3. Psychology To maximise the chance of success, performers should start competitions with positive expectations. Explain the factors which may contribute to a performer’s level of self-efficacy. Suggest strategies that can be used to develop high level of self-efficacy. Illustrate your answer with practical examples. (14 marks) Remember each mark is awarded according to how the answer relates to the descriptors in each band. These include the quality of your ‘written communication’, so you need to pay attention to your spelling, punctuation and grammar.
4. Psychology Explanation of self-efficacy Level of self-confidence of a performer in a specific situation. Factors contributing to self-efficacy Past experiences / past performance accomplishments. For example, success leads to high levels of confidence / failure reduces confidence. Vicarious experiences / modelling. For example, watching others perform a task increases level of confidence. Verbal persuasion. For example, encouragement from coach / significant other develops self-belief / confidence. Emotional arousal. For example, correct level of physical / psychological arousal helps build confidence / performer should be encouraged to view increased state of arousal as positive not negative. Imagined experiences. For example, thinking about positive outcomes raises confidence / negative thoughts reduces confidence. Strategies (credit suitable examples) Ensure success/ make practices easier modify practices. Set realistic goals. Performance goals better than outcome goals. Watch good quality demonstrations. Demonstrations more effective if model is of similar ability to performer. Verbal praise / encouragement / positive feedback. Avoid social comparisons. Correct use of attributions / failure due to external unstable factors / failure due to internal stable factors (ability) Stress management techniques / breathing control / self-talk / thought stopping or equivalent. Mental rehearsal / visualisation.
5. Psychology Aggression can be an unwelcome feature of participation in sport. What is meant by aggression in sport? Using your knowledge of psychological theories, explain how aggression can be caused in sport. (14 marks) Remember each mark is awarded according to how the answer relates to the descriptors in each band. These include the quality of your ‘written communication’, so you need to pay attention to your spelling, punctuation and grammar.
6. Psychology Aggression in sport is an intent to harm (1) that is outside the rules (2) of the game, and is often uncontrolled and reactive (3) behaviour. An example is a foul tackle in football that is aimed at the player’s leg rather than the ball. There are four theories that explain how aggression is caused. The instinct theory (4) suggests that an aggressive instinct is innate (5) and is a product of evolution. This aggressive instinct can surface when players react (6) to being provoked (e.g. when they are fouled) and some players need only a little provocation! The frustration–aggression hypothesis (7) suggests that once our goals have been blocked then a build-up of frustration means that an aggressive inclination is Inevitable (8) . If this aggressive tendency can be released in the form of a reaction from the player, then a subsequent calming down or catharsis (9) might occur once the player has ‘let off steam’. If the aggressive tendency cannot be released — perhaps the player is unable to reach the player who committed the foul — an even greater aggressive inclination (10) can occur. The things that might cause an aggressive inclination in sport include being fouled (11) , a poor decision by the referee or losing the game.
7. Psychology The aggressive cue hypothesis (12) suggests that aggression is caused by certain Learned (13) cues that can be present during the game and that these cues can trigger (14) an aggressive response once they are encountered. A corner kick in football can trigger the players to start pulling shirts and committing fouls, for example. Such cues have been seen and learned by the players in previous games. Aggression can also be caused by social learning (15) . Players will copy (16) the aggressive behaviour of significant others who they hold in high esteem (17) , especially if the aggressive behaviour is reinforced. The fouling of an opponent by a senior player, to prevent a certain score, may be reinforced — behaviour that is copied. The fact that sport is live (18) makes it more likely to be copied. Marks are awarded for naming the four theories that cause aggression and describing the key points of these theories. You need to know the theories in detail to gain top marks.
