Developmental Psychology

1. Physical and Cognitive
Development in Early Childhood
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

2. • Height and Weight
• The average child grows 2½ inches and gains between 5 and 7 pounds
a year in early childhood.
• The percentage of increase in height and weight decreases with each
additional year.
• Body fat shows a steady decline during this time.
• Girls are only slightly smaller and lighter than boys, but they have
more body fat while boys have more muscle tissue.
• Boys and girls slim down as their trunks lengthen.

3. • Individual Differences in height
• Socioeconomic Factors:
• Socioeconomic status can influence access to quality nutrition and
healthcare, which in turn affects growth and development. Children from
lower socioeconomic backgrounds may have limited access to nutritious
foods, healthcare services, and environmental resources that support
healthy growth.
• Additionally, socioeconomic disparities can contribute to differences in
average height among various ethnic groups within a population.
• Environmental Factors:
• Environmental factors such as exposure to pollutants, access to clean water,
and living conditions can also impact a child's growth trajectory. Poor
environmental conditions may hinder growth and contribute to disparities in
height among children from different ethnic backgrounds.

4. • Ethnic origin:
• Different ethnic groups have varying average heights due to genetic
factors and historical adaptations. For instance, there are observable
differences in average height between populations of European,
Asian, African, and indigenous descent.
• Genetic factors inherited from parents influence the growth potential
of children. Certain ethnic groups may have genetic predispositions
to shorter or taller statures compared to others.

5. • Nutrition:
• Adequate nutrition is crucial for optimal growth and development
during childhood and adolescence. Proper nutrition supports bone
growth, muscle development, and overall health.
• Children who receive a balanced diet rich in essential nutrients such
as protein, calcium, vitamins, and minerals are more likely to reach
their full growth potential.
• Malnutrition, including both undernutrition and overnutrition, can
significantly impact a child's height. Chronic malnutrition,
characterized by a lack of essential nutrients over an extended period,
can stunt growth and lead to shorter stature. On the other hand,
excessive calorie intake without adequate nutrients can also lead to
obesity, which may affect growth patterns.

6. Contributors to Short Stature
• Congenital Factors (genetic or prenatal problems)
• Physical Problems That Develop in Childhood
• Emotional Difficulties

7. • Congenital Factors’ Influence on Height
• Preschool children whose mothers smoked regularly during
pregnancy are shorter than their counterparts whose mothers did
not smoke.
• Physical Problems’ Influence on Height
• Children who are chronically sick are shorter than their counterparts
who are rarely sick.
• Emotional Problems’ Influence on Height
• Children who have been physically abused or neglected may not
secrete adequate growth hormone, which can restrict their physical
growth.

8. How emotional problems affect height?

9. • Nutritional Impact: Emotional problems can affect appetite and eating
habits, potentially leading to inadequate nutrition. Poor nutrition,
especially during critical growth periods in childhood and adolescence,
can impair optimal growth and development, potentially affecting final
adult height.
• Hormonal Regulation: Chronic stress or emotional distress can disrupt
the body's hormonal balance, including the production of growth
hormone. Growth hormone is essential for promoting growth and
development, and disruptions in its secretion or activity can affect
growth rates and final height.

10. • Medical Conditions: Some medical conditions associated with emotional problems
or stress, such as gastrointestinal disorders, eating disorders, or endocrine
disorders, can impact nutrient absorption, hormone levels, and overall health.
These conditions may indirectly influence growth and height development.
• Sleep Disturbances: Emotional problems can contribute to sleep disturbances such
as insomnia or irregular sleep patterns. Quality sleep is essential for growth
hormone release and overall health. Chronic sleep disturbances may interfere with
growth hormone secretion and disrupt normal growth patterns.
• Genetic Factors: While emotional problems themselves do not directly influence
height, there may be underlying genetic predispositions or family factors
associated with both emotional health and growth potential. For example, children
raised in stressful or adverse environments may experience both emotional
challenges and compromised growth due to shared genetic and environmental
factors.

11. The Brain
• The brain and the head grow more rapidly than any other part of the body.
• By age 3, the brain is three-quarters of its adult size, and by age 5, the brain
has reached about nine-tenths of its adult size.
• Some of this size increase is due to increase in size and number of nerve
endings and an increase in myelination.
• Myelination is believed to be important in the maturation of a number of
children’s abilities.
• From 3-6 years of age, researchers have found that the most rapid brain
growth occurs in the frontal lobe.

12. Myelination
• It involves the formation of a fatty substance called myelin around the
axons of neurons, which are the long, slender projections that
transmit electrical signals between different parts of the nervous
system.
• Myelin is a protective substance that insulates and enhances the
conduction of electrical impulses along the axons. It acts like the
insulation around electrical wires, allowing nerve impulses to travel
more efficiently and rapidly along the neurons. Myelination is
essential for proper neuronal communication, motor coordination,
sensory perception, and cognitive function.

13. • Research has also suggested that increases in myelin, the protective
insulation that surrounds parts of neurons, may be related to
preschoolers’ growing cognitive capabilities.
• For example, myelination of the reticular formation, an area of the
brain associated with attention and concentration, is completed by the
time children are about five.
• This may be associated with children’s growing attention spans as they
approach school age.
• The improvement in memory that occurs during the preschool years
may also be associated with myelination.
• During the preschool years, myelination is completed in the
hippocampus, an area associated with memory (Rolls, 2000).

14. Building neural connections from birth
• There is a huge increase in the baby’s neural connections from birth
to 3 years old with 700-1000 new connections forming every second.

15. • These connections allow fast communication between different parts
of the brain.
• The brain doubles in size by the age of 3.
• Early connections are very important and develop by use, so babies
need plenty of stimulation.

16. • The two halves of the brain also begin to become increasingly
differentiated and specialized. Lateralization, the process in which
certain functions are located more in one hemisphere than the other,
becomes more pronounced during the preschool years.
• For most people, the left hemisphere is involved primarily with tasks
that necessitate verbal competence, such as speaking, reading,
thinking, and reasoning.
• The right hemisphere develops its own strengths, especially in
nonverbal areas such as comprehension of spatial relationships,
recognition of patterns and drawings, music, and emotional expression
(Pollak, Holt, & Wismer Fries, 2004; Watling & Bourne, 2007; Dundas,
Plaut, & Behrmann, 2013

17. • When young children suffer brain damage to the left side of the brain
(which specializes in verbal processing) and initially lose language
capabilities, the linguistic deficits are often not permanent.
• In such cases, the right side of the brain pitches in and may be able to
compensate substantially for the damage to the left hemisphere (Kolb &
Gibb, 2006).
• There are also differences in lateralization related to gender and culture. For
instance, starting during the first year of life and continuing in the preschool
years, boys and girls show some hemispheric differences associated with
lower body reflexes and the processing of auditory information.
• Boys also clearly tend to show greater lateralization of language in the left
hemisphere; among females, language is more evenly divided between the
two hemispheres.

18. Motor Development
1.Gross Motor Skills
2.Fine Motor Skills
3.Handedness
• Gross Motor Skills
• At 3 years of age, children enjoy simple movements, such as hopping,
jumping, and running, just for the fun of it and the pride they feel in their
accomplishment.
• At 4 years of age, children become more adventurous—taking on jungle
gyms and climbing stairs with one foot on each step.
• At 5 years of age, children begin to perform hair-raising stunts on anything
they can climb on, and they enjoy racing with each other and with parents.

19. Figure 7-7 Significant Gross Motor Skills in Early Childhood
Age 3
Able to walk up
stairs,
alternating feet
Unable to stop
or turn suddenly
Able to jump a
length of 15–24
inches
Age 4
Able to walk down a
long staircase, alternating
feet, with assistance
Have some control in
starting, stopping, and
turning
Length of jump
increases to 24–33 inches
Age 5
Able to walk down a
long staircase,
alternating feet
Capable of starting,
stopping, and turning in
games
Able to make a
running jump of 28–
36 inches

20. POTTY WARS: WHEN—AND HOW—SHOULD
CHILDREN BE TOILET TRAINED?
• Well-known pediatrician T. Berry Brazelton suggests a flexible approach to
toilet training, advocating that it be put off until the child shows signs of
readiness (Brazelton, 1997; Brazelton et al., 1999).
• On the other hand, psychologist John Rosemond, known primarily for his
media advocacy of a conservative, traditional stance to childrearing, argues
for a more rigid approach, saying that toilet training should be done early
and quickly.
• What is clear is that the age at which toilet training takes place has been
rising over the last 50 years. For example, in 1957, 92 percent of children
were toilet trained by the age of 18 months. Today, the average age of
toilet training is around 30 months (Goode, 1999; Boyse & Fitzgerald,
2010).

21. • Current guidelines of the American Academy of Pediatrics echo
Brazelton’s position, suggesting that there is no single time to begin
toilet training and that training should begin only when children show
that they are ready.
• The signs of readiness include staying dry at least two hours at a time
during the day or waking up dry after naps; regular and predictable
bowel movements; an indication, through facial expressions or words,
that urination or a bowel movement is about to occur; the ability to
follow simple directions; the ability to get to the bathroom and
undress alone; discomfort with soiled diapers; asking to use the toilet
or potty chair; and the desire to wear underwear.

22. Fine Motor Skills
• At age 3, children are still clumsy at picking up very small objects
between their thumb and forefinger.
• Three-year-olds can build very high block towers, but the blocks are
usually not in a perfectly straight line.
• Puzzles are approached with a good deal of roughness and
imprecision.
• By age 4, their coordination has improved and become more precise.
• By age 5, children are no longer interested in building towers, but
rather houses, churches, and buildings with more detail

23. Handedness
• Preference for one hand is linked with the dominance of one brain
hemisphere with regard to motor performance.
• Right-handers have a dominant left hemisphere, while left-handers
have a dominant right hemisphere.
• Evidence of handedness is present in infancy, as babies show
preferences for one side of their body over the other.
• Many preschool children use both hands without a clear preference
emerging until later in childhood.
• The origin of hand preference has been explored with regard to
genetic inheritance and environmental experience.

24. Nutrition - Energy Needs
• What children eat affects their skeletal growth, body shape, and
susceptibility to disease.
• An average preschool child requires 1,700 calories per day.
• Energy requirements for children are determined by the basal
metabolism rate (BMR): the minimum amount of energy a person
uses in a resting state.
• Differences in physical activity, basal metabolism, and the efficiency
with which children use energy are among the possible explanation as
to why children of the same age, sex, and size vary in their energy
needs.

25. • Eating Behavior Eating habits become ingrained very early in life.
• It is during the preschool years that many children get their first taste
of fast food.
• Our changing lifestyles, in which we often eat on the run and pick up
fast food meals, contribute to the increased fat levels in children’s
diets.
• Although such meals are high in protein, the average American child
does not need to be concerned about getting enough protein.

26. Obesity in Childhood
• Ultimately, some children’s food consumption can become so high as to
lead to obesity, which is defined as a body weight more than 20 percent
higher than the average weight for a person of a given age and height.
• Being overweight can be a serious problem in childhood.
• Overweight preschool children are usually not encouraged to lose a great
deal of weight, but to slow their rate of weight gain so they will grow into a
more normal weight for their height.
• Prevention of obesity in children includes helping children and parents see
food as a way to satisfy hunger and nutritional needs, not as proof of love
or a reward.
• Routine physical activity should be a daily event.

27. How do parents ensure that their children have good nutrition without
turning mealtimes into a tense, adversarial situation?
• In most cases, the best strategy is to make sure that a variety of foods
low in fat and high in nutritional content is available.
• Foods that have a relatively high iron content are particularly
important: Iron-deficiency anemia, which causes constant fatigue, is
one of the prevalent nutritional problems in developed countries.
• High-iron foods include dark green vegetables (such as broccoli),
whole grains, and some kinds of meat, such as lean hamburger.
• It is also important to avoid foods with high sodium content and to
include foods with low fat content (Brotanek et al., 2007; Grant et al.,
2007; Jalonick, 2011).

28. Illness and Death
• Accidents are the leading cause of death in young children: motor
vehicle accidents, drowning, falls, and poisoning are high on the list.
• The disorders most likely to be fatal during early childhood today are
birth defects, cancer, and heart disease.
• Despite the greatly diminished dangers of many childhood diseases, it
is still very important for parents to keep young children on an
immunization schedule.
• Exposure to tobacco smoke increases children’s risk for developing a
number of medical problems, such as pneumonia, bronchitis, ear
infections, burns, asthma, and cancer in adulthood.

29. • Minor illnesses may offer some unexpected benefits:
• Not only may they help children build up immunity to more severe
illnesses to which they may be exposed in the future, but they also
may provide some emotional benefits.
• Specifically, some researchers argue that minor illness permits
children to understand their bodies better.
• It also may permit them to learn coping skills that will help them deal
more effectively with future, more severe diseases. Furthermore, it
gives them the ability to understand better what others who are sick
are going through. This ability to put oneself in another’s shoes,
known as empathy, may teach children to be more sympathetic and
better caretakers (Notaro, Gelman, & Zimmerman, 2002; Raman &
Winer, 2002; Williams & Binnie, 2002).

30. Mental Illness
• An increasing number of children are being treated with drugs for
psychological disorders, such as depression, formally known as
depressive disorders.
• Other difficulties include phobias, anxiety disorders, and behavioral
disorders.
• In addition, the use of drugs such as antidepressants and stimulants
has grown significantly Although it is not clear why the increase has
occurred, some experts believe that parents and preschool teachers
may be seeking a quick fix for behavior problems that may simply
represent normal difficulties (Colino, 2002; Zito, 2002; Mitchell et al.,
2008; Pozzi-Monzo, 2012; Muller, 2013).

31. The State of Illness and Health of the World’s
Children
• One death of every three in the world is the death of a child under 5 years
of age.
• Every week, more than a quarter million children die in developing
countries due to infection and undernutrition.
• The leading cause of childhood death in the world is dehydration and
malnutrition as a result of diarrhea.
• This could be prevented if parents had available a low-cost breakthrough
known as oral rehydration therapy (ORT).
• Oral rehydration therapy involves a range of techniques designed to
prevent dehydration during episodes of diarrhea by giving the child fluids
by mouth.

32. Piaget’s stages of development
• Jean Piaget suggested that we go through distinct stages of
development.
• A change in thinking indicates when the next stage is reached.
• During each stage there is consolidation (combining more than one
idea into a whole to make it more meaningful) of abilities in
preparation for the next stage.
• Piaget proposed that children think in operations. Operations are
internalized sets of actions that allow the child to do mentally what
before she did physically.

34. Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years)
• Infants use their senses and movements to get information about their
world.
• At firts they live in the present without understanding time and space
around them.
• They learn by linking what they see, hear, touch, taste and smell.That is
why they grasp and suck on objects most of the time.
• Their actions in the begining are more reflexive but they become more
controlled over time.
• They develop object permanence at 6 months. Object permanence is when
the child learns that the object is still there even when it is out of their
sight.
• At 4 months old the child begins to repeat actions that they done by
mistake before. Eg: dropping a toy on the floor .

35. Pre-operational stage(2 to 7 years)
• There are two stages withing this stage; the symbolic function stage and the
intuitive thought stage.
• The symbolic function stage ( 2 to 4 years)
• Children start imitating others and use symbols.
• Symbolic play involves using one object to represent another for eg:using an
empty box as a house.
• Children think in pictures and use symbols.
• Children see the world from their own eyes not from others which is known as
egocentrism. Perspective-taking doesn’t develop uniformly in preschool children,
as they frequently show perspective skills on some tasks, but not others.
• Animism is also seen at this stage where the child believes that objects are alive.

36. Three Mountains Task
• According to Piaget, at age 7, thinking is no longer egocentric, as the child can see more than their own
point of view.
• Aim: Piaget and Inhelder (1956) wanted to find out at what age children decenter – i.e. become no
longer egocentric.
• Method: A child is shown a display of three mountains; the tallest mountain is covered with snow. On
top of another are some trees, and on top of the third is a church. The child stands on one side of the
display, and there is a doll on the other side of it.
The child was allowed to walk round the model, to look at it, then sit down at one side. A doll is then
placed at various positions on the table.
The child is shown pictures of the scene from different viewpoints and asked to select the view that best
matched what the doll can “see”.

37. • The child is then shown 10 photographs of the mountains taken from
different positions, and asked to indicate which showed the doll’s view.
• Piaget assumed that if the child correctly picked out the card showing the
doll’s view, s/he was not egocentric. Egocentrism would be shown by the
child who picked out the card showing the view s/he saw.
• Findings – Typically a four years old child reports what can be seen from her
perspective and not what can be seen from the doll’s perspective.
• Six years old were more aware of other viewpoints but still tended to choose
the wrong one. This shows egocentrism as the child assumed that the doll
“saw” the mountains as he did
• Four year-olds almost always chose a picture that represented what they
could see and showed no awareness that the doll’s view would be different
from this.
• Six year-olds frequently chose a picture different from their own view but
rarely chose the correct picture for the doll’s point of view. Only seven- and
eight-year-olds consistently chose the correct picture.

38. • Conclusion – At age 7, thinking is no longer egocentric as the child can
see more than their own point of view.
• Evaluation – It has been suggested that Piaget’s tasks at this stage may
have underestimated the child’s abilities due to a number of factors,
including complicated language, unfamiliar materials, lack of context,
and children misinterpreting the experimenter’s intention.

39. • Intuitive thought stage( 4 to 7 years)
• This is the start of reasoning. Children ask a lot of questions and want
to learn a lot more.
• They can only focus on one aspect when something is complex which
is known as centration.
• Conservation is not yet achieved which is when children do not realize
that changing how something looks does not change its volume, size or
weight.
• There is also irreversibility where the child is unable to reverse events.

41. • Egocentrism / Three Mountains Task
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RDJ0qJTLohM
• Conservation Tasks
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gnArvcWaH6I

42. Concrete operational stage( 7 to 12 years)
• Children begin to apply rules and strategies to help their thinking and
use concrete objects to aid their understanding.
• They have difficulty with abstract ideas such as morality (general
principle about right and wrong good an bad).
• Abilities at this stage include: Seriation: (sorting objects into size).
classification: (naming and identifying objects), reversability(ability to
reverse objects/events) conservation and decentration (the ability to
take multiple views of a situation).

43. Formal Operational Stage (12+ years)
• In formal operational stage the child can think about more than two
things such as thinking about height, age and gender when describing
a person.
• They have the ability to see how time changes things.
• They can understand that event have a sequence.
• They can see that actions have consequences.
• They also know that they and others exist in the real world and
seperate from each other.

44. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and
the development of intelligence
Piaget’s explanation of understanding the
world
• Children learn through
adaptation. As they adjust to
the world and learn new things
about the world they develop
schemas that represent the
world. They can always change
schemas and create new ones.
Piaget’s theory and the development of
intelligence
• The development of intelligence
is about building knowledge and
skills.
• Intelligence is developed
through building schemas via
adaptation and through the four
stages of development.

45. • Schemas are plans and patterns
formed by what we experience.
They are mental frameworks of
what we understand.
• For ex: a person has a house
schema or a dentist clinic
schema

46. • Assimilation : incorporating new
experiences into existing
schemas.
• For example:

47. • Accomodation : a schema no
longer works and has to be
changed to deal with the new
experience.
• Example:

48. • Equlibrium : when a child’s
schemas can explain all that they
experience; a state of mental
balance.

49. Discussion Questions
• How does Piaget's theory explain how children construct knowledge
and understand their world during the early years?
• Can you identify examples of assimilation and accommodation in
everyday experiences of young children?
• Piaget emphasized the importance of play in children's cognitive
development. How does play contribute to learning and exploration
in early childhood?

50. How does Piaget's theory explain how children construct
knowledge and understand their world during the early years?
• Schema Formation: Piaget proposed that children develop mental structures called
schemas, which are organized patterns of thought and behavior that represent their
understanding of the world. These schemas serve as building blocks for learning and
help children make sense of new information and experiences.
• Assimilation and Accommodation: Piaget described two complementary processes
through which children adapt and modify their schemas: assimilation and
accommodation. Assimilation involves interpreting new information in terms of
existing schemas, while accommodation involves modifying existing schemas or
creating new ones to accommodate new information that cannot be assimilated.
• Equilibration: Piaget believed that cognitive development involves a process of
seeking equilibrium or balance between assimilation and accommodation. When
children encounter new information that conflicts with their existing schemas
(disequilibrium), they engage in cognitive processes to reconcile the discrepancy and
achieve a new level of understanding (equilibration).

51. • Stages of Development: Piaget proposed that children progress through distinct
stages of cognitive development, each characterized by qualitatively different
ways of thinking and understanding the world. These stages include the
sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years), the
concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years), and the formal operational stage (11
years and older). Each stage represents a different level of cognitive complexity
and the emergence of new cognitive abilities.
• Object Permanence and Conservation: Piaget's theory highlights important
milestones in cognitive development, such as the understanding of object
permanence (the realization that objects continue to exist even when they are
not visible) and conservation (the understanding that certain properties of
objects, such as volume and quantity, remain constant despite changes in
appearance).

52. Can you identify examples of assimilation and accommodation in
everyday experiences of young children?
• Assimilation: Example: A child who has only encountered cats with
short hair sees a fluffy cat for the first time and still refers to it as a
"cat" because it fits into the existing schema of what a cat looks like.
• Accommodation: Example: A child who learns that not all four-legged
animals are dogs may initially call a cow a "dog" because they have
only encountered dogs with four legs. However, after being corrected
and shown that cows are different, the child modifies their schema to
include cows as a separate category.

53. Piaget emphasized the importance of play in children's cognitive development. How
does play contribute to learning and exploration in early childhood?
• Problem-Solving Skills: Play encourages children to engage in imaginative
and creative problem-solving. Whether playing alone or with others,
children encounter challenges and obstacles during play that require them
to use critical thinking skills, creativity, and resourcefulness to overcome.
For example, building a block tower, completing a puzzle, or inventing
imaginary scenarios all involve problem-solving processes.
• Social Interaction and Communication: Play provides opportunities for
social interaction and communication with peers and adults. During play,
children engage in collaborative activities, negotiate roles and rules, and
practice social skills such as sharing, taking turns, and resolving conflicts.
Through social play, children learn to understand others' perspectives,
express their thoughts and feelings, and develop empathy and
interpersonal relationships.

54. • Imaginative and Symbolic Play: Pretend play, imaginative play, and symbolic
play allow children to explore abstract concepts, roles, and relationships in
a safe and flexible environment. Through imaginative play scenarios,
children can experiment with different identities, roles, and situations,
which helps them develop creativity, empathy, and emotional regulation.
For example, pretending to be a doctor, teacher, or superhero enables
children to explore various social roles and scenarios.
• Cognitive and Language Development: Play supports cognitive and
language development by providing opportunities for children to practice
and refine their cognitive and linguistic skills. Whether engaging in dramatic
play, constructing elaborate structures, or engaging in board games,
children use language to express ideas, negotiate rules, and share
experiences. Play also fosters vocabulary development, narrative skills, and
literacy concepts as children engage in storytelling, role-playing, and
imaginative dialogue.

55. Vygotsky’s Theory of Development
• The Zone of Proximal Development
• Scaffolding in Cognitive Development
• Language and Thought
• Evaluating and Comparing Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Theories
• Teaching Strategies Based on Vygotsky’s Theory

56. The Zone of Proximal Development
• The zone of proximal development is Vygotsky’s term for the range of
tasks too difficult for children to master alone, but which can be
learned with the guidance and assistance of adults or more skilled
children.
• The lower limit is the level of problem solving reached by the child
working independently.
• The upper limit is the level of additional responsibility the child can
accept with the assistance of an able instructor.
• Vygotsky’s emphasis on the ZPD underscores his belief in the
importance of social influences, especially instruction, on children’s
cognitive development.

57. • Vygotsky believed that when a student is in the zone of proximal
development for a particular task, providing the appropriate assistance
will give the student enough of a “boost” to achieve the task.
• To assist a person to move through the zone of proximal development,
educators are encouraged to focus on three important components
which aid the learning process:
• The presence of someone with knowledge and skills beyond that of the
learner (a more knowledgeable other).
• Social interactions with a skillful tutor that allow the learner to observe
and practice their skills.

58. Examples Of ZPD
• Maria just entered college this semester and decided to take an introductory tennis
course. Her class spends each week learning and practicing a different shot. Weeks go
by, and they learn how to properly serve and hit a backhand.
• During the week of learning the forehand, the instructor noticed that Maria was very
frustrated because she kept hitting her forehand shots either into the net or far past the
baseline.
• He examines her preparation and swing. He notices that her stance is perfect, she
prepares early, she turns her torso appropriately, and she hits the ball at precisely the
right height.
• However, he notices that she is still gripping her racquet the same way she hits her
backhand, so he goes over to her and shows her how to reposition her hand to hit a
proper forehand, stressing that she should keep her index finger parallel to the racquet.

59. • He models a good forehand for her, and then assists her in changing her
grip. With a little practice, Maria’s forehand turns into a formidable
weapon for her!
• In this case, Maria was in the zone of proximal development for
successfully hitting a forehand shot. She was doing everything else
correctly, but just needed a little coaching and scaffolding from a “More
Knowledgeable Other” to help her succeed in this task.
• When that assistance was given, she was able to achieve her goal. Provided
with appropriate support at the right moments, students in classrooms will
be able to achieve tasks that would otherwise be too difficult for them.

60. Scaffolding in Cognitive Development
• Scaffolding refers to changing the level of support.
• Over the course of a teaching session, a more skilled person adjusts
the amount of guidance to fit the student’s current performance
level.
• Dialog is an important tool of scaffolding in the zone of proximal
development.
• As the child’s unsystematic, disorganized, spontaneous concepts meet
with the skilled helper’s more systematic, logical, and rational
concepts, through meeting and dialogue, the child’s concepts become
more systematic, logical, and rational.

61. Scaffolding Involves:
• Gradual Withdrawal of Support: Scaffolding involves providing temporary
support that gradually diminishes as the learner becomes more proficient
and independent in the task or concept being learned.
• Responsive Assistance: Scaffolding involves tailoring the level and type of
support to match the learner's current abilities and understanding. The
scaffolder adjusts their guidance based on the learner's responses and
progress.
• Breaking Tasks into Manageable Steps: Scaffolding often involves breaking
down complex tasks or concepts into smaller, more manageable steps. This
allows the learner to focus on mastering one aspect at a time before
moving on to more challenging components.

62. • Providing Modeling and Demonstration: Scaffolding may include modeling
or demonstrating how to perform the task or solve the problem. This gives
the learner a clear example to follow and helps them understand the
desired outcome.
• Encouraging Exploration and Problem-Solving: Scaffolding encourages
learners to explore and engage with the task independently while providing
guidance and support as needed. It promotes active problem-solving and
critical thinking skills.
• Fostering Collaboration and Social Interaction: Scaffolding can occur through
social interaction, such as peer collaboration or teacher-student interaction.
Collaborative learning environments allow learners to benefit from each
other's knowledge and experiences.

63. Wood and Middleton (1975) Study
• Procedure: 4-year-old children had to use a set of blocks and pegs to build a 3D
model shown in a picture. Building the model was too difficult a task for a 4-year-
old child to complete alone.
• Wood and Middleton (1975) observed how mothers interacted with their
children to build the 3D model. The type of support included:
• General encouragement e.g., ‘now you have a go.’
• Specific instructions e.g., ‘get four big blocks.’
• Direct demonstration, e.g., showing the child how to place one block on another.

64. • The results of the study showed that no single strategy was best for helping
the child to progress. Mothers whose assistance was most effective were
those who varied their strategy according to how the child was doing.
• When the child was doing well, they became less specific with their help.
When the child started to struggle, they gave increasingly specific
instructions until the child started to make progress again.
• The study illustrates scaffolding and Vygotsky’s concept of the ZPD.
Scaffolding (i.e., assistance) is most effective when the support is matched
to the needs of the learner. This puts them in a position to achieve success
in an activity that they would previously not have been able to do alone.

65. Intersubjectivity
• Intersubjectivity is when two people (i.e., the child and helper) start a task
together with different levels of skill and understanding, and both end up with a
shared understanding.
• As each member of the dyad adjusts to the perspective of the other, the helper
has to translate their own insights in a ways that is within the grasp of the child,
and the child develops a more complete understanding of the task.
• It is essential that they work towards the same goal, otherwise there won’t be
any collaboration. It is important that they negotiate, or compromise by always
working for a shared view.
• If you try to force someone to change their mind, then you”ll just get conflict. You
need to stay within the boundaries of the other person’s zone of proximal
development.

66. Example of Scaffolding
• Vygotsky emphasized scaffolding, or providing support to learners to help
them reach higher levels of understanding. This can be mapped to
progressing through Bloom’s taxonomy, where educators scaffold tasks
from basic understanding to more complex analysis and creation.
• For example, a teacher might start by providing information
(Remembering) and then ask questions that require understanding.
• As students become more proficient, tasks can be scaffolded to require
application, analysis, evaluation, and creation.

67. Scaffolding vs. Discovery Learning
• Freund (1990) wanted to investigate if children learn more effectively via Piaget’s
concept of discovery learning or guided learning via the ZPD.
• She asked a group of children between the ages of three and five years to help a
puppet decide which furniture should be placed in the various rooms of a doll’s
house. First, Freund assessed what each child already understood about the
placement of furniture (as a baseline measure).
• Next, each child worked on a similar task, either alone (re: discovery-based
learning) or with their mother (re: scaffolding / guided learning). To assess what
each child had learned, they were each given a more complex, furniture sorting
task.
• The study’s results showed that children assisted by their mothers performed
better at furniture sorting than the children who worked independently.

68. Language and Thought
• Vygotsky believed that young children use language both for social
communication and to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior in a self-
regulatory fashion.
• Language used for this purpose is called inner speech or private speech.
• For Piaget, private speech is egocentric and immature, but for Vygotsky it is
an important tool of thought during early childhood.
• Vygotsky believed all mental functions have social origins.
• Children must use language to communicate with others before they can
focus on their own thoughts.
• Researchers have found support for Vygotsky’s view of the positive role of
private speech in development.

69. • According to Vygotsky (1962), language plays two critical roles in cognitive
development:
• It is the main means by which adults transmit information to children.
• Language itself becomes a very powerful tool for intellectual adaptation.
• Vygotsky (1987) differentiates between three forms of language:
• Social speech, which is external communication used to talk to others
(typical from the age of two);
• Private speech (typical from the age of three) which is directed to the self
and serves an intellectual function;
• Private speech goes underground, diminishing in audibility as it takes on a
self-regulating function and is transformed into silent inner speech (typical
from the age of seven).

70. • For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the
beginning of life, merging at around three years of age.
• At this point, speech and thought become interdependent: thought becomes
verbal, and speech becomes representational.
• As children develop mental representation, particularly the skill of language,
they start to communicate with themselves in much the same way as they
would communicate with others.
• When this happens, children’s monologues are internalized to become inner
speech. The internalization of language is important as it drives cognitive
development.

71. Private Speech
• Vygotsky (1987) was the first psychologist to document the
importance of private speech.
• He considered private speech as the transition point between social
and inner speech, the moment in development where language and
thought unite to constitute verbal thinking.
• Thus, in Vygotsky’s view, private speech was the earliest
manifestation of inner speech. Indeed, private speech is more similar
(in form and function) to inner speech than social speech.

72. • Private speech is overt, audible, and observable, often seen in children
who talk to themselves while problem-solving.
• Conversely, inner speech is covert or hidden because it happens internally.
It is the silent, internal dialogue that adults often engage in while thinking
or problem-solving.
• In contrast to Piaget’s (1959) notion of private speech representing a
developmental dead-end, Vygotsky (1934, 1987) viewed private speech as:
• “A revolution in development which is triggered when preverbal thought
and preintellectual language come together to create fundamentally new
forms of mental functioning.” (Fernyhough & Fradley, 2005: p. 1)

73. • Vygotsky sees “private speech” as a means for children to plan activities and
strategies, aiding their development. Private speech is the use of language
for self-regulation of behavior.
• Therefore, language accelerates thinking/understanding (Jerome Bruner
also views language in this way). Vygotsky believed that children who
engage in large amounts of private speech are more socially competent
than children who do not use it extensively.
• Vygotsky (1987) notes that private speech does not merely accompany a
child’s activity but acts as a tool the developing child uses to facilitate
cognitive processes, such as overcoming task obstacles, and enhancing
imagination, thinking, and conscious awareness.

74. • The frequency and content of private speech correlate with behavior or performance. For
example, private speech appears functionally related to cognitive performance: It appears
at times of difficulty with a task.
• For example, tasks related to executive function (Fernyhough & Fradley, 2005), problem-
solving tasks (Behrend et al., 1992), and schoolwork in both language (Berk & Landau,
1993), and mathematics (Ostad & Sorensen, 2007).
• Berk (1986) provided empirical support for the notion of private speech. She found that
most private speech exhibited by children serves to describe or guide the child’s actions.
• Berk also discovered that children engaged in private speech more often when working
alone on challenging tasks and when their teacher was not immediately available to help
them.
• Furthermore, Berk also found that private speech develops similarly in all children
regardless of cultural background.

75. Effects Of Culture
• Vygotsky emphasized the role of the social environment in the child’s
cognitive development.
• Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the basic abilities for
intellectual development called “elementary mental functions”
(Piaget focuses on motor reflexes and sensory abilities). These
develop throughout the first two years of life due to direct
environmental contact.

76. Tools of intellectual adaptation
• For example, memory in young children is limited by biological factors.
However, culture determines the type of memory strategy we develop.
• For example, in Western culture, children learn note-taking to aid memory,
but in pre-literate societies, other strategies must be developed, such as
tying knots in a string to remember, carrying pebbles, or repeating the
names of ancestors until large numbers can be repeated.
• Vygotsky, therefore, sees cognitive functions, even those carried out alone,
as affected by the beliefs, values, and tools of intellectual adaptation of the
culture in which a person develops and, therefore, socio-culturally
determined.

77. Teaching Strategies Based on Vygotsky’s
Theory
• Use the child’s zone of proximal development in teaching.
• Use scaffolding.
• Use more skilled peers as teachers.
• Monitor and encourage children’s use of private speech.
• Assess the child’s ZPD, not IQ.
• Transform the classroom with Vygotskian ideas.

78. Evaluating and Comparing Vygotsky’s and
Piaget’s Theories
• Vygotsky’s theory is a social constructivist approach, which emphasizes the social
contexts of learning and that knowledge is mutually built and constructed.
• Piaget’s theory does not have this social emphasis.
• For Piaget, children construct knowledge by transforming, organizing, and
reorganizing previous knowledge.
• For Vygotsky, children construct knowledge through social interaction.
• The implication of Piaget’s theory for teaching is that children need support to
explore their world and discover knowledge.
• The implication of Vygotsky’s theory for teaching is that students need many
opportunities to learn with the teacher and more skilled peers.
• Vygotsky’s theory has been embraced by many teachers and successfully applied
to education.

80. Information Processing
• By the time they reach school age, young learners are usually actively involved in their
own learning.
• As infants and toddlers acquire the basic vocabulary and syntax of their first language,
they seem to do so without consciously trying to acquire these things or thinking about
what they’re learning. Much of the learning that occurs during infancy and toddlerhood
is implicit learning
• But as children grow, they increasingly engage in intentional, explicit learning: They
actively think about, interpret, and reconfigure what they see and hear in their
environment.
• The various ways in which people think about what they’re seeing, hearing, studying,
and learning are collectively known as cognition.
• Cognitive processes are particular way of mentally responding to or thinking about
information or an event.
• An example of a cognitive process is encoding, in which a learner changes or adds to
incoming information in some way in order to remember it more easily.

81. Remembering Words
Daisy apple dandelion
hammer pear wrench
tulip pliers watermelon banana rose screwdriver
• You are more likely to categorize words that are associated
with each other.
• As children get older, they’re more likely to organize what they learn, and learners of
all ages learn more effectively when they organize the subject matter at hand.

82. • The term memory refers to
learners’ ability to mentally
“save” newly acquired
information and behaviors.
• The process of “putting”
something into memory is
called storage.
• The process of
remembering previously
stored information—that
is,“finding” it in memory—is
retrieval
• Many psychologists have
found it helpful to think of
the human memory system
as having three general
components that hold
information for different
lengths of time

83. Information Processing
Attention
• The child’s ability to pay attention changes significantly during the
preschool years.
• Preschool children are influenced strongly by the features of a task
that stand out, or are salient.
• This deficit can hinder problem solving or performing well on tasks.
• By age 6 or 7, children attend more efficiently to the dimensions of a
task that are relevant.
• This is believed to reflect a shift in cognitive control of attention.

84. • Short-Term Memory
• In short-term memory, individuals retain information for up to
seconds, assuming there is no rehearsal, which can help keep
information in STM for a much longer period.
• Differences in memory span occur across the ages due to:
• Rehearsal: older children rehearse items more than younger children.
• Speed and efficiency of processing information: the speed with which
a child processes information is an important aspect of the child’s
cognitive abilities.

85. How Accurate Are Young Children’s Long-
Term Memories?
• Young children can remember a great deal of information if they are given
appropriate cues and prompts.
• Sometimes the memories of preschoolers seem to be erratic, but these
inconsistencies may be to some degree the result of inadequate prompts
and cues.
• Strategies consist of using deliberate mental activities to improve the
processing of information:
• Rehearsal
• Organizing information
• Young children typically do not use rehearsal and organization.
• Children as young as 2 can learn to use other types of strategies to process
information.

86. The Young Children’s Theory of Mind
• Theory of mind refers to individuals’ thoughts about how mental
processes work.
• Even young children are curious about the nature of the human mind.
• Children’s developing knowledge of the mind includes the awareness
that:
• The mind exists.
• The mind has connections to the physical world.
• The mind can represent objects and events accurately or inaccurately.
• The mind actively interprets reality and emotions.

87. Becoming Aware that the Mind Exists
• By the age of 2 or 3, children refer to needs, emotions, and mental
states.
• They also use intentional action or desire words, such as wants to.
• Cognitive terms such as know, remember, and think usually appear
after perceptual and emotional terms, but are used by age 3.
• Later children distinguish between guessing vs. knowing, believing vs.
fantasizing, and intending vs. not on purpose.

88. Understanding Cognitive Connections to the
Physical World
• At about 2 or 3 years of age, children develop an awareness of the
connections among stimuli, mental states, and behavior.
• This provides them with a rudimentary mental theory of human
action.
• Children can infer connections from stimuli to mental states, from
mental states to behavior or emotion, and from behavior to mental
states.
• Children also develop an understanding that the mind is separate
from the physical world.

89. • Detecting Accuracies/ Inaccuracies of the Mind
• Children develop an understanding that the mind can represent
objects and events accurately.
• Understanding of false beliefs doesn’t usually occur until 4 or 5 years.
• Understanding the Mind’s Active Role in Emotion and Reality
• Children develop an understanding that the mind actively mediates
the interpretation of reality and the emotion experienced.
• In the elementary school years, children change from viewing
emotions as caused by external events without any mediation by
internal states to viewing emotional reactions to an external event as
influenced by a prior emotional state, experience, or expectation.

90. Examples of Theory of Mind
• Perspective-taking: A child understands that just because they know a toy is hidden in a
box doesn’t mean another person who wasn’t present during the hiding will know it’s
there.
• Understanding false beliefs: If a friend watches you place a candy in your pocket but you
secretly move it to your bag when they’re not looking, a child with Theory of Mind
understands the friend will mistakenly believe the candy is still in your pocket.
• Empathy: If a sibling is crying because they dropped their ice cream, a child with Theory
of Mind will understand the sibling is upset, even if the child still has their own ice cream.
• Deception: A child decides to trick their friend by pointing in the wrong direction when
asked about the location of a hidden object, understanding the friend does not know the
actual location.

91. How ToM develops?
• Paying Attention to Other People
• Joint attention occurs when two people direct their attention towards
the same thing of interest – often done via pointing so as to direct
another’s attention to the same source.
• When infants understand this gesture, they are simultaneously
processing another person’s mental state, recognizing that this object
is something that another person thinks is of interest (Baron-Cohen,
1991), thus illustrating the beginning phases of the theory of mind.

92. • Intentionality (knowing that people act according to the things they want)
• A second core component that contributes to the development of the
theory of mind is that of intentionality, or the understanding that others’
actions are goal-directed and arise out of unique beliefs and desires, as
defined by philosopher Daniel Dennett (1983).
• Toddlers as young as 2 years old exhibit an understanding of intentionality
(Luchkina et al., 2018) as do chimpanzees and orangutans (Call & Tomasello,
1998).
• To understand that people act in a way that is motivated by their desires (for
example, I am hungry so I will reach for that apple) is to understand that
other people have their own desires (she must be hungry), thus
demonstrating a theory of mind, or attributing mental states to others.

93. • Imitation (Copying Other People)
• Imitating others is a third building block of theory of mind. The ability
to imitate others is to recognize recognizing that others have their
own beliefs and desires.
• For example, bridging attention and intentionality, imitation can result
when a child realizes that others direct their attention (to an object,
etc.) and do so intentionally (motivated by goal-directed behavior).
• Internalizing these two concepts, the child then engages in imitation
and may direct his or her eyes toward that specific object or scene.

94. • Language Development
• Young children’s understanding sometimes gets ahead of their speech.
• Many of the oddities of young children’s language sound like mistakes to adult
listeners, but from the children’s perspective, they are not.
• As children go through early childhood, their grasp of the rules of language
increases (morphology, semantics, pragmatics).
• Morphology
• As children move beyond two-word utterances, they know morphology rules.
• They begin using plurals and possessive forms of nouns.
• They put appropriate endings on verbs.
• They use prepositions, articles, and various forms of the verb to be.
• Children demonstrate knowledge of morphological rules with plural forms of
nouns, possessive forms of nouns, and the third-person singular and past tense
forms of verbs.

95. • Semantics
• As children move beyond the two-word stage, their knowledge of meanings rapidly
advances.
• The speaking vocabulary of a 6-year-old ranges from 8,000 to 14,000 words.
• According to some estimates, the average child of this age is learning about 22
words a day!
• Pragmatics
• No difference is as dramatic as the difference between a 2-year-old’s language and a
6-year-old’s language in terms of pragmatics—the rules of conversation.
• At about 3 years of age, children improve their ability to talk about things that are
not physically present—referred to as “displacement.”
• Displacement is revealed in games of pretend.
• Large individual differences seen in preschoolers’ talk about imaginary people and
things.

96. • The Child-Centered Kindergarten
• In the child-centered kindergarten, education involves the whole child and includes
concern for the child’s physical, cognitive, and social development.
• Instruction is organized around the child’s needs, interests, and learning styles.
• The process of learning, rather than what is learned, is emphasized.
• Experimenting, exploring, discovering, trying out, restructuring, speaking, and
listening are all part of an excellent kindergarten program.
• The Montessori Approach
• The Montessori Approach is a philosophy of education in which children are given
considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities.
• They are allowed to move from one activity to another as they desire.
• The teacher acts as a facilitator, rather than a director of learning.
• While it fosters independence, it deemphasizes verbal interaction.
• Criticism of the approach is that it neglects children’s social development and
restricts imaginative play.

97. Developmentally Appropriate and Inappropriate
Practices in the Education of Young Children
• Young children learn best through active, hands-on teaching methods.
• Schools should focus on improving children’s social as well as cognitive
development.
• Developmentally appropriate practice is based on knowledge of the typical
development of children within an age span, as well as the uniqueness of
the child.
• Developmentally inappropriate practice ignores the concrete, hands-on
approach to learning.
• Direct teaching largely through abstract paper-and-pencil activities
presented to large groups of young children is believed to be
developmentally inappropriate.

98. Does Preschool Matter?
• Preschool matters if parents do not have the commitment, time,
energy, and resources to provide young children with an environment
that approximates a good early childhood program.
• If parents have the competence and resources to provide young
children with a variety of learning experiences and exposure to other
children and adults, along with opportunities for extensive play, this
may be sufficient.

99. Findings on Early Childhood Compensatory
Education
• Children in academically oriented, direct-instruction approaches did
better on achievement tests and were more persistent on tasks than
were children in other approaches.
• Children in effective education programs were absent less often and
showed more independence.
• Long-term effects have included lower rates of placement in special
education, dropping out of school, grade retention, delinquency, and
use of welfare programs.

100. Discussion
1) How Vygotsky’s theory differs from that of Piaget’s Theory?
2) Critically evaluate Vygotsky's notion of scaffolding in the context of
educational settings. How effective is it in promoting learning?
3) Explore the role of play in Vygotsky's theory of development. How
does play contribute to cognitive and social development according
to his perspective?
4) Discuss the relevance of Vygotsky's theory in understanding the
development of symbolic thinking and abstract reasoning in
children.

101. Critically evaluate Vygotsky's notion of scaffolding in the context of
educational settings. How effective is it in promoting learning?
• Strengths:
• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Scaffolding is based on the idea of the ZPD, which acknowledges that
learners can achieve more with guidance and support. It recognizes that learning is not just about what learners
can do independently but also what they can accomplish with assistance.
• Responsive to Individual Needs: Scaffolding is inherently adaptable to the individual needs and abilities of
learners. It allows teachers to tailor their support according to the specific challenges and strengths of each
student.
• Promotes Active Learning: Scaffolding encourages active engagement and participation in learning activities. It
fosters a dynamic interaction between the learner and the teacher, promoting deeper understanding and critical
thinking.
• Limitations:
• Dependence on the Teacher: Scaffolding can sometimes create dependency on the teacher or more
knowledgeable peer. If learners become overly reliant on external support, they may struggle to develop
independence and problem-solving skills.
• Time-Consuming: Effective scaffolding requires time and effort on the part of the teacher. It may not always be
feasible in large classrooms or with limited resources where individualized attention is challenging to provide.
• Cultural and Contextual Differences: The effectiveness of scaffolding can vary depending on cultural and
contextual factors. What constitutes effective support in one cultural context may not be applicable or well-
received in another.

102. • Effectiveness:
• Research Evidence: Numerous studies have demonstrated the effectiveness
of scaffolding in promoting learning across various domains, including
literacy, mathematics, and problem-solving skills.
• Student Engagement: Scaffolding tends to enhance student motivation and
engagement by providing meaningful support and guidance. Students feel
empowered when they receive assistance tailored to their needs.
• Long-Term Impact: While scaffolding can facilitate immediate learning
gains, its long-term impact depends on how well it promotes the
development of independent learning strategies and problem-solving skills.

103. Explore the role of play in Vygotsky's theory of development. How does
play contribute to cognitive and social development according to his
perspective?
• Symbolic Representation: Play involves the use of symbols, imagination,
and make-believe scenarios. Through play, children learn to represent
objects, actions, and ideas symbolically, which is a fundamental aspect of
cognitive development. For example, pretending to be a doctor or a
teacher allows children to engage in symbolic play, which fosters abstract
thinking and imagination.
• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Play provides an ideal context for
children to operate within their zone of proximal development—the gap
between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve
with guidance. During play, children often engage in activities that are
slightly beyond their current level of competence, which promotes
cognitive growth and skill acquisition.

104. • Social Interaction and Cooperation: Play frequently involves
interaction with peers, siblings, or adults. Through collaborative play
experiences, children learn to negotiate roles, share resources, and
coordinate actions with others. This social interaction helps develop
essential social skills such as communication, empathy, cooperation,
and perspective-taking.
• Cultural Transmission: Play reflects cultural values, norms, and
practices. Children incorporate elements of their cultural environment
into their play activities, whether through role-playing, storytelling, or
imitation. As they engage in play within cultural contexts, children
internalize societal expectations, language patterns, and social roles,
contributing to their socialization and cultural identity development.

105. • Problem-Solving and Creativity: Play encourages experimentation,
problem-solving, and creative thinking. Children often encounter
challenges and obstacles during play scenarios, requiring them to
devise solutions, think flexibly, and adapt to changing circumstances.
This process of exploration and experimentation fosters cognitive
flexibility, resilience, and creativity.
• Emotional Regulation and Expression: Play provides a safe and
supportive environment for children to express and regulate their
emotions. Through imaginative play, children can explore and make
sense of their feelings, fears, and desires in a non-threatening context.
Play allows children to experiment with different roles and scenarios,
helping them develop emotional awareness, empathy, and self-
regulation skills.

106. Discuss the relevance of Vygotsky's theory in understanding the
development of symbolic thinking and abstract reasoning in children.
• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Vygotsky's concept of the ZPD is central to
understanding the development of symbolic thinking and abstract reasoning. The ZPD
represents the range of tasks that a child can perform with guidance and assistance from
a more knowledgeable individual. Through interaction with more competent peers or
adults, children are exposed to higher-level thinking processes and symbolic systems,
which gradually shape their own abilities for abstract thought.
• Role of Language: Vygotsky emphasized the crucial role of language in cognitive
development. Language serves as a tool for communication, thought, and mediation of
cultural knowledge. Through language, children acquire symbolic systems and abstract
concepts that allow them to represent and manipulate ideas beyond immediate sensory
experiences. For example, as children learn language, they acquire the ability to use
words and symbols to represent objects, events, and abstract concepts, facilitating
higher-level thinking and problem-solving.

107. • Cultural Tools and Artifacts: Vygotsky highlighted the importance of cultural
tools and artifacts in cognitive development. Cultural tools, such as writing
systems, mathematical symbols, and technological devices, serve as
mediators of thought and facilitate the development of symbolic thinking
and abstract reasoning. Through interaction with cultural artifacts, children
internalize symbolic systems and learn to manipulate abstract concepts in
meaningful ways.
• Social Interaction and Collaboration: According to Vygotsky, cognitive
development is fundamentally shaped by social interaction and
collaboration with others. Through collaborative activities, such as joint
problem-solving tasks, peer discussions, and group projects, children
engage in dialogue, negotiation, and shared reasoning processes that
promote the development of abstract thinking and reasoning skills. Social
interactions provide opportunities for children to explore diverse
perspectives, challenge assumptions, and refine their understanding of
abstract concepts.