The document discusses key concepts about health, including definitions of health by the WHO, the dimensions of health, and the relative and dynamic nature of health. It examines perceptions of health and how they are socially constructed. The document also analyzes the determinants of health, including individual factors like genetics and knowledge, as well as sociocultural factors, socioeconomic factors, and environmental factors. It discusses how these determinants interact and influence health, and how their level of influence changes over the course of one's life.

1. PDHPE
CORE 1: BETTER HEALTH FOR INDIVIDUALS
What does health mean to individuals?
Syllabus: Study Notes:
Meanings of health
- definitions of health
- dimensions of health
- relative and dynamic nature of
health
Definition of Health by World Health Organisation (WHO):
1947
“A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity”
Dimensions of Health:
Spiritual: Establishing life’s purpose and feeling a connection with nature and/or
religion
Emotional: Recognising and expressing needs and feelings
Social: Make and maintain relationships
Mental: An individual’s thinking and communication skills, resilience and self-
esteem and ability to learn and adapt to change
Physical: Associated with the structure and function of the body
Relative and Dynamic Nature:
Relative nature of health refers to how we judge our health compared to other
people or other points of time in our life
Dynamic nature of health refers to the constant fluctuations that occur in our level
of health.
Examine the dynamic nature of
health by exploring:
- the interactions between the
dimensions
- the concept of good health
- the health continuum
- how health changes over time
- how an individual’s
circumstances affect their health
Interactions between the dimensions of health:
A great importance of balance between the dimensions to have a healthy lifestyle
since all dimensions are dependent on each other.
How health is affected by individual circumstances:
Change in health refers to its dynamic and relative nature. E.g A 70 year old
Grandma who used to run marathons but can now barely walk around the house
may be seen as unhealthy. However, a 70 year old cancer survivor who can walk
around the house is seen as healthy.
Perceptions of health:
- perceptions of their health
- perceptions of the health of
others eg parents, the elderly,
the homeless
Perceptions of health as a social construct:
Mental Health:
Confident with a
positive mindset
Social Heath:
Form friendships
with athletic people
Physical Health:
Participate in
sports
- Gender
- Age
- Geographic Location
- Socioeconomic Status
- Cultural Background
- Level of Education

2. - implications of different
perceptions of health
- perceptions of health as social
constructs
- impact of media, peers and
family
Examine perceptions of health by
exploring questions such as:
- how healthy am I? How healthy
do other people think I am?
= how healthy do I think other
people are
- why would my perceptions of
health be similar or different to
others
- how might an individual’s
perception of health affect their
behaviour and wellbeing
Determine the degree to which
perceptions of health are socially
constructed
Social Construct: is a concept that recognises people have different views based on
their social circumstances.
Implication of different perceptions of health:
Implications for the individual Implications for policy/government
- Women can’t/shouldn’t be sporty
- Tanned skin means good healthy
which leads to sunbaking (then skin
cancer)
- Not taking drugs/alcohol
- Life expectancy, mortality,
morbidity, infant mortality (before 1)
- Funding
- Research
- Pharmaceuticals
Impact of media, peers and family:
Media Peers Family
- Celebrities encourage
unrealistic bodies
- Image of alcohol and
drugs
- Social dominance can
put people down but
also encourage
socialising
- Advertising (un)healthy
behaviours
- Friends dietary choices
- Assist confidence
- Rebel
- Sports
- Smoking, speeding,
drugs and drinking
- Family dietary choices
- Criticism and pressure
to succeed
- Harsh comparisons
- Loving and supporting
environment
Determine the degree to which perceptions of health are socially constructed:
A significant degree since our perception of health is merely seen as a comparison
to others or past-times.
Health behaviours of young
people:
- the positive health status of
young people
- protective behaviours and risk
behaviours
Identify protective and risk
behaviours for health issues
relevant to young people and
predict how risk decreases or
increases when multiple factors
interact.
The positive health status of young people:
- Indicators include education, access to support, improvement of physical health
- Most young people achieve minimum standards for reading, writing and
numeracy
- falls in death rates, improved cancer survival and falls in drug use
Protective behaviours and risk behaviours:
- Risk Factor is a factor that increases the chance of something occurring
- Protective Factor is a factor that decreases the chance of something occurring
Health Issue Risk Factor Protective Factor
Skin Cancer - Sun exposure
- Genetics (lack of
melanin)
- Location
- Sunscreen
- Clothing
- Shade
Obesity - Sedentary behaviours
- Diet
- Socioeconomic
- Physical activity
- Balanced
- Socioeconomic

3. What influences the health of individuals?
Explore current research and
information to:
- identify the prevalence of and
trends in health behaviours of
young people
- challenge the accuracy of
societal perceptions of the health
behaviours of young people
Identify the prevalence of and trends in health behaviours of young people:
- 35% of young people aged 12 – 24 are considered overweight or obese (2008)
- Mental health problems and disorders are highest among young people
- Only 5% of young people meet the Australian Dietary Guidelines
-26% of young people have mental disorders
- 30% of young partake in high-risk short term alcohol use while 12% of young
partake in high-risk long term alcohol use
The accuracy of societal perceptions of health behaviours of young people:
- Not reliable, especially in mental health since many young people (mainly men)
have issues communicating their feelings and emotions.
Syllabus: Study Notes:
The determinants of health
- individuals factors, eg
knowledge and skills, attitudes,
genetics
- sociocultural factors, eg family,
peers, media, religion, culture
- socioeconomic factors, eg
employment, education, income
- environmental factors, eg
geographical location, access to
health services and technology
Analyse how an individual’s
health can be determined by a
range of factors acting in various
combinations
Individual Factors
Knowledge and Skills
o Health literacy: ability to understand and interpret health information and
using it to promote and maintain good health
o Movement skills: provides people with confidence to participate in sport
and physical activity and try new things
Attitudes:
o Self-efficacy: individual’s belief in their ability to carry out a particular task
o Smoking: Those who understand the consequences have a negative view
on smoking
Genetics:
o Characteristics, features or hereditary diseases that are genetically linked
and are passed on within a family (eg down syndrome, skin tone)
Sociocultural Factors
Relate to the society in which people live in and the cultural practices and
expectations that exists within them. These include:
Family:
o Responsible for providing emotional support such as love and care
o Important part in promoting good health and influencing the behaviours of
family members
Peers:
o The behaviours and values of the people around you influences your health
choices
Media:
o Significant role for disseminating information relating to health
Religion:
o Offers rules and practices that must or encouraged to follow (no
alcohol/drugs)
Culture:
o Specific cultural groups hold particular values, beliefs and assumptions

4. Socioeconomic Factors
Education Employment Income
- Higher levels lead to an
understanding of how to
stay healthy (safe sex)
- Sedentary jobs (office
worker) can lead to
obesity
- Unemployment can
lead to social exclusion
from society
- High levels lead to safe
housing and health care
(PHI)
Environmental Determinant
Those things present in the environment in which people live and work
Geographic Location:
o Face harsh living and working conditions and experience sever climates
o Urban areas with more pollution (lower air quality)
o Most urban areas have playgrounds, foot prints, cycleways and parks
encouraging physical activity
Access to technology and health services:
o Geographic isolated people have less access to health care and specialised
treatment services
o Royal Flying Doctor service provides aeromedical emergency and general
health care in remote areas
o Regular use of technology often comes at the expense of physical activity
o Webcam and videoconferencing allows doctors in remote locations to
quickly and easily communicate patients in different locations as well as
learn the latest research and scientific developments
The degree of control individuals
can exert over their health
- modifiable and non-modifiable
health determinants
- the changing influence of
determinants through different
life stages
Assess the degree of control
individuals have over their health
by exploring questions such as:
- how much control do individuals
have over the determinants?
- what can individuals do to
modify the determinants they
have little control over?
- how does the level of influence
of the determinants change over
time?
Modifiable heath determinants:
- determinants that can be changed or controlled
- individuals with a greater sense of control are more likely to be empowered
- e.g: Self-efficacy, interests/desires, attitudes
Non-modifiable health determinants:
- determinants that can’t be changed or altered
- genetics refer to the material we receive from our parents (down syndrome,
haemophilia)
- Environmental factors such as geographic location, access to health care,
availability to technology
The changing influence of determinants through different life stages:
The level of influence that various determinants have will vary at different times in
our lives since certain determinants will have a greater or lesser influence.
Biological changes to the brain:
o During adolescence, hormones are powerful
o Full brain development for decision making and reason occur at 25 years
Greater emotional maturity and a stronger personal identity:
o Young people with a strong sense of identity feel more comfortable
asserting beliefs that are different to social norms

5. Greater personal responsibilities:
o Adults take on financial responsibilities (house and children) which may
change their behaviours (smoking and speeding)
Health as a social construct
- recognise the interrelationship
of determinants
- challenges the notion that
health is solely an individual’s
responsibility
Investigate how the determinants
of health explain why some
individuals and groups have
better or worse health than
others
The interrelationship of determinants
The poor health status of Indigenous Australians is due to:
o Poorer levels of education (socioeconomic)
o Live and work in the most hazardous areas (environmental)
o Lower sense of control, power and opportunity (sociocultural)
o Genetic diseases such as glaucoma (individual)
Challenging the notion that health is solely an individual’s responsibility
Factors that are not an individual’s responsibility for preventing obesity:
o Family
o Geographic location
o Poor education
o Low income
o Genetics
o Occupation
o Injuries
Predisposing factors (before):
Increases the likelihood of the behaviour occurring
- e.g a sedentary home family/home environment
Enabling factors (present):
Support the behaviour occurring
- e.g close availability of fast food outlets
Reinforcing factors (future):
Help the behaviour to continue
- e.g general prevalence of obesity in the community
What strategies help to promote the health of individuals
Responsibility for health
promotion:
- individuals
- community group/school
- non-government organisation
- government
- international organisations, eg
WHO, United Nations
Describe the various health
promotion roles and
responsibilities adopted by
individuals , groups and
governments
Individuals
Personal behaviour is the major determining factor
o Empowerment
o For individuals to form positive health behaviours it is best when they are
educated, financially supported and encouraged to work with a wide range
of health professionals
Community groups and schools
Schools are responsible for:
o Delivering health and PE programs
o Developing health skills for young people which increases the likelihood
they continue engaging in these skills for the future

6. o School policies and practices (‘no hat no play’ and provision of play
equipment)
Community support groups promote health through their close relationship with
particular population groups.
o Migrant women’s support group promotes increased levels of physical
activity among females from non-English speaking backgrounds in a
comfortable and safe environment
Non-government organisations (NGO)
NGO’s are non-profit making organisations that focus on a specific disease or health
issue. E.g The heart foundation and the Cancer Council
They aim to:
o Raise public awareness
o Provide educational programs/resources
o Funding and conducting research
o Support services
o Advocate (encourage support)
Government
Commonwealth Government:
o National health policies
o Identifying priority areas
o Introducing regulations and legislations
o Allocate funding
State Government:
o Planning and delivering specific health promotion
o State laws
o State health policies
Local Government:
o Implementing state-controlled programs at a community level
o Lifestyle events and programs
o Local public libraries
International Organisations
o World Health Organisation (WHO) responsible for health promotion and
provides leadership on global health issues
o Setting international health standards
o Producing annual reports
o Produced the Ottawa Charter in 1986

7. Health promotion approaches
and strategies:
- lifestyle/behavioural
approaches. Eg quit smoking
programs, health education
- preventative medical
approaches, eg childhood
immunisation, cancer screening
- public health approaches, eg
health-promoting schools and
workplaces
Determine the effectiveness of a
range of health promotion
strategies relevant to young
people, eg government
interventions relating to alcohol
consumption and young drivers
Propose other actions that may
improve the health of young
people
Lifestyle approach
Aims to reduce or prevent the incidence of risk behaviours that contribute to poor
health (poor eating habits, unsafe sexual activity, physical inactivity and drug
abuse)
E.g Active Kids Voucher, Reach Out and QUIT
Preventative medical approaches
Use medical treatment or interventions to promote health
Primary prevention stage:
- prevent an illness even occurring
- e.g childhood immunisation programs that vaccinate against whooping cough
Secondary level prevention:
- reduce the likelihood a disease will develop for high-risk individuals
- e.g free mammograms for women aged over 50
Tertiary prevention strategies:
- prevent chronic ill health from reoccurring
- e.g asthma management plan
Public health approach
Involves establishing programs, policies and services that create environments that
support health
Health promoting schools:
- Curriculum teaching/learning (experiential learning)
- School organisation, ethos, environment (play equipment)
- Partnership and services (immunisation)
- Benefits include: long-term habits, healthy students are less sick from school and
learn more
Health promoting workplaces:
- workplace policies, practices and activities
- benefit both employers and employees by improving morale, reducing stress,
decreasing staff turnover, reducing absenteeism and increasing productivity
Government interventions relating to alcohol consumption and young drivers
o Advertisements aiming to alter behaviours
o Alcohol laws
o Road laws
o Lockout laws
The Ottawa Charter as an
effective health promotion
framework
- developing personal skills
- creating supportive
environments
- strengthening community action
- reorienting health services
- building healthy public policy
Developing Personal Skills (DPS)
- Personal and social development occurs through the provision of information,
education for health and the enhancement of life skills
- Increases options in exercising control
Examples of skills These skills lead to
o Communication
o Problem solving
o Decision making
o Ability to seek information
o Individual empowerment
o Self-reliance (autonomy)

8. Describe the historical
significance of the Ottawa
Charter for Health Promotion
Explain how health promotion
based on the action areas of the
Ottawa Charter have contribute
to positive health outcomes. For
example:
- reduction in road injuries
- reduction in tobacco use
Creating Supportive Environment (CSE)
- Increasing people’s ability to make health-promoting choice through their setting
- The organisation of work leisure and the use of technology should enhance health
and provide a safe, satisfying and enjoyable environment
Examples:
- Alcohol free areas
- Provision of counsellors in school
- Healthy school canteens
Strengthening Community Actions (SCA)
- The empowerment of communities to identify and implement actions to address
their health concerns
- Communities can work together to set health priorities, make decisions, plan
strategies and implement them
Examples:
- Alcohol Anonymous
- Active after school communities
Reorienting Health Services (RHS)
A change in attitude and the organisation of health services
Building Public Policy (BPP)
Decisions made of all levels of government that works towards health improvement
National Tobacco Strategy/QUIT
Charter Principle Examples of it in action
DPS - Graphic packaging alters people’s attitudes (scare tactics)
and educate them
- TV/ media ads of consequences
- Education in schools
CSE - Smoke-free areas
SCA - Support groups (share success and failures, emotional
support)
- Guest speakers at schools
RHS - GP educating all patients and becoming the frontline in the
smoking battle
- Changes in medication, surgeries and treatments
BPP - Restricted to 18+
- Shops can’t advertise
- Plain coloured packaging with graphic photo
- High cost (tax)
Before:
1) Diagnosis
2) Treatment
3) Rehabilitation
Now:
1) Promoting health
2) Preventing ill-health
3) Supporting well-being

9. Road Safety: NSW Road Maritime Services
Charter Principle Examples of it in action
DPS - Advertisements
- Schools
- Driver Knowledge Test (DKT)
- Hazard Perception Test (HPT)
CSE - Pedestrian crossing
- Traffic signs + speed cameras
- Patrol Cars
- School zones
- Shared zones
- Stop, revive, survive
SCA - Harold the Giraffe
- Life ready course
- Be street-smart excursion (past experiences from road
victims)
RHS - Mobile drug test (MDT)
BPP - Demerit points
- Fines
- Speeding laws
- Supervisor for learners
- RBT (Random Breath Test)
Principles of social justice:
- equity
- diversity
- supportive environments
Supportive environments
Equity
Diversity
Participation
Equity
Access
Rights
Social Justice
A value that favours the reduction or elimination of inequity, the promotion of
inclusiveness and diversity and the establishment of environments that are
supportive of all people
Equity
Allocation of resources according to the needs of individuals and populations, the
goal being to achieve equality of outcomes. Ensures all individuals have access to
the same opportunities for achieving optimal health.
Diversity
Variety between individuals and groups of people. It is important health strategies
recognise and acknowledge diversity that exists between various groups to tailor
their health strategies.
Supportive Environments
Examples include:
o Relatively free of violence and pollution
o Opportunities for recreations
o Low levels of poverty

10. CORE 2: THE BODY IN MOTION
How do the musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems of the body influence and
respond to movement?
Syllabus: Study Notes:
Circulatory system
- components of blood
- structure and function of the
heart, arteries, veins, capillaries
- pulmonary and systemic
circulation
- blood pressure
Analyse the movement of blood
through the body and the
influence of the circulatory and
respiratory systems on
movement efficiency and
performance.
Pulmonary Circulation
The flow of blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart
Systemic Circulation
The flow of blood from the heart to the body tissue and back to the heart
Components of blood
Plasma:
o Carries plasma proteins, nutrients, hormones, mineral salts and wastes for
the nourishment and function of tissue
o Links to the liquid component of blood and makes the blood less viscous
o Is 90% water and as a result controls body heat through sweating

11. Red Blood Cells (RBC):
o Formed in bone marrow
o Carry oxygen and carbon dioxide around the body
o Contain haemoglobin which readily combines with oxygen and carries it
from the lungs to cells
o Are a flat disc shape that provides a large surface area for taking up oxygen
o Two million red blood cells are destroyed and replaced every second, live
for only 4 months
Platelets:
o Tiny structures made from bone marrow cells that have no nucleus
o Help to produce clotting substances that are important in preventing blood
loss
Blood Pressure
Reflects the quantity of blood being pushed out of the heart and ease/difficulty it
encounters
Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped AWAY from the heart
Venous Return is the amount of blood RETURNING to the heart
Volume of Blood:
- when blood volume increases (increased water retention through high salt intake),
blood pressure increases
- blood loss (through a haemorrhage) results in blood pressure falling
Resistance to blood flow:
- If viscosity increases (dehydration)
- the narrowing of diameter of blood (atherosclerosis)
- reduced elasticity of the arterial walls due to deposit build up (arteriosclerosis)
Systolic pressure is the highest pressure recorded when blood is forced into the
arteries
Diastolic pressure is the minimum or lowest pressure recorded when the heart is
relaxing and filling
A sphygmomanometer is an instrument used to measure blood pressure
Structure and function of the heart, arteries, veins, capillaries
Heart:
o lies in the chest cavity between the lungs and above the diaphragm and is
protected by the ribs and sternum
o heartbeat is heard due to the valves in the heart closing
Arteries:
o carry blood AWAY from the heart and have thick, strong elastic walls
o large exit arteries branch off into smaller arteries which eventually divide
into microscopic vessels (capillaries)
Capillaries:
o the smallest of all blood vessels and function to exchange oxygen and
nutrients for wastes
o A link between the arterioles and the veins
o Extremely thin

12. Veins:
o Carry blood to the heart and have thinner walls compared to arteries
o Return of blood is assisted by rhythmic muscle contractions in nearby
active muscles
o Blood pooling occurs when we stop exercising suddenly and the blood is
not pump to the heart and results in a drop of blood pressure, possible
fainting.
Muscular system
- major muscles involved in
movement
- muscle relationship (agonist,
antagonist)
- types of muscle contraction
(concentric, eccentric, isometric)
Identify the location of the major
muscles involved in movement
and related joint actions
Perform and analyse movements,
eg overarm throw, by examining:
- bones involved and the joint
action
- muscles involved and the type
of contraction
Origin:
The muscle’s point of attachment to the more stationary bone. Located near the
trunk.
Insertion:
The point of attachment at the movable end. This end tends to be away from the
body’s main mass.
Muscle Action:
Movement made at the join when muscles contract
Carpals
Metacarpals
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges

13. Major muscles involved in movement:
Origin Insertion Action
Deltoid (Shoulder
muscle)
Scapula, clavicle Humerus Abduction of arm
Biceps brachii Humerus, scapula Radius Flexion of arm
and forearm,
supination of
forearm
Triceps Scapula, humerus Ulna (proximal
end)
Extension of arm
and forearm
Pectorals Sternum, clavicle Head of the
humerus
Flexion and
abduction of arm
Hamstrings Ischium (pelvis),
femur
Tibia, head of
fibula
Extension of
thigh, flexion of
lower leg
Quadriceps Iliac crest (pelvis),
femur
Tibia (proximal
end), patella
Flexion of hip,
extension of
lower leg
Gastrocnemius
(calf)
Femur (distal end) Heel bone
(posterior)
Knee flexion,
plantar flexion of
foot
Muscle relationship
Agonist:
The muscle causing the major action (prime mover)
Antagonist:
A muscle that must relax and lengthen to allow the agonist to contract
Stabiliser:
Muscles act at a joint to stabilise it, giving the muscles a fixed base. The Muscle
shortens very little during its contraction, causing minimal movement

14. Upward phase of a bicep curl involves: Hamstring curl (heel to butt) involves:
Agonist: Biceps Agonist: Hamstring
Antagonist: Triceps Antagonist: Quadriceps
Stabiliser: Deltoids Stabiliser: Hip
Types of Muscle Contraction
Isotonic Isometric
Concentric Eccentric
Skeletal system:
- major bones involved in
movement
- structure and function of
synovial joints
- joint actions, eg extension and
flexion
Identify the location and type of
major bones involved in
movement, eg long bones
articulate at hinge joints for
flexion and extension
When the muscle activate
but the muscle length does
not change (planking)
The muscle shortens
causing movement at
a joint (upward phase
of a bicep curl)
The muscle lengthens
while under tension
(downward phase of
a bicep curl)

15. Respiratory system:
- structure and function
- lung function (inspiration,
expiration)
- exchange of gases (internal,
external)
Analyse the various aspects of
lung function through
participation in a range of
physical activities
Respiration is the process by which the body takes in oxygen and removes carbon
dioxide
Structure and Function:
1. Air from the atmosphere enters the body through the naval and oral cavity.
The nose warms, moistens and filters the air of any foreign material.
2. The pharynx/throat serves as a common passage for air to the trachea.
3. The trachea is a hollow tube strengthened and kept open by rings of
cartilage. After entering, the chest cavity or thorax, the trachea divides into
a right and a left bronchus (bronchial tube), which lead to the right and left
and left lungs.
4. The inner lining of the air passages produce mucus to catch and hold dirt
and germs. It’s also covered with microscopic hairs (cilia) that remove dirt,
irritants and mucus through steady, rhythmic movements.
5. The lungs consist of two bag-like organs, one situated on each side of the
heart. They are enclosed in the thoracic cavity by the ribs at the sides, the
sternum at the front, vertebral column at the back and the diaphragm at
the base. The light, soft lung tissue is compressed and folded and, like a
sponge, is composed of tiny air pockets.
The bronchi that deliver air to the lungs divide into a number of branches
or bronchioles within each lung. These bronchioles branch many times,
eventually terminating in clusters of tiny air sacs called alveoli, The walls of
the alveoli are extremely thin, with a network of capillaries surrounding
each like a string bag.

16. What is the relationship between physical fitness, training and movement
efficiency?
Lung Function
Inspiration is the air movement from the atmosphere into lungs; breathing in
During inspiration, the diaphragm contracts and flatten as the external intercostal
muscles lift the ribs outwards and upwards. This movement increases the volume
of the chest cavity and pulls the walls of the lungs outwards, which in turn
decreases the air pressure within the lungs. In response to this, air from outside the
body rushes into the lung passage.
Expiration is the air movement from the lungs into the atmosphere; breathing out
During expiration, the diaphragm relaxes and moves upwards as the internal
intercostal muscles allow the ribs and other structures to return to their resting
position. The volume of the chest cavity is therefore decreased, which increases the
air pressure inside the lungs. Air is consequently forced out to make the pressure
inside and outside the lungs about equal.
Exchange of Gases
During inspiration:
- Alveoli: Oxygen high pressure
- Blood/capillary: Oxygen low pressure
During expiration:
- Alveoli: Carbon Dioxide low pressure
- Blood/capillary: Carbon Dioxide high pressure
Diffusion
Gases move from areas of high pressure/concentration to areas of low
pressure/concentration.
Health-related components of
physical fitness
- cardiorespiratory endurance
- muscular strength
- muscular endurance
- flexibility
- body composition
Cardiorespiratory endurance
The ability of the working muscles to take up and use the oxygen that has been
breathed in during exercise and transferred to muscle cells. Eg cycling, triathlons
and marathons
This can be improved through long-distance training for extended time periods.
Muscular strength
The ability to exert force against a resistance in a single maximal effort. Eg
weightlifting and gymnastics
This can be improved through resistance training.

17. Analyse the relationship between
physical fitness and movement
efficiency. Students should
consider the question ‘to what
degree is fitness a predictor of
performance.
Muscle hypertrophy relates to an increase in the size of the muscle.
Muscular Endurance
Ability of the muscles to endure physical work for extended periods of time without
undue fatigue (its ability for muscles to contract). Eg sit-ups, cross-country running
This can be improved through maximum repetitions with low to moderate levels of
resistance.
Flexibility
Range of motion about a joint or the ease of joint movement. Eg gymnastics, dance
This can be improved through safe stretching programs, isometric exercises,
proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) which is when muscle worked on is
strongly contracted against a strong resistance and when resistance is removed,
muscle is able to stretch to the end of its range.
Body composition
Refers to percentage of fat as opposed to lean body mass in a human being and
takes account of level of storage fuel required for muscle activity.
Essential Fat:
- Surrounds vital organs and protects, insulates and absorbs shock to organs
Storage Fat:
- a source of stored energy
- used for fuel during times of rest and sleep, in extended exercises more than 1hr,
when blood glucose are exhausted.
Lean body mass:
- fat-free mass eg bone, muscles, organs, connective tissue
Examples:
Tall = basketball, heavy = sumo and light = gymnastics
This can be improved via changed diet and exercise.
Skill-related components of
physical fitness
- power
- speed
- agility
- coordination
- balance
- reaction time
(Muscular) Power
Ability to combine strength and speed in an explosive action
- amount of work per unit of time
Examples: Jumping, pushing off board to start swimming
Improvement: pushing against resistance quickly
Benefit: exert more strength with little time
Speed
Ability to perform body movements quickly
- “move fast from point A to point B”
Examples: 100m/ 50m sprint, 50m/100m swimming
Improvement: parachute training, bungee training

18. Agility
Ability to move the body from one position and direction to another with speed
and precision
- include balance, coordination and speed
Examples: skiing, ice skating, rugby and basketball
Improvement: Illinois test, ladder drills, cone drills
Benefits: move faster with greater position of movement, balance and ability to resist
fatigue.
Coordination
Ability to harmonise the messages from the senses with parts of the body to produce
movements that are smooth, skilful and well-controlled.
- interaction of brain and muscle
Example: dancing, all sports
Benefits: less prone to accidents and injury
Balance:
Ability to maintain equilibrium while either stationary or moving.
Example: gymnastic, dance, skiing
Improvement: training that involves controlling the centre of gravity
Reaction Time
Time taken to respond to a stimulus
Example: reacting to any change in a sport
Improvement: practice and reaction time test
Fluid mechanics
- floatation, centre of buoyancy
- fluid resistance
Apply principle of fluid mechanics
to enhance performance through
participation in practical
workshops
Describe how principles of fluid
mechanics have influenced
changes in movement and
performance eg technique
modification, clothing/suits,
equipment/apparatus
Floatation and centre of buoyancy
- To float is to maintain a stationary position on the surface of the water
- The centre of buoyancy is the centre of mass that is submerged.
- Buoyant force is the upward force on an object produced by the fluid in which it is
fully or partially submerged
- For an object to float, it needs to displace an amount of water that weighs more
than itself
o E.g. PDF (personal flotation device), large surface area, light weight
- If the object displaces a quantity of water that weighs less than itself, it sinks
o E.g. Heavy metal bar with small surface area
- The density of a body or object refers to its mass per unit of volume
- Specific density is the density of a particular tissue type such as bone or lung tissue
- Average total bone density is an average of all the specific densities of body
components such as bones, teeth and lungs
- Human bodies differ in density due to the distribution of organs and tissues
throughout the body, making some areas less dense in comparison to others
o E.g. the upper body contains the lungs (low density tissue), making this area
less dense than the lower body, which contains a high percentage of bones
and muscles

19. o Since human body density is not uniform, average total bone density is the
determining factor in flotation
- In order for the object to not rotate in the water, the buoyant force must pass
through the centre of mass of the object. If they do not line up, the object will rotate
until they do, such that one end of the object will sink further while the other end
raises
o E.g. typically, in a human body, legs will sink due to it being more dense (full
of fat, bone and muscle tissue)
- Not all water has the same density
o Salt water is more dense than fresh water (easier to float in salt water)
- Floatation and centre of buoyancy relate to performance because the higher an
object floats in the water, the less resistance the water will create on its movement
o Applies to all water sports E.g. swimming, surfing
Fluid Resistance
- Drag is the force that opposes the forward motion of a body or object, reducing its
speed or velocity
- Lift is the component of a force that acts at right angles to the drag (negative lift for
race cars)
- Drag is a resisting force because it acts in opposition to whatever is moving through
it
o Runs parallel to flow direction (airflow, water), exerting a force on the body
in the direction of the stream
o E.g. When a swimmer pushes off the pool wall following a turn, the
swimmer’s forward motion gradually decreases due to the resisting forces
applied by the water, which makes the swimmer stop unless arm or leg
actions begin
- The amount of drag experienced is influenced by:
o Fluid density: Water is denser than air. Salt water is denser than fresh water
o Shape: If a body or object is streamlined at the front and tapered towards
the tail, the fluid through which it is moving experiences less turbulence and
this results in less resistance.
o Surface: A smooth surface causes less turbulence, resulting in less drag.
o Size of frontal area: If the front of a person or object (area making initial
contact with the fluid) is large, resistance to forward motion is increased.
- A body that is streamlined and technically efficient moves easier through a medium
as there is less drag
- This example is for track cycling:
o Technique modification. E.g. “drafting” in cycling
o Clothing/suits. E.g. swimsuits, tight body suits for cycling
o Equipment/apparatus. E.g. streamlined helmets and extremely light and
thin bikes for cycling
o Can shave or wax hair off skin to allow for smooth/shaved skin
- Surface drag refers to a thin film of the fluid medium sticking to the surface area of
the body or object through which it is moving
- The boundary layer is the layer of fluid whose speed is reduced because it is
attached to the surface of an object that is moving through it

20. - Laminar flow is a streamlined flow of fluid with no evidence of turbulence between
the layers
- E.g. when an object such as a discus is projected into a medium, pockets of fluid in
the boundary layer become unstable as the object moves through it. The thrust of
the object disturbs air that is in laminar flow to make way for its mass. The air is then
forced to detour around the object but becomes mixed in the process. Some attaches
itself to the object and even rotates with it if the object is spinning. Turbulence
develops, causing surface drag to be exerted on the object (and it in turn exerts
forces on the fluid), causing forward movement to be slowed.
Motion
- the application of linear motion,
velocity, speed, acceleration,
momentum in movement and
performance contexts
- apply principles of motion to
enhance performance through
participation in practical
workshops
Linear motion
- Linear motion takes place when a body and all parts connected to it travel the same
distance in the same direction and at the same speed
- Linear motion is required in swimming and sprinting where competitors race
following a straight line
- Improvements focus on modifying or eliminating technique faults that contribute
to non-linear movement
- Excessive up and down, rotational and lateral movements are faults that decrease
performance
o E.g. Sprinters who rotate their arms across their bodies are examples of poor
application of linear motion
Velocity
- Velocity is equal to displacement divided by time (
Displacement
Time
) (Used for
calculations where the object or person does not move in a straight line)
o E.g. runner in a cross-country race or the flight of a javelin
- Displacement is the movement of a body from one location to another in a
particular direction
- Activities to improve speed may also relate to velocity
- Improving velocity of implements such as javelins require specialized training, as
does improving the performance of athletes in non-linear events such as marathons
Speed
- Speed is how fast an object or person is moving (
Distance
Time
)(m/s)
- Fast players have an advantage in touch football, rugby and soccer as they are
difficult to attack, they are also able to gather opponents quickly in defence
- Can develop speed as a result of training and technique improvements, the basis of
which is the development of power and efficiency of movement
Acceleration
- Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes in a given amount of time
o E.g. a long jumper would have zero velocity in preparation for a jump. The
jumper would then experience positive acceleration during the approach
and until contact with the pit, when acceleration would be negative

21. - Long jumper needs to accelerate quickly, reaching maximal speed at the take-off
board
- Football, softball, baseball and cricket players all need to accelerate quickly to cover
short-distances in beating the ball or opponent
- The ability to accelerate depends largely on the speed of muscle contractions, but
in conjunction with certain biomechanical techniques, such as body leaning forward,
can slightly improve acceleration and overall performance
Momentum
- Momentum (biomechanics) refers to the quantity of motion that a body possesses
o Momentum = mass x velocity (p=mv)
o Linear momentum is a property of a body that is moving:
▪ Equal to mass x velocity
▪ Present in Rugby league/Rugby Union
o Angular momentum is the quantity of angular motion in a body or part of a
body
▪ Discus, gold or diving
▪ The body or, a part of it or an attachment is rotating
- The application of the principle of momentum is most significant in impact or
collision situations E.g. tackling in Rugby league or Rugby Union
- Characteristics of player collisions in sporting events:
o The mass differences of the players
o Elasticity – the soft tissue of the body (muscles, tendons and ligaments)
absorbs much of the impact and acts as a cushion
o Evasive skills of players – avoiding ‘head on’ collisions. In some cases, there
may be some entanglement just prior to the collision, such as a palm off or
fend, which lessens the force of impact
- Angular momentum is affected by:
o Angular velocity
▪ E.g. the distance we can hit a golf ball is determined by the
speed at which we can move the golf club
o The mass of the object – the greater the mass, the more effort required to
increase angular velocity.
▪ E.g. a heavier discus requires more effort to throw
o The location of the mass in respect to the axis of rotation – with most sport
equipment, the centre of mass is located at a point where the player is able
to have control and impart considerable speed
▪ E.g. the centre of mass is well down the shaft on baseball
bats and golf clubs, allowing the player to deliver force by
combining the mass of the implement at speed in a
controlled manner, thereby maximizing distance