional OCDMA method, because its code is flexible and it works better
than other schemes. Along with the OCDMA codes, the way data is modulated
also makes the system secret. The energy levels of bits “1” and “0” change, and
a photodetector can pick up on these changes even without a decoder. This
shows that on-off keying (OOK) can be broken. To get around this problem, both
coherent and incoherent OCDMA codes can use two-code-keying modulation,
which uses two different codes for bits “1” and “0” to make the energy levels of all
bits the same (Prucnal et al., 2009).
IV. Authentication of the optical
layer
Even though little research has been done on authentication at the physical layer
of an optical network, the unique coding features of OCDMA codes show a lot of
promise for improving authentication in optical networks. In the case of a SPE
code, for example, the receiver may only pick up the signal if the whole set of
phase coding information is changed. This means that each chip’s phase must
be encoded and decoded correctly. Figure 8 shows the eye diagrams of a
scrambled Hadamard code that have been sent. The code is broken using very
precise phase chips, which leads to the open-eyed figure in Figure 8. (a). Figure
3 shows that even if only one of the eight phase chips is missing, the
9. descrambled eye diagram is completely closed (b). The above example shows
how researchers could use the fact that each OCDMA code is unique to find out
who the intended users are. They don’t have the code to get signals from
authorised users, so they can’t. More research is being done to make
authentication better.
Figure 3: This figure shows experimental eye diagrams of decoded and
unscrambled Hadamard codes. Using the right decoder or a decoder that is
only partly right (Fok et al., 2011).
V. Optical layer Security:
Availability
A. Ring of Resistance For high survivability and service availability, self-healing
ring designs are a good alternative to other topologies. As explained in Section
IV, OCDMA’s large code cardinality not only makes brute-force channel finding
harder, but it also improves service availability while using less bandwidth.
Because of this, it has been suggested to build a two-way OCDMA ring network
with an OCDMA-based backup channel. With a high cardinality, you can build a
resilient ring network that doesn’t need extra capacity or a backup route in case a
10. link fails. Traditional backup methods have to permanently set aside all or part of
their bandwidth. If there is no breakdown, the bandwidth that could be used is
wasted. Soft blocking is what makes incoherent OCDMA networks stand out.
Soft blocking is the ability to change or remove the number of transmissions
happening at the same time without changing how the hardware is set up. Unlike
WDM and TDM, it is not limited by the number of wavelengths or time slots.
Older optical multiplexing systems like WDM and TDM are not as scalable and
don’t use the spectrum as well as OCDMA. OCDMA may offer many more optical
channels than WDM, even though both use the same number of wavelengths.
Instead, as the number of transmissions goes up, the network’s performance
keeps getting worse. Also, incoherent OCDMA lets different types of data share
the same link. In order to improve network service quality, two pathways in the
ring may transport data at different rates. High priority traffic use the main lane,
whereas research traffic utilises the “backup” channel. OCDMA’s soft blocking
capability allows traffic aggregation with little effect on performance. In the case
of a connection breakdown, then, more bandwidth or a backup route are not
necessary. During normal operation, both connections may be used. Each node
in the researcherst and east connections may add and remove signals, as shown
in Figure 4.
11. Figure 4: This figure depicts a bidirectional two-fiber OCDMA ring network
(Etemad et al., 2007).
B. Anti-jamming
On passive networks, any access point may inject a powerful optical signal
upstream to create a denial of service (such rings, buses, and stars). In the
worst-case scenario, the strong optical signal might overpower the optical
receiver, prohibiting the user from receiving any data. Due to optical fiber’s
broadband capability, optical communications may be carried in a jammed
channel by totally shifting the optical signal wavelength outside the blocked
waveband. Consequently, anti-jamming may be implemented, and the
communication channel can be restored. Figure 5 depicts the anti-interference
concept. As illustrated on the left side of Figure 5, prior to jamming, signals are
sent in the middle waveband.
12. Figure 5: Diagram of waveband up- or down-conversion as an anti-jamming
technique (Fok et al., 2011).
VI. Principle of optical layer
security:Privacy
Steganography may enhance signal privacy by concealing the stealth signal
inside background noise and public transmission. Steganography adds a layer of
protection to the signal’s secrecy, but it does not guarantee it. Wu et al. initially
proposed the concept of optical steganography, and their theoretical analysis of
the performance of the stealth channel. Experiment findings indicate that optical
steganography is well suited for a variety of public channels. Examples include
transmitting a stealth signal encoded using SPE over a RZ-OOK public channel,
a stealth signal encoded with NRZ-OOK over another WHTS public channel, and
a stealth signal encoded with WHTS over yet another WHTS public channel.
Optical steganography is especially helpful in passive optical networks, because
signals are not filtered nor digitally regenerated at nodes (e.g., FIOS) (Etemad et
al., 2007).
Previous research has shown that it is challenging to identify the presence of a
stealth signal in the presence of public signals by analysing the temporal or
spectral characteristics of the transmitted signals. If the opponent believes there
is a hidden signal, they may use a variety of strategies to determine whether or
not they can discover it. Utilizing an adjustable dispersion-compensating device
13. is an appropriate method for detecting a buried signal. Once the opponent
detects a clue of the stealth signal, he need just change the signal’s dispersion to
recover it in full. Under such assaults, the confidentiality of the stealth
communication cannot be guaranteed. In response to this possible risk, Wang et
al. suggested enhancing the privacy of stealth transmission by adding temporal
phase modulation to the stretched stealth signal prior to broadcasting it over the
network. After adding a temporal phase mask to the spread stealth signal, as
seen in Figure 6, some portions of the spread pulse undergo phase changes. In
addition to the matched dispersion correction, the matching phase recovery at
the receiver, as seen in Figure 6, is necessary to recover the stealth pulses.
Figure 6: This figure demonstrates a temporal phase modulation strategy
for distributed stealth pulses that enhances the confidentiality of stealth
transmission (Fok et al., 2011).
Conclusion
14. In this study, researchers investigate the vulnerability of optical networks to a
variety of security issues that may manifest in the optical layer of a network. In
addition, they present an overview of a variety of optical methods for mitigating
the aforementioned security issues. Optical technology permits the processing of
data in real time, hence enhancing the security of optical networks. In this study,
researchers evaluated optical encryption as a method for enhancing secrecy at
line speeds while presenting less of a threat from side channels than electrical
encryption. Experimentally, a variety of optical XOR gates with and without
feedback have been constructed. These approaches provide the generation of
long key streams from short key streams or the processing of registers utilized by
Vernam cyphers to encrypt data, hence enabling safe optical encryption. Due to
the vast bandwidth of fiber optics, anti-jamming may be achieved using optical
frequency conversion, allowing signals to be transmitted outside of the jamming
band and boosting network availability. As a result of the large spectrum of
optical pulses, optical steganography is easily implemented utilizing either
compact fiber Bragg gratings or temporal stretching based on group velocity
dispersion in fibers. A phase mask may be utilized to increase the stealth signal’s
security even more. Steganography adds a layer of protection to the signal’s
secrecy, but it does not guarantee it. Researchers also suggest using orthogonal
coding for obscurity and resilient optical ring design with OCDMA coding to boost
the optical network’s availability and privacy. The unique coding scheme used by
OCDMA enables signal validation. According to the specialists, additional study
will be conducted on this issue.