PGNAA and PFTNA technology for non-scientists - ebook

PGNAA and PFTNA technology
for non-scientists
Prompt gamma neutron activation analysis
Pulsed fast thermal neutron activation

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Overview
What is PGNAA....................................................................
How neutron activation analysis works............................
The PGNAA and PFTNA process.......................................
The periodic table................................................................
List of periodic table elements .........................................

04
05
07
08
09

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12
13
14
15
16
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Technology
Analyzer components.........................................................
Detecting the gamma rays................................................
PGNAA energy spectrum..................................................
PGNAA detection limit guidelines....................................
Neutron supply.....................................................................
The PFTNA process............................................................
Is neutron activation analysis safe to use?.....................

19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Applications and equipment
Applications..........................................................................
Iron ore sintering process in steel manufacturing............
Cement applications and products.................................
Minerals ...............................................................................
Coal applications and products.......................................
CB Omni Fusion online elemental analyzer..................
Choose the system that’s right for you..........................
Table of contents
thermofisher.com/pgnaa-pftna
Requestquoteorinfo›

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Overview

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What is PGNAA
What are PGNAA and PFTNA
Neutron activation analysis
Prompt Gamma Neutron Activation Analysis (PGNAA)
and Pulsed Fast Thermal Neutron Activation (PFTNA):
non-contact, non-destructive analytical techniques used
in online analysis systems to determine the elemental
composition of bulk raw materials.
Both PGNAA and PFTNA techniques are known collectively
as neutron activation analysis and function by bombarding
materials with neutrons. Neutrons interact with elements in
the materials, which then emit secondary, prompt gamma
rays that can be measured. Neutrons are highly penetrating
and pass through and interact with materials (dense
materials too) such as rock. This is advantageous because
other techniques for analysis are only surface analysis
techniques whereas with Neutron Activation Analysis pass
into the materials and can measure the entire volume of
materials rather than just the surface.
Gamma rays
Gamma rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation
that can be measured. Similar to X-ray fluorescence
(XRF), each element emits a characteristic energy
signature as it returns to a stable state.
Gamma rays have the smallest wavelengths and
the most energy of any wave in the electromagnetic
spectrum. They are produced by supernovas and
neutron stars, but can be generated by nuclear
explosions, lightning, and radioactive decay. Due to
their small wavelength and high energy, gamma-rays
have the ability to penetrate through materials and
reach the detectors after the neutron interaction within
the materials creates gamma-rays.

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How neutron activation analysis works
Fingerprints
It all starts with the atom
Each of the elements present in a sample produces a
unique set of characteristic prompt gamma rays that are
“fingerprints” for that specific element.
Atoms are the extremely small particles of which we, and everything around us,
are made. There are 92 naturally occurring elements and scientists have made
more, bringing the total to 114 confirmed and at least 4 more claimed. Atoms
are the smallest unit of an element that chemically behaves the same way the
element does.
Atoms bond
with other atoms to
form a molecule. If two
hydrogen atoms bonded
with an oxygen atom,
they would form a
water molecule.

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How neutron activation analysis works
Anatomy of the atom*
In the center of the atom is the nucleus, made up of protons and
neutrons. Each proton carries a positive electrical charge, but
neutrons carry no electrical charge, so the nucleus of an atom is
positively charged because of its protons.
Electrons are particles that orbit the nucleus at a high speed and carry
a negative charge, which balances the positive electrical charge of the
protons in the nucleus. Since the total negative charge of electrons is
equal to the positive charge of the nucleus, an atom is neutral.
The negative electrons are attracted to the positive protons, so the
electrons stay around the nucleus in discrete shells.
When two chemicals react with each other, the reaction takes place
between individual atoms at the atomic level. The outermost or covalent
electrons are involved in this bonding.
The processes that cause materials to become radioactive occur within
the nucleus of an atom through a change in energy state. The resultant
gamma-ray represents the atom from which it was generated. On
account of the this type of interaction, the form in which the atom may
be bound in not relevant and the gamma-ray signature is the same for
different chemical forms.
K
L
M
N
This is NOT a circle!
Atoms are not really combined of
concentric circles of electrons...
we just draw them that way to
understand how the electrons
orbit around the nucleus.
The electrons
reside in discrete
quanta or shells, and
these shells are labeled
K, L, M, N, from
inner to outer.
*this section site reference: http://www.epa.gov/radiation/understand/atom.html

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The PGNAA and PFTNA process
Prompt gamma neutron activation analysis and pulsed fast thermal neutron activation are based
on a subatomic reaction between a low energy neutron and the nucleus of an atom.
When a thermal, or rather low energy neutron (<0.025 eV) approaches near enough to, or collides with, a nucleus
of an atom, an interaction between the neutron and the nucleus takes place.
Energy from the neutron is transferred to the nucleus and temporarily elevates it to an excited energy state.
The energy is then released, nearly instantaneously, in the form of a singular or many multiple gamma rays.
The gamma rays produced have distinct energies associated with the atom from which it was released. (In
essence the gamma-rays emitted are like a “fingerprint” of the element.)
The emitted gamma-rays are detected and an energy spectrum generated which can then be analyzed for
elemental composition.
1
2
3
4
5
Thermal
Neutron
Nucleus Excited
Nucleus
Stable
Nucleus
Gamma
Ray

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Electrons in shells
closest to the nucleus are
most strongly bound to the
atom.Binding energy
increases with atomic
number. The higher
the number, the higher
the weight.
The periodic table
An element is a chemically pure substance composed of atoms. Elements
are the fundamental materials of which all matter is composed.
The elements are arranged in increasing order
of their atomic weight (the number of protons
in the nucleus of an atom).
The Periodic Table was created in
1869 by Dmitry I. Mendeleev.
Number
of protons =
Atomic Number
(different for each
element).
Number
of electrons
typically = number
of protons (so
that the atom is
neutral).Number
of neutrons
is variable and is
what allows some
atoms to have
isotopes.
An isotope of an element has the
same number of protons but a
different number of neutrons.
Did you know?
What is an element?

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List of periodic table elements
1 Hydrogen
2 Helium
3 Lithium
4 Beryllium
5 Boron
6 Carbon
7 Nitrogen
8 Oxygen
9 Fluorine
10 Neon
11 Sodium
12 Magnesium
13 Aluminum
14 Silicon
15 Phosphorus
16 Sulfur
17 Chlorine
18 Argon
19 Potassium
20 Calcium
H
He
Li
Be
B
C
N
O
F
Ne
Na
Mg
Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar
K
Ca
21 Scandium
22 Titanium
23 Vanadium
24 Chromium
25 Manganese
26 Iron
27 Cobalt
28 Nickel
29 Copper
30 Zinc
31 Gallium
32 Germanium
33 Arsenic
34 Selenium
35 Bromine
36 Krypton
37 Rubidium
38 Strontium
39 Yttrium
40 Zirconium
Sc
Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
Rb
Sr
Y
Zr
41 Niobium
42 Molybdenum
43 Technetium
44 Ruthenium
45 Rhodium
46 Palladium
47 Silver
48 Cadmium
49 Indium
50 Tin
51 Antimony
52 Tellurium
53 Iodine
54 Xenon
55 Cesium
56 Barium
57 Lanthanum
58 Cerium
59 Praseodymium
60 Neodymium
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
I
Xe
Cs
Ba
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
61 Promethium
62 Samarium
63 Europium
64 Gadolinium
65 Terbium
66 Dysprosium
67 Holmium
68 Erbium
69 Thulium
70 Ytterbium
71 Lutetium
72 Hafnium
73 Tantalum
74 Tungsten
75 Rhenium
76 Osmium
77 Iridium
78 Platinum
79 Gold
80 Mercury
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
Hf
Ta
W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
81 Thallium
82 Lead
83 Bismuth
84 Polonium
85 Astatine
86 Radon
87 Francium
88 Radium
89 Actinium
90 Thorium
91 Protactinium
92 Uranium
93 Neptunium
94 Plutonium
95 Americium
96 Curium
97 Berkelium
98 Californium
99 Einsteinium
100 Fermium
101 Mendelevium
102 Nobelium
103 Lawrencium
104 Rutherfordium
105 Dubnium
106 Seaborgium
107 Bohrium
108 Hassium
109 Meitnerium
110 Darmstadtium
111 Roentgenium
112 Copernicium
113 Ununtrium
114 Flerovium
115 Ununpentium
116 Livermorium
Md
No
Lr
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cn
113
Fl
115
Lv
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
Fr
Ra
Ac
Th
Pa
U
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm

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Technology

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Analyzer components
PGNAA analyzers are situated directly on the conveyor belt and penetrate the entire raw material
cross-section, providing minute-by-minute, uniform measurement of the entire material stream,
not just a sub-sample. Surface analysis technologies such as XRF, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and
other spectral analysis technologies measure limited depths and surface areas that may not
be representative of the entire amount of material on the belt. With PGNAA, sample errors are
reduced, and the high-frequency of analysis helps reduce variation in material quality.

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PGNAA and PFTNA online analyzers detect and ‘read’ the gamma rays using scintillation detectors.
These detectors are composed of a high purity crystalline structure which, when exposed to
gamma rays, produces photons proportional in energy to the energy of the gamma rays that
enter the crystal.
Detecting the gamma rays
1
2
3
A photon detector coupled to the crystal converts the pulses of light into electrical signals proportional in
energy to the photon.
Sophisticated high-speed electronic circuits then amplify and process the electrical pulses, yielding a
composite energy spectrum.
The spectrum is analyzed to determine information about specific elements.
Placeholder

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PGNAA energy spectrum
Each element has a different tendency to interact with neutrons; those elements with a high
neutron cross-section are easier to measure than those with a low neutron cross-section. There
must also be a sufficient amount of the element to interact with the neutrons. What is noted as
the “threshold of detection” for an element is a function of the amount of material being analyzed
(the percentage of the element in the material) and the tendency for that element to interact with
neutrons (neutron cross-section).

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PGNAA detection limit guidelines
Excellent (<0.01%)
Very Good (0.01% to 0.1%)
Good (0.1% to 0.3%)
Moderate (0.3% to 1%)
Nominal (1% to 3%)
Minimal (3% to 10%)
None (>10%)
Unknown
Fr
87
Ra
88
Ac
89
Rf
104
Db
105
Sg
106
Bh
107
Hs
108
Mt
109
Na
11
Mg
12
Al
13
Si
14
P
15
S
16
Cl
17
Ar
18
Li
3
Be
4
B
5
C
6
N
7
O
8
F
9
Ne
10
H
1
He
2
Cs
55
Ba
56
La
57
Hf
72
Ta
73
W
74
Re
75
Os
76
Ir
77
Pt
78
Au
79
Hg
80
Tl
81
Pb
82
Bi
83
Po
84
At
85
Rn
86
Ce
58
Pr
59
Nd
60
Pm
61
Sm
62
Eu
63
Gd
64
Tb
65
Dy
66
Ho
67
Er
68
Tm
69
Yb
70
Lu
71
Th
90
Pa
91
U
92
Np
93
Pu
94
Am
95
Cm
96
Bk
97
Cf
98
Es
99
Fm
100
Md
101
No
102
Lr
103
Rb
37
Sr
38
Y
39
Zr
40
Nb
41
Mo
42
Tc
43
Ru
44
Rh
45
Pd
46
Ag
47
Cd
48
In
49
Sn
50
Sb
51
Te
52
I
53
Xe
54
K
19
Ca
20
Sc
21
Ti
22
V
23
Cr
24
Mn
25
Fe
26
Co
27
Ni
28
Cu
29
Zn
30
Ga
31
Ge
32
As
33
Se
34
Br
35
Kr
36
Ds
110
Rg
111
Cn
112
Uuq
114
Uut
113
Uup
115
Uuh
116
Uus
117
Uuo
118
DUBNIUMRUTHERFORDIUM MUISSAHMUIGROBAESMUINITCA B MUIRENTIEMMUIRHORADIUMFRANCIUM
TANTALUMHAFNIUMLANTHANUMCESIUM MUIMSOMARFLOW R MUIDIRIMUINEHBARIUM NODARHTUMSIBDAELDLOG MERCURY ASTATINEPOLONIUM
MUITCONUNUMUITNEPNUNU UNUNSEPTIUMUNUNHEXIUM
PLATINUM
ROENTGENIUM UNUNQUADIUMCOPERNICIUMDARMSTADTIUM
THALLIUM
UNUNTRIUM
TECHNETIUMMOLYBDENUMNIOBIUMZIRCONIUMYTTRIUMSTRONTIUMRUBIDIUM RUTHENIUM XENONIODINERHODIUM PALLADIUM MUIRULLETYNOMITNAMUIMDACREVLIS INDIUM TIN
PROTACTINIUMT MUINOTULPMUINARUMUIROH N MUIVELEDNEMMUIMREFMUILEKREBMUICIREMAMUINUTPE CALIFORNIUM LAWRENCIUMNOBELIUMC MUINIETSNIEMUIRU
PROMETHIUMNEODYMIUMPRASEODYNIUMC MUIRAMASMUIRE LUTETIUME MUIBRETTYMUILUHTMUISORPSYDMUIBRETMUINILODAGMUIPORU HOLMIUM ERBIUM
POTASSIUM CALCIUM SCANDIUM TITANIUM VANADIUM CHROMIUM MANGANESE IRON COBALT NICKEL COPPER KRYPTONZ MUINELESCINESRACNI G ENIMORBMUINAMREGMUILLA
SILICON PHOSPHORUSA NOGRAENIROLHCRUFLUSMUNIMULSODIUM MAGNESIUM
CARBONB NOENENIRUOLFNEGYXONEGORTINNOROLITHIUM BERYLLIUM
HELIUMHYDROGEN
These are estimates of the
threshold of detection.
Actual limits may be
somewhat different
depending upon analyzer
configuration and application.
Ten minute
threshhold of
detectability:
Click here to download
the full infographic!

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Neutron supply
Radioisotope Californium 252 (252
Cf) Neutron Generator
Neutrons used in the analysis technique can be supplied by either a radioisotope Californium
252 (252
Cf) or from a neutron generator system.
Undergoes spontaneous fission.
Produced electrically in a special type of compact linear
accelerator.
Isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium (2
H) and tritium (3
H), are
utilized in a fusion reaction to produce the neutrons.
Produces neutrons that are used in the analysis process.
Average energy of 2.6 MeV and a most probable energy
of 0.7 MeV.
Energy must be reduced and most neutrons converted
to thermal neutrons.
A fairly high energy, 14 MeV, and are considered “fast”
neutrons.
Energy must be reduced and most neutrons converted
to thermal neutrons.
*When neutrons are supplied using a neutron generator, the term PFTNA is
used as it describes what is taking place to allow PGNAA (see next page).

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The PFTNA process
A neutron generator can be “Pulsed” and the time
in-between pulses can sometimes also be used to
measure certain elements.
Pulsed
Fast
Thermal
P
F
T
N
A
Neutrons emitted from a neutron generator are
considered “high energy” at 14 MeV and are termed
“Fast” neutrons.
The Fast neutrons must be reduced to an energy range
termed “Thermal” neutrons so that the PGNAA process
can take place.
Neutron activation.

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Is neutron activation analysis safe to use?
Distance ShieldingTime
Radiation
PGNAA technology uses Cf-252 or a neutron generator to produce analysis. Each of these produce low levels of radiation
but reasonable effort should be made to maintain exposures to radiation as far below dose limits as practical. This is
known as the ALARA (As Low as Reasonably Achievable) principle. For any given source of radiation, three factors will help
minimize your radiation exposure:
Click here to download
the Gamma Radiation Safety guide

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Applications and equipment

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Applications
Thermo Scientific cross-belt analyzers are used in cement, coal and sintering applications
as well as for processing other bulk materials such as lime, industrial minerals for
refractories and blast furnace feeds, copper, iron ore, etc., to help ensure consistent
material quality and process optimization.

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Iron ore sintering process in steel manufacturing
The Thermo Scientific CB Omni analyzer
for sinter measures sinter feed chemistry
on-line and provides high-frequency
(minute-by-minute or less) compositional
analysis data to enable control of
basicity in real time. Sinter quality begins
with the proper selection and mixing of
the raw materials. Inhomogeneous raw
mix can affect permeability and cause an
increase in fuel consumption.

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Cement applications and products
The Thermo Scientific CB Omni Fusion
online elemental analyzer provides a
reliable and accurate means of achieving
consistent stockpile and raw mix
chemistry to improve kiln efficiency and
minimize production costs. This unique
system provides high-frequency (minute-
by-minute) compositional analysis of
the raw materials used in the cement
manufacturing process.
• Ease of installation
• Detector flexibility
• Flexibility in source of neutrons
• Proven solutions and support
• Legacy upgrades

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Minerals
In the mineral processing community, ore
sorting and routing is a way of improving
the efficiency of mining operations.
The CB Omni Fusion online elemental
analyzer provides high frequency online
elemental analysis of an entire raw
material process stream using PGNAA
or PFTNA. It delivers consistent material
quality, improves process efficiency and
minimizes production costs in a variety of
different process and mining operations,
including limestone, lime, copper, iron
ore, refractory & blast furnace minerals,
cement production, iron ore sintering,
and more.
Placeholder

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Coal applications and products
The Thermo Scientific Elemental Crossbelt analyzer (ECA-
3) is used to control the sorting and blending of coals to
maximize coal resources, reduce out-of-seam dilution
and control preparation plant performance. The analyzer
is designed for applications requiring process accuracy at
a modest cost.
• Mounts around existing conveyor belt
• Provides high-frequency (minute-by-minute or less)
compositional analysis
The Thermo Scientific Coal Quality Manager (CQM
FLEX) is the ultimate analyzer with the best accuracy
available, which allows you to minimize variations in
coal quality, ensure contract compliance, and improve
your efficiency. It is the product of choice for coal
producers and utilities where real-time knowledge
of coal quality is critical, including load-outs, auger
samplers and power plant bunker feed systems.
• Most accurate online analyzer in the industry
• Ideal in loadouts, prep plant control and bunker
feed applications
• Available with Cf-252 or neutron generator
Click here to watch
the full video!

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CB Omni Fusion online elemental analyzer
PGNAA and PFTNA is explained and illustrated in this video that shows how online raw materials
are analyzed at a cement facility.
Click here to watch
the full video!

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Choose the system that’s right for you
On belt analyzer
CB Omni Fusion
online elemental analyzer
CQM FLEX
coal analyzer
ECA-3 elemental
crossbelt analyzer
GS Omni analyzer
Belt sizes (600 mm to 2200 mm)
Sample stream analyzer
Elemental analysis
Coal
Cement
Lime
Refractory minerals
Copper
Iron ore
Phosphates
Other bulk materials
Neutron generator capable
Cf-252 capable
Click here to access the full
product selection guide

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