ORIGINAL RESEARCH
Chief human resources officers on top management
teams: an empirical analysis of contingency,
institutional, and homophily antecedents
Magdalena Abt1 • Dodo zu Knyphausen-Aufseß1
Received: 5 June 2015 / Accepted: 13 September 2016 / Published online: 21 September 2016
� The Author(s) 2016. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com
Abstract Having the director of human resources (HR) as a member of the top
management team (TMT) and giving him/her the title of chief human resources
officer (CHRO) indicates an important strategic and symbolic choice. Such deci-
sions not only determine who participates in controlling an organization and setting
its strategic direction, but also reflect the organizational structure. In this paper, we
examine the antecedents of CHRO presence according to the contingency, institu-
tional, and homophily theories. Based on a multi-industry sample of 215 firms that
considers a 10-year period, we find that the presence of a CHRO is influenced by the
rates of unionization, rapid declines or increases in numbers of employees, the
employment of a new or outsider chief executive officer (CEO), and the institu-
tionalization of the CHRO position in the industry or firm. However, we find no
evidence of the presumed influence of knowledge intensity or the CEO or TMT
human resource management (HRM) experience. Overall, we find that the institu-
tional theory has the highest explanatory power regarding the existence of CHRO
positions.
Keywords Chief human resources officer � Top management team �
Contingency theory � Institutional theory � Homophily theory � Upper
echelon theory
& Dodo zu Knyphausen-Aufseß
[email protected]
Magdalena Abt
[email protected]
1 Technische Universität Berlin, Faculty VII, H92, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin,
Germany
123
Business Research (2017) 10:49–77
DOI 10.1007/s40685-016-0039-2
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s40685-016-0039-2&domain=pdf
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s40685-016-0039-2&domain=pdf
1 Introduction
Since Hambrick and Mason’s (1984) groundbreaking article, the study of top
management teams (TMTs) has developed into a prominent area of management
research (Carpenter et al. 2004). Within this area, a growing body of research now
examines the presence of diverse TMT members, who are the top executive officers
responsible for certain functional domains and report directly to the chief executive
officer (CEO) (Hambrick and Cannella 2004; Menz 2012; Menz and Scheef 2014;
Nath and Mahajan 2008; Preston et al. 2008; Strand 2013). A key premise of these
studies is that the TMT structure, and the presence or absence of certain TMT
positions, opens a ‘‘window into organizations’’ (Beckmann and Burton 2011,
p. 52). Analyzing the functional roles of executive officers provides insight into
organizational processes and structures (Beckmann and Burton 2011), signals .
Week 3 Journal Article Analysis AssignmentSelect an article from a.docxnealralix138661
Week 3 Journal Article Analysis Assignment
Select an article from a current journal pertaining to IHRM topics. The article mus
Assignment details.
Using the Article Analysis Guide from the "Green" folder for this week, read and review the article. Provide an analysis in logical order that discusses the content of the article and whether or not it is in agreement with the text, and your personal experience. Support your logic with citations and references at the end of the analysis. MS Word format required. Your name must be part of the filename.
Use the APA Paper guides in the resources section on the menu bar to guide your formatting.
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THE ROLE OF HUMAN CAPITAL MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIZATIONAL COMPETITIVENESS
Lin, Chuan
;
Wang, Christina Yu-Ping
;
Wang, Chen-Yu
Author Information
;
Jaw, Bih-Shiaw
.
Social Behavior and Personality
; Palmerston North
45.1
(2017): 81-92.
Full text
Full text - PDF
Abstract/Details
References
33
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Abstract
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Abstract
Drawing upon
human
capital theory, we empirically tested the relationships among
human
capital
management
, employees' value and uniqueness, and organizational competitiveness. To do this, we adopted a quantitative approach via multiple regression analysis with 183 participants from Taiwan and Mainland China. Results showed that
human
capital development and deployment were positively associated with both value and uniqueness of employees in Taiwan and also in Mainland China. This indicated that development and deployment practices, such as training and job design, were conducive to increasing employees' value and uniqueness. In addition, the positive relationship between
human
capital and employees' value that was observed in a Mainland Chinese context was not observed in Taiwan, which indicates that contextual differences affected methods of attracting talented employees. We found it surprising that in neither Taiwan nor Mainland China were organizations capable of retaining unique employees. Practical and theoretical implications of our findings are discussed.
Full Text
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Headnote
Drawing upon
human
capital theory, we empirically tested the relationships among
human
capital
management
, employees' value and uniqueness, and organizational competitiveness. To do this, we adopted a quantitative approach via multiple regression analysis with 183 participants from Taiwan and Mainland China. Results showed that
human
capital development and deployment were positively associated with both value and uniqueness of employees in Taiwan and also in Mainland China. This indicated that development and deployment practices, such as training and job design, were conducive to increasing employees' value and uniqueness. In addition, the positive relationship b.
MGMT665, MBA CapstoneLive Chat #3 Focus on Organizatio.docxLaticiaGrissomzz
MGMT665, MBA Capstone
Live Chat #3: Focus on Organizational Behavior & HRM
Dr. Joe Cappa
CTU Library— Quick Review General TourIBISWorld
CTU Library DatabasesIBISWorld
General Management ResponsibilitiesPlanning
Organizing
Leading
ControllingManages, controls, evaluates resources (people, capital, raw materials) current and future.Organizes and manages projects.
Leads teams.
Motivates, evaluates, & coaches teams; maintains oversight of processes; assesses progress toward goals.
Planning Tools
Diagrams for Visualizing Data
Affinity
Tree
More Complex Visualizations
Interrelationship Diagram
Matrix Diagrams
https://asq.org/quality-resources/matrix-diagram
An
L-shaped matrix relates two groups of items to each other (or one group to itself).
A
T-shaped matrix relates three groups of items: groups B and C are each related to A; groups B and C are not related to each other.
A
Y-shaped matrix relates three groups of items: each group is related to the other two in a circular fashion.
A
C-shaped matrix relates three groups of items all together simultaneously, in 3D.
An
X-shaped matrix relates four groups of items: each group is related to two others in a circular fashion.
A
roof-shaped matrix relates one group of items to itself; it is usually used along with an L- or T-shaped matrix.
Prioritization Matrix
https://www.process.st/prioritization-matrix/
Model
Example
Process Design Program Chart (PDPC)
https://www.benchmarksixsigma.com/
Model
Example
2nd PDPC Example
https://asq.org/quality-resources/process-decision-program-chart
Network Diagram Example
https://miro.com/blog/network-diagram/
Organizing ToolsOperations ManagementSix Sigma or DMAICOrder processing, warehouse management, & demand forecastingProject ManagementPert & Gantt chartsCalendarsEstablished goalsBudgetingSpreadsheets
Team Leadership ToolsEmployee Personalities (examples below):PeacemakerOrganizerRevolutionarySteamrollerCommunications Clear messagesMatch assignments to typeFeedbackTeam-building modelsAssessmentReasonable expectations/goalsFair evaluationGiving credit/rewardsCoachingDevelopmentProfessional developmentGoal-settingPromotions
Controlling ToolsAccounting & Finance PoliciesOperational Management Control System TechniquesActivity-based costingBalanced scorecardBenchmarkingCapital budgetingJust-in-TimeKaizen (continuous improvement)TQMProject management processesHR PoliciesProcedures
Subject Review: People, people, people
Management
Components of Management RoleManagemen.
Week 3 Journal Article Analysis AssignmentSelect an article from a.docxnealralix138661
Week 3 Journal Article Analysis Assignment
Select an article from a current journal pertaining to IHRM topics. The article mus
Assignment details.
Using the Article Analysis Guide from the "Green" folder for this week, read and review the article. Provide an analysis in logical order that discusses the content of the article and whether or not it is in agreement with the text, and your personal experience. Support your logic with citations and references at the end of the analysis. MS Word format required. Your name must be part of the filename.
Use the APA Paper guides in the resources section on the menu bar to guide your formatting.
The article is below
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ProQuest
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PDF
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More like this
THE ROLE OF HUMAN CAPITAL MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIZATIONAL COMPETITIVENESS
Lin, Chuan
;
Wang, Christina Yu-Ping
;
Wang, Chen-Yu
Author Information
;
Jaw, Bih-Shiaw
.
Social Behavior and Personality
; Palmerston North
45.1
(2017): 81-92.
Full text
Full text - PDF
Abstract/Details
References
33
Hide highlighting
Abstract
Translate
Abstract
Drawing upon
human
capital theory, we empirically tested the relationships among
human
capital
management
, employees' value and uniqueness, and organizational competitiveness. To do this, we adopted a quantitative approach via multiple regression analysis with 183 participants from Taiwan and Mainland China. Results showed that
human
capital development and deployment were positively associated with both value and uniqueness of employees in Taiwan and also in Mainland China. This indicated that development and deployment practices, such as training and job design, were conducive to increasing employees' value and uniqueness. In addition, the positive relationship between
human
capital and employees' value that was observed in a Mainland Chinese context was not observed in Taiwan, which indicates that contextual differences affected methods of attracting talented employees. We found it surprising that in neither Taiwan nor Mainland China were organizations capable of retaining unique employees. Practical and theoretical implications of our findings are discussed.
Full Text
Translate
Full text
Turn on search term navigation
Headnote
Drawing upon
human
capital theory, we empirically tested the relationships among
human
capital
management
, employees' value and uniqueness, and organizational competitiveness. To do this, we adopted a quantitative approach via multiple regression analysis with 183 participants from Taiwan and Mainland China. Results showed that
human
capital development and deployment were positively associated with both value and uniqueness of employees in Taiwan and also in Mainland China. This indicated that development and deployment practices, such as training and job design, were conducive to increasing employees' value and uniqueness. In addition, the positive relationship b.
MGMT665, MBA CapstoneLive Chat #3 Focus on Organizatio.docxLaticiaGrissomzz
MGMT665, MBA Capstone
Live Chat #3: Focus on Organizational Behavior & HRM
Dr. Joe Cappa
CTU Library— Quick Review General TourIBISWorld
CTU Library DatabasesIBISWorld
General Management ResponsibilitiesPlanning
Organizing
Leading
ControllingManages, controls, evaluates resources (people, capital, raw materials) current and future.Organizes and manages projects.
Leads teams.
Motivates, evaluates, & coaches teams; maintains oversight of processes; assesses progress toward goals.
Planning Tools
Diagrams for Visualizing Data
Affinity
Tree
More Complex Visualizations
Interrelationship Diagram
Matrix Diagrams
https://asq.org/quality-resources/matrix-diagram
An
L-shaped matrix relates two groups of items to each other (or one group to itself).
A
T-shaped matrix relates three groups of items: groups B and C are each related to A; groups B and C are not related to each other.
A
Y-shaped matrix relates three groups of items: each group is related to the other two in a circular fashion.
A
C-shaped matrix relates three groups of items all together simultaneously, in 3D.
An
X-shaped matrix relates four groups of items: each group is related to two others in a circular fashion.
A
roof-shaped matrix relates one group of items to itself; it is usually used along with an L- or T-shaped matrix.
Prioritization Matrix
https://www.process.st/prioritization-matrix/
Model
Example
Process Design Program Chart (PDPC)
https://www.benchmarksixsigma.com/
Model
Example
2nd PDPC Example
https://asq.org/quality-resources/process-decision-program-chart
Network Diagram Example
https://miro.com/blog/network-diagram/
Organizing ToolsOperations ManagementSix Sigma or DMAICOrder processing, warehouse management, & demand forecastingProject ManagementPert & Gantt chartsCalendarsEstablished goalsBudgetingSpreadsheets
Team Leadership ToolsEmployee Personalities (examples below):PeacemakerOrganizerRevolutionarySteamrollerCommunications Clear messagesMatch assignments to typeFeedbackTeam-building modelsAssessmentReasonable expectations/goalsFair evaluationGiving credit/rewardsCoachingDevelopmentProfessional developmentGoal-settingPromotions
Controlling ToolsAccounting & Finance PoliciesOperational Management Control System TechniquesActivity-based costingBalanced scorecardBenchmarkingCapital budgetingJust-in-TimeKaizen (continuous improvement)TQMProject management processesHR PoliciesProcedures
Subject Review: People, people, people
Management
Components of Management RoleManagemen.
Best perspectives to human resource management by Arrey Mbongaya Ivoivo arrey
Publication
Best perspectives to human resource management
Author: Ivo Arrey Mbongaya
African Centre for Community and Development
P.O. Box 181 Limbe Cameroon
Content
1.0 Introduction, Perspectives in Management and the genesis of Human Resource Management
1.1 Scientific or Closed management, Human Relations or Semi open system, Open System or Contingency system
1.2 Personnel management/ Personnel Manager
1.3 The genesis of Human Resource Management(HRM)/Defining Human Resource Management
1.4 What is ‘Hard’ and ‘Soft’ HRM?
1.5 The Debate between Human Relations(HR) and Human Resource Management(HRM)
1.6 The Human Resource Manager and his role
2.0 Attempting a framework for Human Resource Management(HRM)
2.1 Using HRM as a style, a strategy and an outcome
2.2 Is HRM a restatement of Personnel Management?
2.3 Is HRM a new managerial discipline?
2.4 HRM as a resource-based dimension of management
2.5 The Strategic and international possibilities of HRM
3.0Using some models of HRM to critically assess HRM “Hard” and “Soft” Approaches.
3.1The Harvard Model
3.2The Michigan Model
3.3Guest comparative models
3.4The ‘Choice Model’ and its benefits.
4.0The influence of senior management and their Effectiveness
4.1 policy makers
4.2 senior managers and their frames of reference
4.3 The more effective the better the policies
4.4 The Japanese example
5.0 Conclusion, limitations and proposals
5.1HRM a widespread contemporary, evolving & contingent tool
5.2The ‘softness’ of HRM, “bundles” and performance
5.3 Holistic thinking, right and egalitarian based HRM
Whatever happened to humanresource managementperformance.docxphilipnelson29183
Whatever happened to human
resource management
performance?
Peter Prowse and Julie Prowse
University of Bradford, Bradford, UK
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to critically explore the evidence that human resource
management (HRM) could contribute to the improvement of organizational and individual
performance. It aims to examine the historical development of HRM and its emergence as a distinct
management discipline. The evidence indicates that HRM is the product of several different traditions
that range from a concern with employee welfare to the development of workplace relationships. The
paper critically re-evaluates what human performance is and assesses its contribution to
organizational effectiveness. What is particularly important is the lack of empirical literature on the
contribution of HRM and business performance. This paper will call for the re-evaluation of more
contemporary criteria of how people contribute to organizational performance in private, public and
the emerging non-profit making sectors.
Design/methodology/approach – The methodology adopted in this research uses critical
literature on the contribution of human resource management performance.
Findings – The main finding of this research is the understanding of the problems of research design
in measuring the contribution of HRM to develop performance in organizations.
Research limitations/implications – The research presented in this paper needs to review and
standardize comparative research design to confirm the performance of HRM in organizations. It
compares the alternative perspectives of measuring performance in financial criteria.
Originality/value – This paper reviews the research between key authors for exploring the
correlation between HRM and organizational performance for future research and examines the
influence of human resource professional bodies.
Keywords Human resource management, Performance measurement (quality), Critical success factors
Paper type Literature review
Introduction
This chapter evaluates the contribution of human resource management (HRM) to
improving organisational performance. What is evident from the literature is the
linkages between human resource management and organizational performance. One
of the key issues that needs to be examined is exactly what type of performance and
the contribution of HR techniques to increase performance.
Initially, the chapter evaluates the historical development of performance
management from the HRM literature before evaluating the debates on efficiency
and performance. It then outlines the development of HRM techniques designed to
evaluate the outcomes of HRM to improve organizational and individual performance,
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/1741-0401.htm
The authors would like to thank the Editor and anonymous referees for their helpful comments
and suggestions.
Human resource
management
performance
.
Running Head STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT APPROACHES1ST.docxtoltonkendal
Running Head: STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT APPROACHES 1
STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT APPROACHES 6
Strategic Human Resource Management Approaches to Organizational
Performance among a Multigenerational Workforce
Literature Review
STUDENT AUTHOR #26
OLM 550: Strategic Human Resource Management
Peirce College
Dr. Cathy M. Littlefield
October 10, 2016
ABSTRACT:
This review examines the impact of strategic human resource approaches to organizational performance among a multigenerational workforce. Over the last three decades, there has been extensive research in the field of strategic human resource management. This study discusses the origin of the field, a number of SHRM concepts and models and practices applied. The important role of integration SHRM in the strategic planning of the organization is emphasized as well as the practices applied to a multigenerational workforce. We will also not the inconsistencies in theory and practice.
Introduction
The purpose of this literature review is to explore the impact of strategic human resource management on organizational performance among a multigenerational workforce. The research contributed to explaining the various models of strategic human resource approaches to organizational effectiveness, recruiting and retaining a multigenerational workforce, identifying the similarities and gaps in the research, and the need for further study.
A Review of the Professional and Academic Literature
Searches for peer-reviewed academic journal articles and dissertations and other research documents began with the EBSCOhost and Google Scholar search engines. Academic textbooks were also utilized. The literature review has five main categories: a) origin and definition of strategic human resource management (SHRM), b) SHRM concepts and models, c) SHRM role in strategic planning, d) SHRM applied to a multigenerational workforce, e) the benefits of SHRM for organizational performance.
The Origin of Strategic Human Resource Management
Many researchers have determined the early 1980s as the birth period of the strategic human resource field. During the 1980s, the focus was on establishing the importance of humans as assets to organizations. Further research shifted in the 1990s and focused on the importance of recognizing that people need to be aligned with the organizational goals. Interest in the field has continued to soar since its birth. Kauffman goes further to identify the year of 1984 as the exact year of the birth of the SHRM field (Rees & Smith, 2014; Wright, 1998; Kauffman, B, 2015).
Researchers have defined SHRM as “the pattern of planned HR deployments and activities intended to enable a firm or an organization to achieve its goals” (Wright, 1998; Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart, Wright, 2000). There is no widely accepted definition; however, a broader view of SHRM can link the HR practice and strategy to the overall organizational strategy (Rees & Sm ...
HR Function in Project-Oriented Organizations and the Problem .docxwellesleyterresa
HR Function in Project-Oriented Organizations and the Problem of
its Internal Consistency
Katarzyna Piwowar-Sulej
Wroclaw University of Economics, Wroclaw, Poland
[email protected]
Abstract: Nowadays, repetitive or routine activities are slowly giving way to unique and complicated activities – i.e.
projects. Many enterprises implement the so-called management by projects (MBP). The enterprises following such an
approach are referred to as project-oriented organizations (PORORs). A project and an organization cannot exist without
appropriate human capital. This capital is developed in the process of HR function fulfillment (R&S, training, HR appraisal,
remuneration and HR flow). In every enterprise, which implements MBP, HR function takes a two-way course: in an
organization-wide perspective (general HR function) and within the framework of a particular project (HR function in
projects). The objective of the article is to answer the following research questions: Q1: Should the same operational
schemes in both “courses” of HR function be used from the perspective of an effective functioning of project-oriented
organizations? Q2: What kind of gaps occur in the area of HR function internal consistency within the analyzed
organizations? The article presents the results of empirical studies carried out in 2014 and 2015 in 100 project-oriented
organizations. The methodology for measuring HR function’s internal consistency was proposed. Data triangulation was
applied in the research process. The conducted studies indicate that the multidimensional consistency of the personnel
function results in an increased efficiency of not only projects, but also the entire organization. The surveyed organizations
present higher general HR function consistency than the HR function in projects. Moreover, some gaps in consistency
between both personnel function courses were indicated. The presented results of empirical studies provide knowledge
about the specificity of project-oriented organizations. The presented discussion can also become the foundation for
developing further research.
Keywords: HRM, HR function, project-oriented organization, management challenges, management by projects
1. Introduction
A thesis can be put forward that since the 90s of the 20
th
century the interest in the way people function
within organizational structures has been increasing continuously. Therefore, managing people (human
resources management, HRM) can be considered as the key management area. Such management is identified
with personnel function (HR function), which covers tasks related to attracting workers, adequate
development of their capital and taking advantage of it in the course of any organization functioning. Currently
this function is focused on achieving organizational goals along with meeting its employees’ needs. Its
development remains within the responsibility of human resources department as a strategic partner.
The i ...
Professional Memo 1 IFSM 201 Professional Memo .docxLacieKlineeb
Professional Memo 1
IFSM 201 Professional Memo
Before you begin this assignment, be sure you have read the Small Merchant Guide to Safe
Payments documentation from the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standards (PCI DSS)
organization. PCI Data Security Standards are established to protect payment account data
throughout the payment lifecycle, and to protect individuals and entities from the criminals who
attempt to steal sensitive data. The PCI Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) applies to all entities
that store, process, and/or transmit cardholder data, including merchants, service providers, and
financial institutions.
Purpose of this Assignment
You work as an Information Technology Consultant for the Greater Washington Risk Associates
(GWRA) and have been asked to write a professional memo to one of your clients as a follow-up
to their recent risk assessment (RA). GWRA specializes in enterprise risk management for state
agencies and municipalities. The county of Anne Arundel, Maryland (the client) hired GWRA to
conduct a risk assessment of Odenton, Maryland (a community within the Anne Arundel
County), with a focus on business operations within the municipality.
This assignment specifically addresses the following course outcome to enable you to:
• Identify ethical, security, and privacy considerations in conducting data and information
analysis and selecting and using information technology.
Assignment
Your supervisor has asked that the memo focus on Odenton’s information systems, and
specifically, securing the processes for payments of services. Currently, the Odenton Township
offices accept cash or credit card payment for the services of sanitation (sewer and refuse),
water, and property taxes. Residents can pay either in-person at township offices or over the
phone with a major credit card (American Express, Discover, MasterCard and Visa). Over the
phone payment involves with speaking to an employee and giving the credit card information.
Once payment is received, the Accounting Department is responsible for manually entering it
into the township database system and making daily deposits to the bank.
The purpose of the professional memo is to identify a minimum of three current controls
(e.g., tools, practices, policies) in Odenton Township (either a control specific to Odenton
Township or a control provided by Anne Arundel county) that can be considered best
practices in safe payment/data protection. Furthermore, beyond what measures are
currently in place, you should highlight the need to focus on insider threats and provide a
minimum of three additional recommendations. Below are the findings from the Risk
Assessment:
• The IT department for Anne Arundel County requires strong passwords for users to
access and use information systems.
https://www.pcisecuritystandards.org/pdfs/Small_Merchant_Guide_to_Safe_Payments.pdf
https://www.pcisec.
Principals in EpidemiologyHomework #2Please complete the fol.docxLacieKlineeb
Principals in Epidemiology
Homework #2
Please complete the following:
1. Utilizing the following list of communicable/infectious/exposure related conditions/diseases:
a. STI (Gonorrhea)
b. Hepatitis C
c. HIV (adult)
d. Tuberculosis
Please provide a description of the reporting requirements in
Virginia
and include all of the following elements for
each
of the above diseases (a-d).
Please include the name of the State, in the textbox above, in which you are providing information from and include all reference website URLs that the reporting information was obtained from for each disease below.
· Case definition: include suspect, probable, and/or confirmed, if appropriate
· Reporting criteria: time frame, method (e.g. by phone, Fax form, electronic), and required agency to report to (e.g. local HD, State HD, or CDC)
· Major elements of the information required to be reported (list categories or important information). If there is a
reporting form
availab1le, please attach a copy (
not all diseases have a manual reporting form or some forms are used for multiple diseases, only need to attach one copy and note which diseases utilize the same attached form
). If there is any standard follow-up patient/client information needed after reporting, please provide a description of this. If there is none, state this.
a. STI (Gonorrhea) –
b. Hepatitis C –
c. HIV (adult) –
d. Tuberculosis –
.
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Best perspectives to human resource management
Author: Ivo Arrey Mbongaya
African Centre for Community and Development
P.O. Box 181 Limbe Cameroon
Content
1.0 Introduction, Perspectives in Management and the genesis of Human Resource Management
1.1 Scientific or Closed management, Human Relations or Semi open system, Open System or Contingency system
1.2 Personnel management/ Personnel Manager
1.3 The genesis of Human Resource Management(HRM)/Defining Human Resource Management
1.4 What is ‘Hard’ and ‘Soft’ HRM?
1.5 The Debate between Human Relations(HR) and Human Resource Management(HRM)
1.6 The Human Resource Manager and his role
2.0 Attempting a framework for Human Resource Management(HRM)
2.1 Using HRM as a style, a strategy and an outcome
2.2 Is HRM a restatement of Personnel Management?
2.3 Is HRM a new managerial discipline?
2.4 HRM as a resource-based dimension of management
2.5 The Strategic and international possibilities of HRM
3.0Using some models of HRM to critically assess HRM “Hard” and “Soft” Approaches.
3.1The Harvard Model
3.2The Michigan Model
3.3Guest comparative models
3.4The ‘Choice Model’ and its benefits.
4.0The influence of senior management and their Effectiveness
4.1 policy makers
4.2 senior managers and their frames of reference
4.3 The more effective the better the policies
4.4 The Japanese example
5.0 Conclusion, limitations and proposals
5.1HRM a widespread contemporary, evolving & contingent tool
5.2The ‘softness’ of HRM, “bundles” and performance
5.3 Holistic thinking, right and egalitarian based HRM
Whatever happened to humanresource managementperformance.docxphilipnelson29183
Whatever happened to human
resource management
performance?
Peter Prowse and Julie Prowse
University of Bradford, Bradford, UK
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to critically explore the evidence that human resource
management (HRM) could contribute to the improvement of organizational and individual
performance. It aims to examine the historical development of HRM and its emergence as a distinct
management discipline. The evidence indicates that HRM is the product of several different traditions
that range from a concern with employee welfare to the development of workplace relationships. The
paper critically re-evaluates what human performance is and assesses its contribution to
organizational effectiveness. What is particularly important is the lack of empirical literature on the
contribution of HRM and business performance. This paper will call for the re-evaluation of more
contemporary criteria of how people contribute to organizational performance in private, public and
the emerging non-profit making sectors.
Design/methodology/approach – The methodology adopted in this research uses critical
literature on the contribution of human resource management performance.
Findings – The main finding of this research is the understanding of the problems of research design
in measuring the contribution of HRM to develop performance in organizations.
Research limitations/implications – The research presented in this paper needs to review and
standardize comparative research design to confirm the performance of HRM in organizations. It
compares the alternative perspectives of measuring performance in financial criteria.
Originality/value – This paper reviews the research between key authors for exploring the
correlation between HRM and organizational performance for future research and examines the
influence of human resource professional bodies.
Keywords Human resource management, Performance measurement (quality), Critical success factors
Paper type Literature review
Introduction
This chapter evaluates the contribution of human resource management (HRM) to
improving organisational performance. What is evident from the literature is the
linkages between human resource management and organizational performance. One
of the key issues that needs to be examined is exactly what type of performance and
the contribution of HR techniques to increase performance.
Initially, the chapter evaluates the historical development of performance
management from the HRM literature before evaluating the debates on efficiency
and performance. It then outlines the development of HRM techniques designed to
evaluate the outcomes of HRM to improve organizational and individual performance,
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/1741-0401.htm
The authors would like to thank the Editor and anonymous referees for their helpful comments
and suggestions.
Human resource
management
performance
.
Running Head STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT APPROACHES1ST.docxtoltonkendal
Running Head: STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT APPROACHES 1
STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT APPROACHES 6
Strategic Human Resource Management Approaches to Organizational
Performance among a Multigenerational Workforce
Literature Review
STUDENT AUTHOR #26
OLM 550: Strategic Human Resource Management
Peirce College
Dr. Cathy M. Littlefield
October 10, 2016
ABSTRACT:
This review examines the impact of strategic human resource approaches to organizational performance among a multigenerational workforce. Over the last three decades, there has been extensive research in the field of strategic human resource management. This study discusses the origin of the field, a number of SHRM concepts and models and practices applied. The important role of integration SHRM in the strategic planning of the organization is emphasized as well as the practices applied to a multigenerational workforce. We will also not the inconsistencies in theory and practice.
Introduction
The purpose of this literature review is to explore the impact of strategic human resource management on organizational performance among a multigenerational workforce. The research contributed to explaining the various models of strategic human resource approaches to organizational effectiveness, recruiting and retaining a multigenerational workforce, identifying the similarities and gaps in the research, and the need for further study.
A Review of the Professional and Academic Literature
Searches for peer-reviewed academic journal articles and dissertations and other research documents began with the EBSCOhost and Google Scholar search engines. Academic textbooks were also utilized. The literature review has five main categories: a) origin and definition of strategic human resource management (SHRM), b) SHRM concepts and models, c) SHRM role in strategic planning, d) SHRM applied to a multigenerational workforce, e) the benefits of SHRM for organizational performance.
The Origin of Strategic Human Resource Management
Many researchers have determined the early 1980s as the birth period of the strategic human resource field. During the 1980s, the focus was on establishing the importance of humans as assets to organizations. Further research shifted in the 1990s and focused on the importance of recognizing that people need to be aligned with the organizational goals. Interest in the field has continued to soar since its birth. Kauffman goes further to identify the year of 1984 as the exact year of the birth of the SHRM field (Rees & Smith, 2014; Wright, 1998; Kauffman, B, 2015).
Researchers have defined SHRM as “the pattern of planned HR deployments and activities intended to enable a firm or an organization to achieve its goals” (Wright, 1998; Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart, Wright, 2000). There is no widely accepted definition; however, a broader view of SHRM can link the HR practice and strategy to the overall organizational strategy (Rees & Sm ...
HR Function in Project-Oriented Organizations and the Problem .docxwellesleyterresa
HR Function in Project-Oriented Organizations and the Problem of
its Internal Consistency
Katarzyna Piwowar-Sulej
Wroclaw University of Economics, Wroclaw, Poland
[email protected]
Abstract: Nowadays, repetitive or routine activities are slowly giving way to unique and complicated activities – i.e.
projects. Many enterprises implement the so-called management by projects (MBP). The enterprises following such an
approach are referred to as project-oriented organizations (PORORs). A project and an organization cannot exist without
appropriate human capital. This capital is developed in the process of HR function fulfillment (R&S, training, HR appraisal,
remuneration and HR flow). In every enterprise, which implements MBP, HR function takes a two-way course: in an
organization-wide perspective (general HR function) and within the framework of a particular project (HR function in
projects). The objective of the article is to answer the following research questions: Q1: Should the same operational
schemes in both “courses” of HR function be used from the perspective of an effective functioning of project-oriented
organizations? Q2: What kind of gaps occur in the area of HR function internal consistency within the analyzed
organizations? The article presents the results of empirical studies carried out in 2014 and 2015 in 100 project-oriented
organizations. The methodology for measuring HR function’s internal consistency was proposed. Data triangulation was
applied in the research process. The conducted studies indicate that the multidimensional consistency of the personnel
function results in an increased efficiency of not only projects, but also the entire organization. The surveyed organizations
present higher general HR function consistency than the HR function in projects. Moreover, some gaps in consistency
between both personnel function courses were indicated. The presented results of empirical studies provide knowledge
about the specificity of project-oriented organizations. The presented discussion can also become the foundation for
developing further research.
Keywords: HRM, HR function, project-oriented organization, management challenges, management by projects
1. Introduction
A thesis can be put forward that since the 90s of the 20
th
century the interest in the way people function
within organizational structures has been increasing continuously. Therefore, managing people (human
resources management, HRM) can be considered as the key management area. Such management is identified
with personnel function (HR function), which covers tasks related to attracting workers, adequate
development of their capital and taking advantage of it in the course of any organization functioning. Currently
this function is focused on achieving organizational goals along with meeting its employees’ needs. Its
development remains within the responsibility of human resources department as a strategic partner.
The i ...
Professional Memo 1 IFSM 201 Professional Memo .docxLacieKlineeb
Professional Memo 1
IFSM 201 Professional Memo
Before you begin this assignment, be sure you have read the Small Merchant Guide to Safe
Payments documentation from the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standards (PCI DSS)
organization. PCI Data Security Standards are established to protect payment account data
throughout the payment lifecycle, and to protect individuals and entities from the criminals who
attempt to steal sensitive data. The PCI Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) applies to all entities
that store, process, and/or transmit cardholder data, including merchants, service providers, and
financial institutions.
Purpose of this Assignment
You work as an Information Technology Consultant for the Greater Washington Risk Associates
(GWRA) and have been asked to write a professional memo to one of your clients as a follow-up
to their recent risk assessment (RA). GWRA specializes in enterprise risk management for state
agencies and municipalities. The county of Anne Arundel, Maryland (the client) hired GWRA to
conduct a risk assessment of Odenton, Maryland (a community within the Anne Arundel
County), with a focus on business operations within the municipality.
This assignment specifically addresses the following course outcome to enable you to:
• Identify ethical, security, and privacy considerations in conducting data and information
analysis and selecting and using information technology.
Assignment
Your supervisor has asked that the memo focus on Odenton’s information systems, and
specifically, securing the processes for payments of services. Currently, the Odenton Township
offices accept cash or credit card payment for the services of sanitation (sewer and refuse),
water, and property taxes. Residents can pay either in-person at township offices or over the
phone with a major credit card (American Express, Discover, MasterCard and Visa). Over the
phone payment involves with speaking to an employee and giving the credit card information.
Once payment is received, the Accounting Department is responsible for manually entering it
into the township database system and making daily deposits to the bank.
The purpose of the professional memo is to identify a minimum of three current controls
(e.g., tools, practices, policies) in Odenton Township (either a control specific to Odenton
Township or a control provided by Anne Arundel county) that can be considered best
practices in safe payment/data protection. Furthermore, beyond what measures are
currently in place, you should highlight the need to focus on insider threats and provide a
minimum of three additional recommendations. Below are the findings from the Risk
Assessment:
• The IT department for Anne Arundel County requires strong passwords for users to
access and use information systems.
https://www.pcisecuritystandards.org/pdfs/Small_Merchant_Guide_to_Safe_Payments.pdf
https://www.pcisec.
Principals in EpidemiologyHomework #2Please complete the fol.docxLacieKlineeb
Principals in Epidemiology
Homework #2
Please complete the following:
1. Utilizing the following list of communicable/infectious/exposure related conditions/diseases:
a. STI (Gonorrhea)
b. Hepatitis C
c. HIV (adult)
d. Tuberculosis
Please provide a description of the reporting requirements in
Virginia
and include all of the following elements for
each
of the above diseases (a-d).
Please include the name of the State, in the textbox above, in which you are providing information from and include all reference website URLs that the reporting information was obtained from for each disease below.
· Case definition: include suspect, probable, and/or confirmed, if appropriate
· Reporting criteria: time frame, method (e.g. by phone, Fax form, electronic), and required agency to report to (e.g. local HD, State HD, or CDC)
· Major elements of the information required to be reported (list categories or important information). If there is a
reporting form
availab1le, please attach a copy (
not all diseases have a manual reporting form or some forms are used for multiple diseases, only need to attach one copy and note which diseases utilize the same attached form
). If there is any standard follow-up patient/client information needed after reporting, please provide a description of this. If there is none, state this.
a. STI (Gonorrhea) –
b. Hepatitis C –
c. HIV (adult) –
d. Tuberculosis –
.
Prevalence Of Pressure Ulcer Name xxxUnited State Universit.docxLacieKlineeb
Prevalence Of Pressure Ulcer
Name xxx
United State University
Course xxxx
Professor xxxx
The Prevalence of Pressure Ulcer Among The Elderly And Decreased Mobility Patients in The Hospitals And Healthcare Facilities.
Abstract
Hospital-acquired pressure ulcers remain to be amongst the continuous and persistent healthcare issues that are affecting the delivery of quality healthcare services. Pressure ulcers or pressure sores or bedsores refer to the injuries of the skin and the underlying tissues that are mainly caused by the prolonged pressure on the skin. According to the National Health Service, these conditions are common in individuals who are bedridden or are sitting on wheelchairs and chairs for an extended period. The disease occurs on the body parts that are commonly exposed to the pressure for example the spine, hips, elbows, and heels. The issue of pressure ulcers is a major public health concern since it consumes large sums of money to address the problem (Grey et al., 2016). On average, a client is being charged $ 37,800 for extreme cases of pressure ulcers.
This study aims to implement certain method to prevent pressure ulcers among the elderly above 60 years and decreased mobility patients in the hospital and healthcare facilities through the use of Braden scale, applying mepilex foam dressing to bony prominence areas, and repositioning. Patients especially elderly adults are experiencing lengthy hospital stays and this is exposing them to the high risk of pressure ulcers. According to Rondinelli et al (2018), several factors are linked to pressure ulcers. These multi-factorial factors involve hormonal changes, impairment of blood perfusion, inflammation, degenerative changes, and reduction in the effectiveness of immunity. The majority of elderly patients suffer from frailty and other chronic diseases that reduce their ability to engage in daily activities (ADLs) and even experiences limited movements. This increases their level of exposure to hospital-acquired pressure injury (HAPI). This is a health concern that requires the development of effective evidence-based interventions to help in the creation of awareness concerning therapy and preventive approaches such as the application of the Braden Scale to help in detecting the risks of adult patients. It is also important to design approaches that are helpful in the protection of the bony regions using pads and repositioning of the patients after every 2 hours (Lyder & Ayello, 2018).
Many healthcare facilities have attempted to design effective evidence-based interventions but the issue of healthcare-acquired pressure ulcers continued to persist. Despite the increased efforts to implement evidence-based procedures to guide the nurses in reducing the pressure ulcers issue within the acute care facilities, the number of reported cases of pressure ulcers continues to be a major issue (Grey et al., 2016). The majority of healthcare facilities are fa.
Professional Disposition and Ethics - Introduction kthometz post.docxLacieKlineeb
Professional Disposition and Ethics - Introduction
kthometz posted on 09-27-2022 11:26 AM 10-25-2022 06:18 PM
WGU’s mission is to “change lives for the better by creating pathways to opportunity.” Teachers College Way is to “change lives for the better by catalyzing Next-Gen teaching, learning, and leading across the education spectrum.
Next-Gen Candidates
A Next-Gen candidate is transformative in teaching, learning, and leading across the education spectrum. Teachers College strives to foster organizational systems and culture that allow candidates, faculty, and staff to do their life’s best work. Next-generation education begins with the core belief that the art and science of teaching, learning, and leading in education must continually evolve, becoming better and better with each subsequent generation. Catalyzing Next-Gen teaching, learning, and leading requires experience in a transformative educational environment.
Healthy Learning
Teachers College endeavors to offer a healthy learning environment that supports the professional growth and development of each Next-Gen candidate and expands the professional opportunities for each Next-Gen graduate. The development of Professional Dispositions and Ethics for Next-Gen candidates strengthens the educational experience and conveys the Teachers College’s commitment to impactful teaching, learning, and leading to the greater professional community.
A vital aspect of transforming Professional Dispositions and Ethics is the integration of restorative practices. Next-Gen candidates are empowered to use effective, evidence-based best practices to create healthy learning environments where all learners rise and thrive. Teachers College provides candidates with a safe educational environment - a place where candidates can develop and strengthen their academic, physical, psychological, ethical, and social understandings (learn more about
Healthy Learning). Our Professional Dispositions and Ethics at WGU is supported by the five primary critical healthy-learning focus areas that are key drivers of learner academic, professional, and personal success. These five pillars, while being powerful concepts individually, gain collective strength and create a thriving, healthy learning environment, where all individuals are equipped to fully embody and practice Teachers College Professional Disposition and Ethics.
The five pillars of Healthy Learning are:
1. Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DE&I)
2. Social-Emotional Learning (SEL)
3. Character Education
4. Mental Health
5. Basic Needs
Figure 1
Figure 1:This graphic represents the research, reflection, policy & practice impact the five pillars of Healthy Learning. This figure shows that the five pillars of Healthy Learning are interconnected.
Diversity, equity, and inclusion (DE&I) impact all spaces within education. It is vital to address ongoing challenges of the inequalities of access and attainment am.
Problem 7PurposeBreak apart a complicated system.ConstantsC7C13.docxLacieKlineeb
Problem 7Purpose:Break apart a complicated system.Constants:C7:C13Gas-Sparge
System
Pmo794(DI/DT)^4.38DI0.36(DI2N/v)^0.115DT1.22(DIN2/g)^1.96(DI/Dt)N2.8(Q/NDI3)v8.90E-07Right Sideg9.81PM←ANSWERSQ0.00416Computed Pm917The difference between the Computed Pm and Calculated Pm
Problem 8Purpose:Calculate Wind ChillConstants:ParametersWind Speed (km/h)a13.12Air Temp oC1020304050b0.621510c-11.370d0.3965-10-20←ANSWERS-30-40QuestionsThe formula to be used in E5 such that it can be filled down and across to make the table is: ….The name for cell B6 is …To modify this worksheet for Fahrenheit you need to …..
Problem 13Purpose:Calculate square roots using Heron's MethodConstants:N225Sqrt is←ANSWERSGuessN/GuessAverageTestError10
2
Project Topic Proposal
Harita Patel
Professor Dr. Bernard Parenteau
CIS 4498
Date: 11/1/22
Project Topic Proposal
The proposed topic is cyber security. My proposal in this software development project of this class is to develop cyber security software to be a tool that protects systems against malicious attacks and online threats. The software should b able to detect and block threats that can not be detected by antivirus. The technology to be used will be defensive Artificial intelligence. Cybersecurity professional experts can utilize guarded man-made consciousness (simulated intelligence) to distinguish or stop cyberattacks. Sagacious cybercriminals use innovations like hostile computer-based intelligence and ill-disposed AI since they are harder for conventional network protection instruments to identify. Offensive AI incorporates profound fakes, bogus pictures, personas, and recordings that convincingly portray individuals or things that never occurred or don't exist. Noxious entertainers can utilize ill-disposed AI to fool machines into breaking down by giving them mistaken information. Cybersecurity professionals can utilize cautious computer-based intelligence to recognize and prevent hostile man-made intelligence from estimating, testing, and figuring out how the framework or organization's capabilities. Defensive AI can reinforce calculations, making them more challenging to break. Network protection analysts can direct more extreme weakness tests on AI models.
Artificial intelligence cautious apparatuses can precisely anticipate assault vectors, pinpoint the delicate region of the organization and frameworks, and even set it up groups for approaching occasions(Graham, Olson,& Howard, 2016). The progression of computerized data is developing a regular schedule making it progressively challenging to oversee and structure it or even to isolate what is significantly based on what is pointless. Confronted with this test, new encouraging advancement innovations are being created to bring 'information examination's to the following developmental level. Man-made consciousness (man-made intelligence), specifically, is supposed to become huge in many fields. A few types of computer-based inte.
Procedure1. Research occupation as it relates to Occupati.docxLacieKlineeb
Procedure
:
1. Research occupation as it relates to Occupational Therapy
2. Provide statistics, tests, and measurements for the purpose of delivering evidence-based practice and/or service delivery options as it relates to occupation.
3. Adapt the presentation for the following:
a. Consumers
b. Potential employers
c. Colleagues
d. Third Party Payers
e. Regulatory Boards
f. Policy Makers
4. You will present this information to the class in the form of a power point presentation and each slide should be labeled with for your target audience.
.
Problem 1 (10 Points)Jackson Browne Corporation is authorized to.docxLacieKlineeb
Problem 1 (10 Points)
Jackson Browne Corporation is authorized to issue 1,000,000 shares of $1 par value common stock. During 2021, its first year of operation, the company has the following stock transactions.
Jan. 1 Paid the state $10,000 for incorporation fees.
Jan. 15 Issued 400,000 shares of stock at $5 per share.
July 2 Issued 110,000 shares of stock for land. The land had an asking price of $800,000. The stock is currently selling on a national exchange at $6 per share.
Sept. 5 Purchased 12,000 shares of common stock for the treasury at $7 per share.
Dec. 6 Sold 8,000 shares of the treasury stock at $10 per share.
Instructions
Indicate the accounts and their respective balances that are increased and/or decreased in the above transactions for Jackson Browne Corporation.
You must show your computations to receive full credit.
Problem 2 (12 Points)
The following items were shown on the balance sheet of ELO Corporation on December 31, 2021:
Stockholders’ equity
Paid-in capital
Capital stock
Common stock, $6 par value, 800,000 shares
authorized; ______ shares issued and ______ outstanding $3,000,000
Additional paid-in capital
In excess of par
1,500,000
Total paid-in capital 4,500,000
Retained earnings
1,850,000
Total paid-in capital and retained earnings 6,350,000
Less: Treasury stock (10,000 shares)
50,000
Total stockholders’ equity
$6,300,000
Instructions
Complete the following statements and
show your computations.
(a) The number of shares of common stock issued was _______________.
(b) The number of shares of common stock outstanding was ____________.
(c) The total sales price of the common stock when issued was $____________.
(d) The cost per share of the treasury stock was $_______________.
(e) The average issue price of the common stock was $______________.
(f) Assuming that 25% of the treasury stock is sold at $8 per share, the balance in the Treasury Stock account would be $_______________.
Problem 3 (10 Points)
Journey Company had the following transactions involving notes payable.
October 1, 2021 Borrows $300,000 from Washington State Bank by signing a 6-month, 4% note.
Dec. 31, 2021 prepares the adjusting entry.
April 1, 2022 Pays principal and interest to Washington State Bank.
Instructions
Indicate the accounts and their respective balances that are increased and/or decreased for each of the above transactions.
You must show all your calculations to receive full credit.
Problem 4 (18 Points)
Turner Inc. is considering two alternatives to finance its construction of a new $6 million plant.
(a) Issuance of 600,000 shares of common stock at the market price of $10 per share.
(b) Issuance of $6 million, 4% bonds at par.
Instructions
Complete the following table.
You MUST show your work to receive full credit.
Issue StockIssue Bond.
Primary Task Response Within the Discussion Board area, write 350.docxLacieKlineeb
Primary Task Response:
Within the Discussion Board area, write 350–450 words that respond to the following questions with your thoughts, ideas, and comments. This will be the foundation for future discussions by your classmates. Be substantive and clear, and use examples to reinforce your ideas.
Additional Information:
Eddison Electronic Company (EEC) provides electricity for several states in the United States. You have been employed as a cost accountant at this organization. You have recently hired Susan Thompson, who has experience with financial accounting. Financial accounting includes preparing journal entries that provide a record of the day-to-day activities of the company and preparing financial statements, such as an income statement, a statement of owners’ equity balance sheet, and a cash flow statement. Although Susan has experience with and fully understands financial accounting, she has no experience with managerial accounting.
With your fellow classmates, please discuss what Susan should know about managerial accounting.
Explain the similarities and differences between financial and managerial accounting.
Provide examples of the reports used for financial reporting and how those reports differ from managerial accounting reports.
Determine how managers might use accounting information for planning and controlling purposes.
.
Principles of Scientific Management, Frederick Winslow Taylor .docxLacieKlineeb
Principles of Scientific Management, Frederick Winslow Taylor (1911)
Introduction
PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT, in his address to the Governors at the White House,
prophetically remarked that “The conservation of our national resources is only preliminary to
the larger question of national efficiency.”
The whole country at once recognized the importance of conserving our material
resources and a large movement has been started which will be effective in accomplishing this
object. As yet, however, we have but vaguely appreciated the importance of “the larger question
of increasing our national efficiency.”
We can see our forests vanishing, our water-powers going to waste, our soil being carried
by floods into the sea; and the end of our coal and our iron is in sight. But our larger wastes of
human effort, which go on every day through such of our acts as are blundering, ill-directed; or
inefficient, and which Mr. Roosevelt refers to as a lack of “national efficiency,” are less visible,
less tangible, and are but vaguely appreciated.
We can see and feel the waste of material things. Awkward, inefficient, or ill-directed
movements of men, however, leave nothing visible or tangible behind them. Their appreciation
calls for an act of memory, an effort of the imagination. And for this reason, even though our
daily loss from this source is greater than from our waste of material things, the one has stirred
us deeply, while the other has moved us but little.
As yet there has been no public agitation for “greater national efficiency,” no meetings
have been called to consider how this is to be brought about. And still there are signs that the
need for greater efficiency is widely felt.
The search for better, for more competent men, from the presidents of our great
companies down to our household servants, was never more vigorous than it is now. And more
than ever before is the demand for competent men in excess of the supply.
What we are all looking for, however, is the readymade, competent man; the man whom
some one else has trained. It is only when we fully realize that our duty, as well as our
opportunity, lies in systematically cooperating to train and to make this competent man, instead
of in hunting for a man whom some one else has trained, that we shall be on the road to national
efficiency.
In the past the prevailing idea has been well expressed in the saying that “Captains of
industry are born, not made”; and the theory has been that if one could get the right man,
methods could be safely left to him. In the future it will be appreciated that our leaders must be
trained right as well as born right, and that no great man can (with the old system of personal
management) hope to compete with a number of ordinary men who have been properly
organized so as efficiently to cooperate.
In the past the man has been first; in the future the system must be first. This in no sense,
.
Printed by [email protected] Printing is for personal, privat.docxLacieKlineeb
Printed by: [email protected] Printing is for personal, private use only. No part of this book may be
reproduced or transmitted without publisher's prior permission. Violators will be prosecuted.
Printed by: [email protected] Printing is for personal, private use only. No part of this book may be
reproduced or transmitted without publisher's prior permission. Violators will be prosecuted.
Printed by: [email protected] Printing is for personal, private use only. No part of this book may be
reproduced or transmitted without publisher's prior permission. Violators will be prosecuted.
Printed by: [email protected] Printing is for personal, private use only. No part of this book may be
reproduced or transmitted without publisher's prior permission. Violators will be prosecuted.
Printed by: [email protected] Printing is for personal, private use only. No part of this book may be
reproduced or transmitted without publisher's prior permission. Violators will be prosecuted.
Printed by: [email protected] Printing is for personal, private use only. No part of this book may be
reproduced or transmitted without publisher's prior permission. Violators will be prosecuted.
Printed by: [email protected] Printing is for personal, private use only. No part of this book may be
reproduced or transmitted without publisher's prior permission. Violators will be prosecuted.
Due Date: 11:59 pm EST Sunday of Unit 4
Points: 100
Overview:
In this assignment, you will review Case Study #12: SpaceX. This case describes Elon
Musk’s unique approach to strategy when creating SpaceX. Think about the types of
strategies from chapters 5 and 6 that Elon Musk utilized.
Instructions:
You will need to review the case study in your textbook, then answer the following
questions utilizing topics covered in previous chapters.
• What were Elon Musk’s motives for creating SpaceX? How do these motives
influence the kinds of decisions he made in creating the firm?
• Thinking about Musk’s prior experiences, capabilities, and motives, what do you
think are his strengths and weaknesses in creating SpaceX?
• What did SpaceX do differently from other space companies?
• Discuss whether you believe the incumbent space companies will adopt
elements of SpaceX’s model (be specific about which). Do you think the
incumbents will survive? Do you believe Jeff Bezos’s Blue Origin is a significant
threat?
Requirements:
• Submit a two-three page Word document covering the elements of the
assignment.
• Develop a clear introduction, body, and conclusion. Use paragraph format and
transitions.
• Focus on the quality of writing and content.
• Use APA format with a title page, in-text citations, and references. Abstract is not
required. The title page, reference page, and appendices are excluded in page
length requirement.
• Research and cite at least two credible sources in APA format.
Be sure to read the criteria below.
Primary Care Integration in Rural AreasA Community-Focused .docxLacieKlineeb
Primary Care Integration in Rural Areas:
A Community-Focused Approach
Emily M. Selby-Nelson, PsyD
Cabin Creek Health Systems, Charleston,
West Virginia
Joshua M. Bradley, PsyD
Tri-Area Community Health, Laurel Fork, Virginia
Rebekah A. Schiefer, MSW
Oregon Health & Science University
Alysia Hoover-Thompson, PsyD
Stone Mountain Health Services,
Jonesville, Virginia
Current and developing models of integrated behavioral health service delivery have
proven successful for the general population; however, these approaches may not
sufficiently address the unique needs of individuals living in rural and remote areas. For
all communities to benefit from the opportunities that the current trend toward inte-
gration has provided, it is imperative that cultural and contextual factors be considered
determining features in care delivery. Rural integrated primary care practice requires
specific training, expertise, and adjustments to service delivery and intervention to best
meet the needs of rural and underserved communities. In this commentary, the authors
present trends in integrated behavioral health service delivery in rural integrated
primary care settings. Flexible and creative strategies are proposed to promote in-
creased access to integrated behavioral health services, while simultaneously address-
ing patient care needs that arise as a result of the barriers to treatment that are prevalent
in rural communities.
Keywords: integrated behavioral health, integrated primary care, rural, rural health
The need for integrated health care is well
documented. Nearly 70% of primary care ap-
pointments include issues associated with psy-
chosocial factors (Gatchel & Oordt, 2003).
Many patients would prefer to receive behav-
ioral health services in their primary care pro-
vider’s office, as opposed to a specialty mental
health setting (Lang, 2005). Patients in primary
care offices are also more likely to follow
through with a behavioral health referral when
that service is provided in the same office (Slay
& McCleod, 1997). Overall, integrated behav-
ioral health services have been shown to suc-
cessfully enhance health care services and yield
improvements in medical and behavioral health
conditions (Kwan & Nease, 2013).
Integrated care models may be especially im-
pactful in areas where access to specialty care is
limited, such as rural communities. However, a
discussion of the adjustments warranted when
developing integrated behavioral health ser-
vices in rural practice settings is all but absent in
the literature. Significant treatment needs in ru-
ral areas, combined with poor availability of
referral-based services in rural communities, re-
quire effective integrated primary care (IPC) to
be provided in a flexible, patient-tailored, and
community-focused manner. In this paper, we
aim to outline the special considerations neces-
sary for conducting IPC in rural communities
wherein behavioral health providers (BHPs)
may struggle to balance in.
PrepareStep 1 Prepare a shortened version of your Final Pape.docxLacieKlineeb
Prepare:
Step 1: Prepare a shortened version of your Final Paper (at least four pages) by including the following:
Introduction paragraph and thesis statement you developed for your Week 3 Assignment.
Background information of the global societal issue you have chosen.
Brief argument supporting at least two solutions to the global societal issue.
Conclusion paragraph.
Must document any information used from at least five scholarly sources in APA style as outlined in the University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center’s Citing Within Your PaperLinks to an external site. Note that you will need at least eight scholarly sources for your Final Paper in Week 5.
Final paper
Write: This Final Paper, an argumentative essay, will present research relating the critical thinker to the modern, globalized world. In this assignment, you need to address the items below in separate sections with new headings for each.
In your paper,
Identify the global societal problem within the introductory paragraph.
Conclude with a thesis statement that states your proposed solutions to the problem. (For guidance on how to construct a good introduction paragraph, please review the Introductions & ConclusionsLinks to an external site. from the University of Arizona Global Campus Writing CenterLinks to an external site..)
Describe background information on how that problem developed or came into existence.
Show why this is a societal problem.
Provide perspectives from multiple disciplines or populations so that you fully represent what different parts of society have to say about this issue.
Construct an argument supporting your proposed solutions, considering multiple disciplines or populations so that your solution shows that multiple parts of society will benefit from this solution.
Provide evidence from multiple scholarly sources as evidence that your proposed solution is viable.
Interpret statistical data from at least three peer-reviewed scholarly sources within your argument.
Discuss the validity, reliability, and any biases.
Identify the strengths and weaknesses of these sources, pointing out limitations of current research and attempting to indicate areas for future research. (You may even use visual representations such as graphs or charts to explain statistics from sources.)
Evaluate the ethical outcomes that result from your solution.
Provide at least one positive ethical outcome as well as at least one negative ethical outcome that could result from your solution.
Explain at least two ethical issues related to each of those outcomes. (It is important to consider all of society.)
Develop a conclusion for the last paragraphs of the essay, starting with rephrasing your thesis statement and then presenting the major points of the topic and how they support your argument. (For guidance on how to write a good conclusion paragraph, please review the Introductions & ConclusionsLinks to an external site. from the University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Cente.
Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Strategy and Ope.docxLacieKlineeb
Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University
Strategy and Operations Consulting Seminar: Open Cases
October 2022
Case 1: Supply Chain Optimization in the Dairy Sector 3
▪ Context
▪ Data to consider
▪ Questions to solve
Case 2: Business Case for an Investment Opportunity in Real Estate 18
Case 3: Financial Valuation for a Renewable Energy Start-up 22
Annex 31
2PNU – Strategy and Operations Consulting Seminar
INDEX
An important group in the dairy sector of the Basque Country. “Lácteos SA”. carries
out the distribution of all kinds of food products to the different distribution
channels: Food and HORECA
FOOD DRY SMOOTHIES BEVERAGES
DERIVATIVES SWEET SAUSAGES
MILK MILK POWDER SINGLE DOSE
CHEESES WITHOUT
LACTOSE YOGURT
product familiesmain channels
Total References: 510
29,4%
7,2% 4,8%
22,2%
35,6%
0,8%
0,0%
10,0%
20,0%
30,0%
40,0%
50,0%
Frío Seco Din
41,4%
58,6%
Kaiku
Km0
Food
HORECA
References
(in number of references)
Open case 1. Context
PNU – Strategy and Operations Consulting Seminar 3
own
product
external
product
Cold Dry
I
The current flow of the distribution process of Lácteos SA entails the passage
of most of the product through the central platform located in Jundiz (Basque
Country)
From there it is distributed to Food customers. and the Horeca channel (food service) both directly and through its
delegations.
Location of delegations
Biscay
Gipuzkoa
Araba-Jundiz
Navarre
Cantabria
Rioja Barcelona
Zaragoza
Valencia
Madrid
Current Flow of the Distribution Process
Other Manufacturers/
external suppliers
Central
platform
Jundiz
Food
Horeca Channel
Delegations
Manufacturers/
Suppliers own self
of Lácteos SA
PNU – Strategy and Operations Consulting Seminar 4
Open case 1. Context
Central platform
Jundiz
The current network of Lácteos SA has 64 origins and 1.120
destinations of the Jundiz platform
64 Origins 1.120 destinations664.316 lines prepared
48.636 orders prepared
560 Food destinations
550 Horeca destinations
10 Delegations
Own factories of
Lácteos SA
5
15 own suppliers of
Lácteos SA
45 external suppliers
PNU – Strategy and Operations Consulting Seminar 5
Open case 1. Context
PNU – Strategy and Operations Consulting Seminar 6
In this background, the client requests…
Project Objectives
… to carry out a diagnosis of the current logistics model to carry out the appropriate network design
for current and future market demand, considering the possibility of separating or outsourcing certain
channels
▪ Dimensioning of the network from the production centres and external suppliers to the distribution carried out from
the distribution centre of Jundiz
▪ Distribution system sizing. current scenario vs. other possible scenarios
▪ Cost evaluation of scenarios based on ratios available by Lácteos SA: cost €/km by type of vehicle. cost €/m2 of
warehouse by location…
Open case 1. Context
PNU – Strategy and Operations Consulting Seminar 7
In o.
Primary Care Interventions for Prevention and Cessation of Tob.docxLacieKlineeb
Primary Care Interventions for Prevention and Cessation of Tobacco Use
in Children and Adolescents
US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement
US Preventive Services Task Force
Summary of Recommendations
The USPSTF recommends that primary care clinicians provide interventions, including education or
brief counseling, to prevent initiation of tobacco use among school-aged children and adolescents. B
The USPSTF concludes that the current evidence is insufficient to assess the balance of benefits and
harms of primary care–feasible interventions for the cessation of tobacco use among school-aged
children and adolescents.
I
See the Figure for a more detailed summary of the recommendation for clinicians. See the Practice Considerations section for more information on effective
interventions to prevent initiation of tobacco use and for suggestions for practice regarding the I statement. USPSTF indicates US Preventive Services Task Force.
IMPORTANCE Tobacco use is the leading cause of preventable death in the US. An estimated
annual 480 000 deaths are attributable to tobacco use in adults, including from secondhand
smoke. It is estimated that every day about 1600 youth aged 12 to 17 years smoke their first
cigarette and that about 5.6 million adolescents alive today will die prematurely from a
smoking-related illness. Although conventional cigarette use has gradually declined among
children in the US since the late 1990s, tobacco use via electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) is
quickly rising and is now more common among youth than cigarette smoking. e-Cigarette
products usually contain nicotine, which is addictive, raising concerns about e-cigarette use
and nicotine addiction in children. Exposure to nicotine during adolescence can harm the
developing brain, which may affect brain function and cognition, attention, and mood; thus,
minimizing nicotine exposure from any tobacco product in youth is important.
OBJECTIVE To update its 2013 recommendation, the USPSTF commissioned a review of the
evidence on the benefits and harms of primary care interventions for tobacco use prevention
and cessation in children and adolescents. The current systematic review newly included
e-cigarettes as a tobacco product.
POPULATION This recommendation applies to school-aged children and adolescents younger
than 18 years.
EVIDENCE ASSESSMENT The USPSTF concludes with moderate certainty that primary
care–feasible behavioral interventions, including education or brief counseling, to prevent
tobacco use in school-aged children and adolescents have a moderate net benefit. The
USPSTF concludes that there is insufficient evidence to determine the balance of benefits
and harms of primary care interventions for tobacco cessation among school-aged children
and adolescents who already smoke, because of a lack of adequately powered studies on
behavioral counseling interventions and a lack of studies on medications.
RECOMMENDATION The USPSTF recommends that.
Presentation given in 2 separate PP documents as example.8-10 .docxLacieKlineeb
Presentation given in 2 separate PP documents as example.
8-10 slides on PowerPoint Topic (Cover Page and Reference Page EXCLUDED)
Topic: Post Partum Hemorrhage PPH Note: I have the content
Must use 2-3 scholarly articles from LEARN (Given when Bid accepted)
2-3 in-text APA Citations (Citationmachine.net)
Turn In It score MUST be less than 20%
Slides must include
Etiology,
Nursing Interventions,
Patient Education,
Treatment (if applicable).
Link a video in the last page as reference
First PP colors and presentation on file
Second PP given with the content
.
Prepare a PowerPoint presentation (8 slides minimum) that presents a.docxLacieKlineeb
Prepare a PowerPoint presentation (8 slides minimum) that presents a synopsis of an article from a peer- reviewed academic journal. The article should focus on "organizational leadership topic". The article needs to have been published within the past 10 years.
You are ONLY supposed to review ONE article which is related to organizational leadership.
.
PRAISE FOR CRUCIAL CONVERSATIONS Relationships ar.docxLacieKlineeb
PRAISE FOR CRUCIAL CONVERSATIONS
"Relationships are the priority of life, and conversations are the
crucial element in profound caring of relationships. This book
helps us to think about what we really want to say. If you want
to succeed in both talking and listening, read this book."
-Dr. Lloyd J. Ogilvie, chaplain, United States Senate
"Important, lucid, and practical, Crucial Conversations is a
book that will make a difference in your life. Learn how to flour
ish in every difficult situation."
-Robert E. Quinn, ME Tracy Collegiate Professor of
OBHRM, University of Michigan Business School
"I was personally and professionally inspired by this book-and
I'm not easily impressed. In the fast-paced world of IT, the success
of our systems, and our business, depends on crucial conversations
we have every day. Unfortunately, because our environment is so
technical, far too often we forget about the 'human systems' that
make or break us. These skills are the missing foundation piece."
-Maureen Burke, manager of training,
Coca-Cola Enterprises, Inc.
"The book is compelling. Yes, I found myself in too many of their
examples of what not to do when caught in these worst-of-all
worlds situations! GET THIS BOOK, WHIP OUT A PEN AND
GET READY TO SCRIBBLE MARGIN NOTES FURIOUSLY,
AND PRACTICE, PRACTICE, PRACTICE THE INVALUABLE
TOOLS THESE AUTHORS PRESENT. I know I did-and it
helped me salvage several difficult situations and repair my
damaged self-esteem in others. I will need another copy pretty
soon. as I'm wearing out the pages in this one!"
-James Belasco. best-selling author of Flight of the Buffalo,
l!l1trl!prl!l1eur. professor. und l!xl!cutive director of the Financial
Tilllrs Knowkdgc Diuloguc
"Crucial Conversations is the most useful self-help book I have
ever read. I'm awed by how insightful, readable, well organized,
and focused it is. I keep thinking: 'If only I had been exposed to
these dialogue skills 30 years ago ... '"
-John Hatch, founder, FINCA International
"One of the greatest tragedies is seeing someone with incredible
talent get derailed because he or she lacks some basic skills.
Crucial Conversations addresses the number one reason execu
tives derail, and it provides extremely helpful tools to operate in
a fast-paced, results-oriented environment."
-Karie A. Willyerd, chief talent officer, Solectron
"The book prescribes, with structure and wit, a way to improve on
the most fundamental element of organizational learning and
growth-honest, unencumbered dialogue between individuals.
There are one or two of the many leadership/management
'thought' books on my shelf that are frayed and dog-eared from
use. Crucial Conversations will no doubt end up in the same con
dition."
-John Gill, VP of Human Resources, Rolls Royce USA
Crucial
Conversations
Crucial
Conversations
Tools for Talking
When Stakes Are High
by
Kerry Patterson, .
Porwerpoint The steps recommended for efficiently developing an ef.docxLacieKlineeb
Porwerpoint : The steps recommended for efficiently developing an effective and consistent PowerPoint presentation include: 1.planning, 2.entering content, 3.editing, 4.formatting, 5.previewing, and 6.delivering (e.g. print, email, publish). Identify a key consideration one should make when planning a PowerPoint presentation? Describe the differences between building slide shows from blank presentations, themes, and templates. Discuss how PowerPoint presentations can be used both professionally and personally.
100 words minimum
.
Prepare a 2-page interprofessional staff update on HIPAA and appro.docxLacieKlineeb
Prepare a 2-page interprofessional staff update on HIPAA and appropriate social media use in health care.
Introduction
As you begin to consider the assessment, it would be an excellent choice to complete the Breach of Protected Health Information (PHI) activity. The activity will support your success with the assessment by creating the opportunity for you to test your knowledge of potential privacy, security, and confidentiality violations of protected health information. The activity is not graded and counts towards course engagement.
Health professionals today are increasingly accountable for the use of protected health information (PHI). Various government and regulatory agencies promote and support privacy and security through a variety of activities. Examples include:
· Meaningful use of electronic health records (EHR).
· Provision of EHR incentive programs through Medicare and Medicaid.
· Enforcement of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) rules.
· Release of educational resources and tools to help providers and hospitals address privacy, security, and confidentiality risks in their practices.
Technological advances, such as the use of social media platforms and applications for patient progress tracking and communication, have provided more access to health information and improved communication between care providers and patients.
At the same time, advances such as these have resulted in more risk for protecting PHI. Nurses typically receive annual training on protecting patient information in their everyday practice. This training usually emphasizes privacy, security, and confidentiality best practices such as:
· Keeping passwords secure.
· Logging out of public computers.
· Sharing patient information only with those directly providing care or who have been granted permission to receive this information.
Today, one of the major risks associated with privacy and confidentiality of patient identity and data relates to social media. Many nurses and other health care providers place themselves at risk when they use social media or other electronic communication systems inappropriately. For example, a Texas nurse was recently terminated for posting patient vaccination information on Facebook. In another case, a New York nurse was terminated for posting an insensitive emergency department photo on her Instagram account.
Health care providers today must develop their skills in mitigating risks to their patients and themselves related to patient information. At the same time, they need to be able distinguish between effective and ineffective uses of social media in health care.
This assessment will require you to develop a staff update for the interprofessional team to encourage team members to protect the privacy, confidentiality, and security of patient information.
Preparation
To successfully prepare to complete this assessment, complete the following:
· Review the infographics on protecting PHI provided in the.
post 5-7 Sentences of a response to the Discovery Board Whic.docxLacieKlineeb
post 5-7 Sentences of a response to the Discovery Board
Which group of Jews was most similar to Jesus of Nazareth? Why?
the group is Pharisees
Grading Rubric for ALL Discussions
Accurate use of English including careful documentation (including ability to paraphrase and use quotations). 5 pts
Accurate and complete reflection of material read for assignment. 5 pts
must be original work
check for spelling
.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
ORIGINAL RESEARCHChief human resources officers on top man.docx
1. ORIGINAL RESEARCH
Chief human resources officers on top management
teams: an empirical analysis of contingency,
institutional, and homophily antecedents
Magdalena Abt1 • Dodo zu Knyphausen-Aufseß1
Received: 5 June 2015 / Accepted: 13 September 2016 /
Published online: 21 September 2016
� The Author(s) 2016. This article is published with open
access at Springerlink.com
Abstract Having the director of human resources (HR) as a
member of the top
management team (TMT) and giving him/her the title of chief
human resources
officer (CHRO) indicates an important strategic and symbolic
choice. Such deci-
sions not only determine who participates in controlling an
organization and setting
its strategic direction, but also reflect the organizational
structure. In this paper, we
examine the antecedents of CHRO presence according to the
contingency, institu-
2. tional, and homophily theories. Based on a multi-industry
sample of 215 firms that
considers a 10-year period, we find that the presence of a CHRO
is influenced by the
rates of unionization, rapid declines or increases in numbers of
employees, the
employment of a new or outsider chief executive officer (CEO),
and the institu-
tionalization of the CHRO position in the industry or firm.
However, we find no
evidence of the presumed influence of knowledge intensity or
the CEO or TMT
human resource management (HRM) experience. Overall, we
find that the institu-
tional theory has the highest explanatory power regarding the
existence of CHRO
positions.
Keywords Chief human resources officer � Top management
team �
Contingency theory � Institutional theory � Homophily theory
� Upper
echelon theory
& Dodo zu Knyphausen-Aufseß
[email protected]
Magdalena Abt
3. [email protected]
1 Technische Universität Berlin, Faculty VII, H92, Straße des
17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin,
Germany
123
Business Research (2017) 10:49–77
DOI 10.1007/s40685-016-0039-2
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s40685-016-
0039-2&domain=pdf
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s40685-016-
0039-2&domain=pdf
1 Introduction
Since Hambrick and Mason’s (1984) groundbreaking article, the
study of top
management teams (TMTs) has developed into a prominent area
of management
research (Carpenter et al. 2004). Within this area, a growing
body of research now
examines the presence of diverse TMT members, who are the
top executive officers
responsible for certain functional domains and report directly to
the chief executive
4. officer (CEO) (Hambrick and Cannella 2004; Menz 2012; Menz
and Scheef 2014;
Nath and Mahajan 2008; Preston et al. 2008; Strand 2013). A
key premise of these
studies is that the TMT structure, and the presence or absence
of certain TMT
positions, opens a ‘‘window into organizations’’ (Beckmann and
Burton 2011,
p. 52). Analyzing the functional roles of executive officers
provides insight into
organizational processes and structures (Beckmann and Burton
2011), signals which
business functions are believed to be the most important, and
indicates where power
resides within an organization (Fligstein 1987). Additionally,
the presence of certain
functional TMT positions not only impacts ideologies or group
processes within the
upper echelon, but also drives the strategic decision-making,
and, hence, affects
organizational performance (Menz 2012).
Accordingly, promoting directors of human resources (HR) to
the ranks of the
upper echelon, and granting them titles such as chief human
5. resources officer
(CHRO) or personnel director,1 is an important structural,
strategic, and symbolic
choice. It signals a fundamental change in managerial roles,
demonstrating the
greater influence of institutionalized HR in the TMT structure.
Thus, the presence of
a CHRO is a reflection of the importance of HR in strategic
decision-making (e.g.,
Brewster 1994; Budhwar 2000). Therefore, understanding how
organizations handle
the ‘‘human aspect’’ at the executive level, or the highest levels
of management,
allows us to investigate the upper echelons and the institutional
development of
capitalism as a whole. While the dominance of the chief
financial officer (CFO)
function indicates how capital market-driven ideologies impact
how chief officers
consider governance issues (Davis 2009a, b; Dobbin and Zorn
2005; Dore 2008;
Zorn 2004), it remains unknown whether a human resource
management (HRM)-
centered stream of ideology can impact this level of
6. management as well. We live in
an increasingly technology-driven knowledge society (Kasworm
2011) in which
people are considered to be a firm’s most important asset. HR
topics, such as
inventing new ways of working, building a high-performance
culture, developing
leaders, or recruiting talent, are at the top of most strategic
agendas (Boselie and
Paauwe 2005; Josephson and Reinken 2008). Some researchers
and practitioners
already view CHROs as crucial for the future (Wright et al.
2011), and argue that it
is only a matter of time until CHROs will have equal or even
more weight than
CFOs (Charan et al. 2015; Donkin 1999; Groysberg et al. 2011,
pp. 67–68; Welch
and Welch 2005) or become favored for CEO succession
(Josephson and Reinken
2008). However, many organizations, especially in the US, seem
surprisingly
1 For reasons of simplicity, in this paper we use the term
‘‘CHRO’’ for human resource-related positions
at the executive level. See the methodology section below for
7. further information.
50 Business Research (2017) 10:49–77
123
reluctant to establish a CHRO (Aijala et al. 2007), whereas
roughly 90 % have
established a CFO (Zorn 2004).
This study aims to understand why firms differ in having a
CHRO. By providing
academics and practitioners with an understanding of
antecedents, this study adds to
the existing body of knowledge on strategic HRM (SHRM) (see,
e.g., Mello 2015),
particularly as the decision to have an HR officer be a part of a
TMT is one of, if not
the, most important steps in the SHRM process (Welbourne and
Cyr 1999). By
exploring the reasons for CHRO presence, we also intend to
contribute to strategic
management and upper echelon research by answering the key
research questions of
how contextual conditions, organizations, and CEOs affect TMT
structures and
8. which theories and research methods are suitable for studying
this issue (Carpenter
et al. 2004). Our research shows that the contingency theory,
which has been the
dominant theoretical approach for identifying the antecedents of
chief officers’
presence in existing research (e.g., Hambrick and Cannella
2004; Menz and Scheef
2014; Nath and Mahajan 2008), should be supplemented by
other approaches, such
as homophily and the institutional theory. With regard to recent
practitioner-
oriented recommendations highlighting the evolving role of the
CHRO (Challah
2006; Charan et al. 2015), our study helps to explain the reality
behind CHRO
choices. Finally, by discussing the role of the CHRO in the
upper echelons of a
business, our paper also adds an important facet to the recent
discussion on the
financialization of the modern economy and the development of
capitalism (e.g.,
Davis 2009a, b).
9. 2 Context, theory, and hypotheses
The analysis of TMTs and their antecedents is dependent on the
institutional and
cultural context. For example, Crossland and Hambrick (2011)
show empirically
that nation-level institutions determine the degree of managerial
discretion that
CEOs have in public companies, and, more specific to our
research questions, Kabst
and Giardini (2009) provide data on the presence of CHROs in
27 countries, which
spans from 91 % in France to 25 % in Turkey, with 41 % in the
US and 56 % in
Germany (data for 2005). We focus in our empirical study on
US firms due to the
leading role these firms have always played for the development
of modern
capitalism (e.g., Chandler 1990; Van Elteren 2006, ch. 9), and
also because the
‘‘natural fit’’ between America’s individualistic culture and the
human-centric
perspective that defines our research interest (Hofstede 1980).
We therefore briefly
describe this context through a historical perspective before
10. analyzing the roles that
CHROs may have. We then introduce our theoretical lenses and
develop our
hypotheses.
2.1 The head of HR in US firms
In the US, the head of the HRM function was traditionally
considered ‘‘a low man’’
(Jacoby et al. 2005) in the managerial hierarchy. At various
times, however, HR
managers became more valued. In the 1940s and 1950s, most
large US companies
Business Research (2017) 10:49–77 51
123
had personnel departments responsible for administrative tasks,
such as payroll
processing or record keeping, as well as for setting the
company-wide employment
policy, qualifying employees, and handling increasingly
powerful labor unions
(Bottger and Vanderbroeck 2008; Eilbirt 1959; Kaufman 2008;
Kochan and Barocci
11. 1985). Due to the increasing importance of financial criteria for
intra-organizational
resources and power allocation during the 1960s (Fligstein
1987) and HR
professionals’ inability to quantify their contributions in
financial terms, HR
managers were increasingly considered to be ‘‘not business
oriented’’ (Ritzer and
Trice 1969, p. 66). In the late 1960s and 1970s, the rise of
unions (Beaumont and
Leopold 1985), the spread of the behavioral sciences applied to
personnel
management in academic research, and the passage of diverse
government
employment laws helped again legitimize the power of HR
managers in the US
(Dobbin and Sutton 1998). In 1971, AT&T perceived the
strategic importance of
HR and became the first firm in the US to create the position of
an executive officer
mainly responsible for managing HR (Bottger and Vanderbroeck
2008). In the
1980s, all of the factors that had previously bolstered the worth
of HR executives in
12. the US diminished: governmental influence shrank, unions
became weaker, the
unemployment rate rose, and corporate governance began
focusing even more
intensely on shareholder value (Jacoby et al. 2005). As HR
departments weakened,
the HR executives at the tops of organizations found themselves
a primary target for
outsourcing (Greer et al. 1999).
During recent decades, however, HR issues, such as structuring
organizations to
attract, develop, and retain the best workforce, inventing new
ways of working that
allow employees to be productive whenever and wherever they
are, and creating a
corporate culture that enforces moral principles and guides
organizational change,
have become part of the most important strategic tasks TMTs
fulfill (Challah 2006;
Groysberg et al. 2011). Analogously, the calls to promote the
head of HR to the
highest management ranks and make them a close partner to the
CEO (Bottger and
Vanderbroeck 2008) have recurred and strengthened. Currently,
13. many researchers
and practitioners view top HR professionals as the upcoming
strategic key players
(Wright et al. 2011) with a weight comparable to the CFO
(Charan et al. 2015;
Donkin 1999; Josephson and Reinken, 2008; Welch 2005).
2.2 Roles of CHROs in TMTs
Different roles for HR professionals have since emerged
(Lengnick-Hall and
Lengnick-Hall 2002; Storey 1992; Ulrich and Brockband 2005),
which can also be
applied to CHROs. Although the conceptual approaches differ
in the denomination
of the HR roles, they all share that HR professionals must
handle operational as well
as strategic duties and responsibilities and, thus, act as both a
‘‘strategist and
steward’’ (Caldwell 2003; Kelly and Gennard 2001).
More specifically, the roles and responsibilities of CHROs can
be described in
four major categories (Deloitte Consulting 2006). As workforce
strategists, CHROs
play a key role in steering the direction of a business strategy
14. that coincides with the
current labor trends and available workforce. This is becoming
more important, as
‘‘business strategy is increasingly a function of the workforce
itself’’ (Deloitte
52 Business Research (2017) 10:49–77
123
Consulting 2006, p. 7). As organizational performance
conductors, CHROs help
implement the organizational structures that promote innovation
and collaboration
as well as flexible work practices that produce inspiring work.
As HR service
delivery owners, CHROs deliver the goods of day-to-day HR
administration.
Finally, as compliance and governance regulators, CHROs
ensure that all activities
adhere to local, national, and international laws and regulations
in a business world
that is affected by globalization and offshoring, and provide
board development and
executive succession planning.
15. As these categories have never been verified empirically, we
compared them to
24 press releases accompanying CHRO appointments, 17 CHRO
job descriptions on
company web sites, and insights from 12 interviews with
CHROs of private firms.2
According to our qualitative research, CHROs spend most of
their time as
workforce strategists. Examples of CHRO tasks belonging to
this category include
‘‘creating and implementing human resource strategies to
support the company’s
long-term strategic goals’’, ‘‘doing everything regarding HRM
to reach superior
business objectives’’, or ‘‘identifying strategic locations
targeted for workforce
growth’’. Tasks belonging to the function of being a governance
regulator, such as
reviewing candidates for TMT or board membership or creating
compensation
packages, were not mentioned in the press releases, job
descriptions, or our
interviews. Instead, most often the following tasks were
included: ‘‘direct HR
16. development and talent management activities’’, ‘‘support
employee relations’’, ‘‘do
staffing, recruiting and retaining’’, ‘‘assist organizational
development and change,’’
‘‘developing a learning organization’’, ‘‘management of
demographic change,’’
‘‘transform corporate culture’’, or ‘‘handle compensation
planning and controlling’’.
This plethora of tasks describes the CHRO work domain in the
firm as such, not so
much the specific CHRO role within the inner TMT. Based on
anecdotal evidence
from firms such as General Electric and Tata Communications,
Charan et al. (2015)
recently concretized this role through three critical activities:
predicting outcomes,
diagnosing problems, and prescribing people-oriented actions
that add value to the
business.
2.3 Selection of theory perspectives
To study our research question in a more systematic way, we
integrate different
theoretical perspectives to derive the theoretically-driven
17. antecedents of CHRO
presence.
2 We interviewed 12 CHROs from private firms in various
industries, including air transportation, textile
mill products, transportation equipment, chemicals and allied
products, and communications. The
company sales ranged from $593 million to $2.95 billion. The
CHROs were all contacted by email or
letter and interviewed in person or on the phone. The partly
standardized interviews lasted about an hour
and mainly covered the tasks and responsibilities of CHROs, the
reasons for their appointment, the skill
requirements, and their influence on strategic decision making.
The interviews being conducted with
German CHROs while our empirical study is based on a sample
from the US is certainly not ideal but also
not detrimental since this evidence was only used for
illustrative purposes in our hypothesis development
and not for hypothesis testing (for an elaboration of the idea of
such a ‘‘mixed-method’’ approach, see,
e.g., Hesse-Biber and Johnson 2015). The press releases and job
descriptions refer to US companies.
Business Research (2017) 10:49–77 53
18. 123
Previous research has revealed that contingency considerations
are useful to
research the antecedents of chief officers’ presence, although
they explain only a
small proportion of variance (Hambrick and Cannella 2004;
Menz and Scheef 2014;
Nath and Mahajan 2008). According to Schoonhoven (1981), the
contingency
approach is not a distinct theory, but rather a strategy for
developing hypotheses.
However, Boyd et al. (2012) argue that, particularly in strategic
management
literature, there is an ongoing trend of referring to contingency
as a theory.
Therefore, we apply contingency logic and complement it with
institutional and
homophily viewpoints. Consequently, we argue that CHRO
presence is affected by:
(1) rational considerations about the costs and benefits of the
position depending on
situational factors (contingency theory), (2) less-economical
processes of legit-
19. imization and institutionalization at the industrial and
organizational levels
(institutional theory), and (3) individual experiences and
preferences of TMT
members (homophily theory). Thereby, we respond to Okhuysen
and Bonardi’s
(2011) call for more ‘‘multiple-lens explanations’’ in
management research. Further,
Maritan and Peteraf (2008, p. 71) indicate that combining
multiple theories and
perspectives from research fields such as ‘‘economics,
sociology, behavioral science
and social science’’ (…) ‘‘can generate richer insights’’ for
strategic management
research. By using different theories, we analyze the reasons for
CHRO presence at
the micro (TMT members), meso (organization), and meta
(industry) levels.
Consequently, we consider these explanations as complementary
and investigate
what these explanations can contribute to our understanding of
CHRO presence in
TMTs.
20. 2.4 CHROs on TMTs: a contingency perspective
According to the contingency theory, there is no single best way
to structure an
organization. Instead, the suitability of organizational structures
and characteristics
depends on internal and external contingencies (Donaldson
2001). Only after
considering the costs and benefits of different possibilities,
while also allowing for
internal and external contingencies, can the most efficient
alternative be chosen. In
this way, organizational structure and characteristics are shaped
by situational
factors (e.g., Child 1975; Schreyögg 1980).
We apply this logic to researching the reasons for CHRO
presence in TMTs. In
line with previous research that applies the contingency
perspective (Hambrick and
Cannella 2004; Menz and Scheef 2014; Nath and Mahajan 2008;
Zorn 2004), we
base our analysis on the assumption that CHRO presence is
more useful, and
therefore more likely, when HR issues cause complexity and
uncertainty at the apex
21. of a firm. By analyzing prior empirical and theoretical
publications, especially from
within research streams on TMTs (Finkelstein et al. 2009; Menz
2012) and SHRM
(Caldwell 2003; Welbourne and Andrews 1996), and condensing
the indicative
evidence extracted from our qualitative research, we focus on
five regularly-
occurring factors that increase HR complexity at the top of an
organization, and thus
drive the appointment of a CHRO. These are the representation
of unions, the
knowledge-intensity of a firm, major strategic or organizational
changes indicated
by changes in the number of employees, and employment of a
new or outsider CEO.
54 Business Research (2017) 10:49–77
123
2.4.1 Representation of unions
Collective bargaining negotiations between labor unions and
corporate employers
22. include sensitive topics such as pension plans, health benefits,
working conditions,
pay rates, hours worked per week, and number of paid days of
leave, and are partly
governed and mandated by external laws. As the goals of the
negotiating parties are
often incompatible, conflicts between management and unions
are likely. Negoti-
ations with unions are thus considered to be important and
sensitive. The higher the
rate of unionization within an enterprise, and the more power
unions gain, the more
complex bargaining negotiations become, especially when there
is a variety of
unions (Craver 1997; Jackson and Schuler 1999). As our
interviews indicated,
conducting these negotiations is a task fulfilled by CHROs. One
CHRO described,
‘‘I have a very close relationship with labor union
representatives; we fight nearly
every day.’’ Admittedly, the union membership rate has recently
decreased globally
and especially in the US. In 2015, union membership decreased
to only 11.1 percent
23. (and 6.6 percent in the private sectors) from 20.1 percent in
1983, according to data
from the US Bureau of Labor Statistics
(http://www.bls.gov/news.release/union2.
nr0.htm; retrieved on May 2, 2016). However, unions can put
pressure on employers
by forming coalitions with other interest groups (e.g.,
environmental activists)
(Tattersall 2010). Furthermore, Huselid (1995) and Pfeffer
(1998) state that the
existence of and positive relations with unions suit other high
performance work
practices. They also suggest, at least implicitly, that CHRO
representation could
signal an appreciation of the importance that unions have for
the workplace climate
and, eventually, for firm performance. Thus, we propose the
following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1 A firm’s rate of unionization is positively related
to the likelihood of
CHRO presence on its TMT.
2.4.2 Strategic and organizational change
HRM is of special importance during episodes of strategic or
organizational change
24. (Galpin 1996). New strategic directions may require
competencies that have to be
developed, and restructuring activities usually provoke
resistance to change that
must be overcome (Kotter 1995). We focus on episodes of
growth and downsizing,
which have received considerable attention in existing literature
(see, e.g., Datta
et al. 2010; Phelps et al. 2007). When a company’s body of
employees increases or
decreases rapidly (in terms of the number of employees), a high
percentage of
employees must be hired, displaced, trained, or laid off.
Further, reward systems and
career ladders (e.g., those for middle managers) must be revised
and HR
development activities or recruitment strategies adapted
(Finegold and Frenkel
2006). One of our interviewees formulated it as follows:
‘‘Finding the right people is
the basis for any growth strategy and thus determines our
growth targets—before we
decide about market penetration, market expansion, or
diversification strategies, I
25. have to evaluate how to provide the required employees.’’
Another CHRO stated,
‘‘Of course I play a key role in every decision that changes our
employees’ situation;
if we decide to reduce our workforce, I am responsible for
finding adequate
Business Research (2017) 10:49–77 55
123
http://www.bls.gov/news.release/union2.nr0.htm
http://www.bls.gov/news.release/union2.nr0.htm
measures and carrying on negotiations with employee
representatives.’’ These are
strategic HR tasks that must be aligned to each other and to
corporate strategy and,
therefore, must be addressed at the very top of the firm
(Brewster 1994). Previous
research has concluded that when a firm’s number of employees
changes rapidly,
integrating HR strategy and corporate strategy is even more
necessary (Bennett
et al. 1998) and has a greater effect on performance (Welbourne
and Andrews
26. 1996). Furthermore, HR departments are required to act as
agents of change, help
individual employees and departments deal with change, and
shape cultures that
improve organizations’ capacity for change (Caldwell 2003). To
meet these
challenges, the integration of senior HR specialists within
TMTs is essential
(Brewster 1994).
Given these considerations, we formulate the following
hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2 A firm’s amount of change in employees is
positively related to the
likelihood of CHRO presence on its TMT.
2.4.3 Knowledge intensity
In knowledge-driven companies, intellectual and social
resources are the key drivers
of success, rather than financial and physical capital (Finegold
and Frenkel 2006).
When success depends primarily on knowledge creation,
knowledge sharing, and
learning, it is crucial that innovative individuals are attracted,
motivated, developed,
27. and retained by firms in accordance with their strategies (Hall
and Mairesse 2006).
This was confirmed in an interview with the CHRO of a
pharmaceutical company.
He additionally explained that HR issues are not only more
important, but also more
challenging. Since knowledge-oriented workers more heavily
prioritize interesting
and challenging work environments, appropriate work-life-
balance, and compe-
tence-based pay, managing them requires more sophisticated
motivational and
performance management measures. Further, it demands a
categorized workforce
structure that is managed differently depending on whether
employees fulfill
operational or innovative tasks (Finegold and Frenkel 2006).
Managing successful
knowledge-management systems requires the strong
commitment of employees,
which in turn is dependent on well-elaborated HRM concepts
and frameworks
(Hislop 2003). As Kostova et al. (2004) stated, ‘‘The
importance of the human
28. element in building effective knowledge-management systems
cannot be over-
stated’’ (p. 284). A CHRO can support the handling of all of the
implications of
knowledge intensity. Thus, we propose the following
hypothesis:
Hypothesis 3 A firm’s level of knowledge intensity is positively
related to the
likelihood of CHRO presence on its TMT.
2.4.4 Outsider CEO
The CEO is the pivotal member of the TMT, and thus has a
disproportionate impact
on team characteristics (Finkelstein 1992), including decisions
about whether to
employ a CHRO. In theory, directors of US public corporations
are voted upon by
the shareholders and nominated by the board as a whole or by a
committee that
56 Business Research (2017) 10:49–77
123
should, according to the NYSE/NASDAQ listing requirements
in the Sarbanes–
29. Oxley Act of 2002, consist of independent directors. However,
there is much
empirical evidence suggesting that, in practice, the inside
directors and especially
the CEO still have a decisive impact on the selection process
(Cai et al. 2009; Coles
et al. 2014; Hermalin and Weisbach 2003; Shivdasani and
Yermack 1999), although
there may be considerable variance between companies (Clune
et al. 2014). This is
in line with the observation that in many US companies, the
CEO also serves as the
chairman of the board (see Adams et al. 2010), and that the
CEO effect on the
performance of US corporations has increased (Quigley and
Hambrick 2015). The
implication of this is that, in addition to organizational task
demands, the personal
demands of the CEO affect decisions regarding the TMT
composition or, more
specifically, director selection. To accomplish their multiple
and complex duties
successfully, CEOs compensate for their own possible
limitations through the
30. staffing of their executive teams. One issue relevant to CEOs’
staffing decisions is
their familiarity with their firms. CEOs who have risen through
the ranks internally
are familiar with the technologies, markets, people, processes,
and cultures of their
firms (Beckmann and Burton 2011). Outsider CEOs lack such
knowledge, and
therefore require assistance from internal experts. Based on this
logic, Hambrick
and Cannella (2004) demonstrated that outsider CEOs are more
likely to have chief
operating officers (COOs), while Nath and Mahajan (2008)
discovered that the
probability of chief marketing officer (CMO) presence increases
with an outsider
CEO. We argue that this interrelationship also applies to CHRO
presence, with the
one caveat that human capital may have general, firm- and
industry-specific
components (Becker 1975; Neal 1995) and that only the latter
two apply in our
context. We assume that to develop or sustain the firm’s
competitive advantage,
31. unique technological and market-related human skills and
competencies (as cited
above, ‘‘as business strategy is increasingly a function of the
workforce itself;’’
Deloitte Consulting 2006, p. 7) are necessary. Thus, we
hypothesize the following:
Hypothesis 4 The likelihood of CHRO presence on a TMT is
higher in firms with
an outsider CEO than in firms with an insider CEO.
2.4.5 New CEO
Not only short tenure within an organization but also short
tenure in the CEO
position limits the knowledge and capabilities of CEOs.
According to Hambrick and
Fukutomi (1991), new CEOs lack knowledge of the facts,
contracts, trends, or
procedures that pertain to being a successful CEO. To overcome
this limitation, they
gather information from various sources, and prefer to have
diverse advisors from
different functional domains (McDonald and Westphal 2003).
During their tenures,
CEOs largely overcome related handicaps by acquiring critical
32. task knowledge.
They also learn about the qualities and capabilities of their
advisors, which enables
them to rely only on qualified advice, rather than on varying
unfiltered advice. As
such, they tend to reduce senior staffing levels (Hambrick and
Fukutomi 1991).
Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis:
Business Research (2017) 10:49–77 57
123
Hypothesis 5 The likelihood of CHRO presence on a TMT is
higher in firms with
a new CEO than in firms with a CEO who has a long tenure.
2.5 CHROs on TMTs: an institutionalization mechanism
According to the contingency theory, organizational decisions
are based on rational
considerations about the costs and benefits of different
possibilities. However, the
most efficient alternative is not always selected. Our
interviewees confirmed that
they experience explanations such as, ‘‘We have always done it
33. this way’’ or ‘‘Our
competitors do it that way’’ on a near daily basis. The
sociological approach of the
institutional theory explains this reasoning by arguing that
individuals and
organizations seek approval and legitimacy for their behavior,
structures, and
processes in socially constructed environments by adapting their
business practices,
processes, programs, and structures to social norms (including
‘‘Zeitgeist’’ and
fashions that are ‘‘in the air,’’ see e.g. Abrahamson 1991) and
internal or external
forces (DiMaggio and Powell 1983; Meyer and Rowan 1977).
Internal forces
include formalized structures and processes or informal groups.
External forces
include state-enacted laws and regulations, professional
association licenses and
certifications, and the influence of other organizations that may
serve as thought
leaders or trendsetters. Paawe and Boselie (2003), among
others, suggest that
institutional forces and social pressure can also explain the
34. occurrence of strategic
HRM policies and practices in organizations, and formulated a
number of
propositions that describe the effect of mimetic, normative, and
coercive
mechanisms.
In line with these assumptions, Jackson and Schuler (1999, p. 6)
formulated two
assertions of the institutional theory: (1) ‘‘institutionalized
activities are resistant to
change’’ and (2) ‘‘organizations in institutionalized
environments are pressured to
become similar.’’ The first assertion indicates that structures
and processes within an
organization, like the presence or absence of a CHRO, are based
on the historical
roots of the organization and cannot be changed easily
(Hambrick et al. 1993).
Organizations tend to demonstrate ‘‘path dependencies’’
(Sydow et al. 2009) and
‘‘structural inertia’’ (Hannan and Freeman (1977; 1984).
Considering this, we
formulate the following hypothesis:
35. Hypothesis 6 The likelihood of CHRO presence on a TMT is
higher if the
position has been institutionalized in the firm.
The second assertion suggests that, especially in the face of
uncertainty,
managers may conclude that the least risky action is to imitate
other organizations.
This starts a process of mimetic isomorphism, and can lead to
assimilation,
particularly within a single industry. Summarizing research
about the institution-
alization processes of HR structures, practices, and policies,
Björkman and
Gooderham (2012) concluded that especially successful firms
within the same
industry are duplicated. TMT researchers showed that TMT
structure and
composition are objects of isomorphism and assimilation
processes, especially
within industries (Finkelstein et al. 2009, p. 21; Tuttle and
Dillard 2007). Applying
this to the presence of a CHRO, we formulate the following
hypothesis:
58 Business Research (2017) 10:49–77
36. 123
Hypothesis 7 The likelihood of CHRO presence on a TMT is
higher if the
position has been institutionalized within the industry.
2.6 CHROs as a homophilic phenomenon
Conversely, the homophily theory (Lazarsfeld and Merton 1954;
McPherson et al.
2001; Montoya and Horton 2013) suggests that the decision to
employ a CHRO is
not determined by rational considerations nor by issues of
legitimacy, but instead is
based on the personal interests and biases of the TMT. Simply,
having a CHRO is
based on how and with whom the TMT members want to work
with and on which
topics. This theory asserts that most human interaction occurs
between a source and
a receiver who are homophilous, meaning they are similar or
congruent. Interaction
with similar people is considered to be more enjoyable (Tsui et
al. 1992) and more
37. effective, as homophily produces credibility, reliability, and
trustworthiness
(McCroskey et al. 1974).
This tendency is especially noticeable in groups that influence
their own
compositions, shoulder great responsibility, and require much
time, such as TMTs
(Hwang and Kim 2009). The functional domain has been shown
to discriminate
fairly well between people in this regard (Hambrick and Mason
1984) and has
proven to be an important homophily criterion. For instance,
Nath and Mahajan
(2008) detailed that CMOs are more likely to be present when
TMT marketing
experience is high. Furthermore, Marsden (1987) found that
most personal networks
are highly homophilous regarding members’ levels of education
and occupations
(including in functional domains), while Verbrugge (1983)
concluded that education
and occupation are involved at roughly the same level in
homophily as religion and
gender. These results indicate that function is a significant
38. homophily criterion, and
suggest that HR professionals trust, understand, or feel attracted
to people with
similar HR experience.
Given the high impact of CEOs on director selection decisions,
homophily
considerations should also be considered. As Zhu and Westphal
(2014: 793) write,
‘‘a CEO with a functional background in marketing may tend to
focus on issues
related to marketing in assessing strategic problems and
opportunities, and if a new
director does not appreciate the CEO’s marketing oriented
approach to diagnosing
strategic issues, the CEO will face a greater risk of conflicts
and power struggles
with the new director in subsequent years (…). Research on
board appointments
also suggests that avoiding such uncertainty often becomes a
major concern of
CEOs in new director appointment decisions.‘‘3 Thus,
consistent with the idea of
homophily, CEOs with HR experience are more likely to
recognize the importance
39. of people-related issues and thus be more willing to introduce
or maintain CHROs.
As Kelly and Gennard (2002: 2) concluded, ‘‘Chief Executives
are key players in
the appointment of a director. The research shows it is unlikely
an HR professional
will reach board or executive group level unless the
organization’s chief executive
3 Zhu and Westphal (2014) show that even in times when
powerful shareholders may influence CEOs to
search for board member candidates with diverse backgrounds
and weak ties to the CEO’s own social
circles, there is a tendency for the CEO to search for candidates
who have successfully worked with other
CEOs who are similar to the focal CEO.
Business Research (2017) 10:49–77 59
123
has a positive attitude to HR.’’ On the basis of this discussion,
we propose the
following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 8 CEO HR experience is positively related to the
40. likelihood of CHRO
presence on a TMT.
Responsibility for staffing the TMT and deciding its functional
composition
generally lies with the CEO. Nevertheless, the CEO’s ability to
make such decisions
without constraints depends to some extent on other
stakeholders, such as other top
executives (Finkelstein et al. 2009, p. 150). Hambrick and
Mason (1984) also
stressed that it is not always the CEO who makes important
decisions, and that
‘‘although it is true that in most firms the chief executive
officer has the most power,
it still is of interest to study management teams’’ (p. 196).
Hence, we also apply the
homophily theory and hypothesize the following:
Hypothesis 9 TMT HR experience is positively related to the
likelihood of CHRO
presence on a TMT.
The following Figure summarizes our hypotheses, grouping
them according to
the contingency, institutional, and homophily theories (Fig. 1).
41. 3 Research methodology
We studied our hypotheses by examining a sample of US
Fortune 500 companies.
The US represents the most advanced status of modern
capitalism and also has a
leading part in establishing the role of a strategically oriented
CHRO position
(Challah 2006). Given the tendency of low CHRO prevalence,
even among Fortune
500 enterprises, we found it necessary to limit our study to
firms with at least $250
million in sales. Similar cutoffs have been made in other studies
about the
Fig. 1 Model of factors associated with CHRO presence
60 Business Research (2017) 10:49–77
123
composition of TMTs (Hambrick and Cannella 2004; Marcel
2009; Nath and
Mahajan 2008). We chose to observe firms over a significant
period of time rather
than at a single point so our results do not reflect the specific
42. conditions or reporting
idiosyncrasies of a particular year. Furthermore, we used
longitudinal data to control
for prior states and reverse causality. At the time the study was
initiated, the most
recent year secondary data was available was 2007. Thus, we
chose to relate our
study to the years 1998 through 2007, which also offers an
advantage in that our
results are not distorted by the financial crisis of 2008. The
sample was selected by
identifying all public corporations reporting at least $250
million in sales in the year
2003, which was the midpoint of our observation period,
through the Compustat
database published by Standard & Poor (S&P). From this set, all
firms without
missing data on the antecedent factors in the Compustat
database were included. We
then used the 10-K and 8-K reports submitted to the Securities
and Exchange
Commission (SEC) for lists of officers, titles, and further
antecedent factors, and
collected annual data for all companies from 1998 through 2007
43. for the dependent
variable, and 1995 (due to a three-year lag for
institutionalization) through 2006 for
the independent variables. This data was available for a total of
241 firms. We
identified the primary two-digit code for every company and, to
control for industry
effects, retained only industries with more than 10 such firms.
Finally, we arrived at
an overall sample of 215 firms, or 2150 firm-years, across 12
industries. The
excluded firms did not systematically differ from the firms
retained in the sample.
3.1 Operationalization of the TMT members and CHRO
presence
TMTs have been operationalized in various ways, as shown in
prior studies (for an
overview of different operationalization approaches, see Table 1
in Carpenter et al.
2004). We use the most inclusive operationalization that offers
consistency with
recent comparable studies (e.g., Menz and Scheef 2014; Nath
and Mahajan 2008).
More specifically, in this study, TMTs include all executive
44. officers listed in the
10-K filings or proxy statements (e.g., 10-Q or 8-K). For 2007,
which was the only
year for which we considered TMT size, since this was solely
measured to control
for operationalization and was not included in any statistical
analyses, the mean size
of TMTs in the sample was 9.56 individuals, with a standard
deviation of 3.20,
which is consistent with prior research using such broad
operationalization. The
variable ‘‘CHRO presence’’ was coded as 1 (for the presence of
a CHRO) when
executives with the words ‘‘human,’’ ‘‘personnel,’’ or
‘‘people’’ in their titles were
listed in TMTs, and was coded 0 (for the absence of a CHRO)
otherwise.
3.2 Antecedents
To address reverse causality, we collected all antecedent
variables by using a one-
year lag (t - 1) and updated them for each year from 1997
through 2006 (cf.
Hambrick 2007, p. 338). Most of our measures and all of our
data sources have been
75. 3.2.1 Antecedents belonging to contingency theory
To detect the rate of unionization, we collected data on the
percentage of employees
organized in unions from the 10-K filings (the same
operationalization is used by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics; Blanchflower 2007; Faber 2005).
Radical workforce
changes were captured by the difference between the minuend
number of employees
in t - 2 and the subtrahend number of employees in t - 1 (1-year
time lag
included) (Kivimäki et al. 2001). The knowledge intensity of a
firm was captured by
the ratio of research and development (R&D) costs to sales or
R&D intensity. This
measure was introduced by the OECD in the mid-1980s, and has
since then been
widely used as an indicator of knowledge intensity (see OECD
2001, and as
examples, Coff 2003; Leydesdorff et al. 2006). These data were
collected from
S&P’s Compustat. The values for the antecedents ‘‘Outsider’’
76. and ‘‘New CEO’’
were collected from the 10-K filings. ‘‘Outsider CEO’’ was
captured as a binary
variable, with a value of 1 if the CEO had joined the firm no
more than 2 years prior
to becoming a CEO, and 0 otherwise (cf. Cannella and
Lubatkin, 1993; Hambrick
and Cannella 2004; Zhang 2006). ‘‘New CEO’’ was captured as
a binary variable
with a value of 1 if the CEO was in their first 3 years in the
position, and 0 otherwise
(cf. Hambrick and Cannella 2004).
3.2.2 Antecedents belonging to institutional theory
In line with Hambrick and Cannella (2004), we regarded
institutionalization within
an industry as being operationalized by the presence or absence
of a CHRO position
within the three biggest or, alternatively, the three most
profitable firms in the
industry for the last 3 years. The biggest firms were defined by
their respective sums
of employees for the years t - 3, t - 2, and t - 1. The most
profitable firm was
77. defined by its return on assets for the years t - 3, t - 2, and t - 1.
The three
biggest or three most profitable firms in each industry were
updated for each year.
We collected all size and performance measures from S&P’s
Compustat.
Subsequently, we constructed a variable that counted the
number of years among
t - 3, t - 2, and t - 1 in which one or more of the three
organizations had a
CHRO. The variable ranged from 0 to 9, and was calculated for
all industries.
Institutionalization within an organization was operationalized
by the presence or
absence of the CHRO position in the organization for 3 years,
with a 3-year time
lag. For this purpose, we constructed a variable that counted the
number of years
among t - 5, t - 4, and t - 3 in which the organization had a
CHRO. As is logical,
the variable ranged from 0 to 3.
3.2.3 Antecedents belonging to homophily theory
According to the homophily theory, TMT members choose to
establish a CHRO
78. position when they are highly experienced in HRM. To test this
hypothesis, we
operationalized the TMTs’ HR experience. We measured TMT
HR experience by
the accumulated years that the top executive team members,
excluding the CHRO,
had performing HR functions. This method of classification of
functional experience
Business Research (2017) 10:49–77 63
123
is well-established in existing research (see Finkelstein et al.
2009, pp. 97–106, for a
review). We collected biographical data on TMT members by
using 10-K filings,
and checked the filings against other annual company reports
and corporate
websites. Biographical data was available for 98 % of the
executives. When there
were no data available for a TMT member, the member was
removed from the
analysis. As the CEO is the most powerful person within a
TMT, we collected
79. separate data for the CEOs.
3.3 Controls
We controlled for a broad array of variables that may affect
CHRO presence but are
beyond the scope of this study. We included the year variable
(ranging from 1998 to
2007) to control for time trends (Hambrick and Cannella, 2004).
We controlled for
firm size, as measured by the logarithm of the number of
employees. We also
included prior performance (t - 1) to control for CHRO
appointments that were
due to good (or bad) performance. Prior performance was
measured by the return on
assets (ROA), market-to-book value (MTB), and prior sales
growth. Data were
collected from S&P’s Compustat.
3.4 Analysis and results
Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics and correlations for
the dependent
variable, the antecedents, and the control variables. All
correlations are under 0.50
80. and none of the variation inflation factors (VIF) are above 3.1,
which implies the
absence of multicollinearity problems (Mansfield and Helms
1982, p. 158).4
The mean of CHRO presence is 0.40, meaning that CHROs were
present on
TMTs in 40 % (860) of the 2150 firm years. The percentages of
the annual
occurrence of CHROs were, chronologically, 37.2, 37.3, 36.8,
35.9, 38.0, 41.0, 43.7,
43.3, 43.3, and 43.5 % for the years 1998–2007.
3.5 Reasons for CHRO presence
In line with other studies on the antecedents of a functional
position on TMTs (e.g.,
Hambrick and Cannella 2004), this analysis assumes that
decisions about whether to
have a CHRO are at least implicitly revisited on an annual
basis. Hence, the analysis
is based on data covering 2150 firm years. To analyze the
reasons for CHRO
presence, we modeled it over 1998–2007 as a function of the
hypothesized
antecedents and controls. All antecedents and controls were
updated each year, and
81. lagged values (for t - 1, except where noted) were used, which
enabled us to rule
out reverse causality. Given that our dependent variable, CHRO
presence, is binary,
and that we repeatedly observed the same organizations over a
10-year period, we
used the generalized estimating equations (GEE) approach of
Zeger and Liang
(1986a, b) to handle autocorrelations. The GEE approach
weights the data with
estimates of serial correlations, which occur normally in
repeated data, before
4 All statistics were calculated with the statistics software SPSS
(version16).
64 Business Research (2017) 10:49–77
123
estimating the regression coefficients and standard errors. The
GEE approach has
been used to model binary outcomes with repeated data in prior
studies (Hambrick
and Cannella 2004; Menz and Scheef 2014; Nath and Mahajan
2008).
82. As Table 2 shows, the control variables of year, size, and prior
sales growth have
significant positive influences on CHRO presence in some
models. Furthermore, a
high representation of unions and high levels of change in the
number of employees
have positive impacts on the CHRO presence in model 2,
although with low
significance. This partially supports hypotheses 1 and 2.
Regarding the impact of
unionization, we also collected data on the number of unions
that organizations had
to work with, as well as the number of problems that
organizations had with unions
in the preceding year, such as strikes, work stoppages, and
intensive negotiations.
The results do not differ significantly for the alternative
measures. We found that
knowledge intensity does not significantly influence CHRO
presence. Therefore,
hypothesis 3 is not supported. However, we also determined that
the presence of a
CHRO is more likely if a CEO is an outsider or new to the
position. These results
83. provide evidence in support of hypotheses 4 and 5. If the CHRO
position is
institutionalized within an organization or industry, the
presence of a CHRO is also
more probable, which supports hypotheses 6 and 7 (models 3
and 5), although with
low significance. We found that the CEO’s HR experience, on
the other hand, has
no impact on CHRO presence, while the TMT’s HR experience
has a negative
impact on CHRO presence in model 4. Thus, no evidence for
hypotheses 8 and 9
was found.
Among the different theories on CHRO presence (models 2–4),
the institution-
alization theory explains the most variance, as the variables of
this theory result in
the lowest QICC value.5 When all variables are put in one
model (model 5), the
contingency factors ‘‘unionization’’ and ‘‘change in the number
of employees’’ and
the variable ‘‘TMT HR experience’’ lose their significant effect
on CHRO presence,
84. the contingency variables ‘‘Outsider CEO’’ and ‘‘New CEO’’
and the variable
‘‘institutionalization within the industry’’ decrease in
significance, and the variable
‘‘institutionalization within the firm’’ remains highly
significant (p 0.001).
Although we attempted to identify the most relevant
contingencies in advance,
the low variance explained by the contingency factors could be
due to the lack of
application of all relevant contingencies. To gain deeper
insight, we also calculated
our models with additional contingencies, such as labor
intensity (assets/employ-
ees), average pay (salaries and benefits/employees),
productivity (sales/employees),
and unstable productivity (productivity t - 2/productivity t - 1).
However, none of
these contingencies decreased the QICC by more than 5.00.
Another possibility may
be that CHROs are only present when there are certain
combinations of antecedent
conditions (Huselid 1995; Pfeffer 1998). For instance, the
representation of unions
85. is more influential in big firms than in medium-sized firms. To
explore such
possibilities, we also examined 14 two-way interactions and
combined all
contingency factors with each other. Furthermore, we combined
the contingencies
5 QICC is the corrected version of the quasi-likelihood under
the independence criterion, which penalizes
for model complexity. QICC can be used to choose the best
model and, therefore, the best subset of
predictors. A smaller QICC value indicates a better model fit.
Business Research (2017) 10:49–77 65
123
‘‘rate of unionization’’ and ‘‘knowledge intensity’’ with the
control variable ‘‘size.’’
The likelihood of CHRO presence increases when the CEO is an
outsider and
simultaneously new to the position. However, apart from this
combination, none of
Table 2 Reasons for CHRO presence
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5
87. Outsider CEO 2.93** 2.03*
(0.21) (0.20)
New CEO 1.33** 1.34*
(0.32) (0.35)
Institutionalization within industry 1.03** 1.04*
(0.16) (0.16)
Institutionalization within firm 7.72*** 6.72***
(0.53) (0.46)
CEO HR experience -0.07 -0.04
(0.04) (0.03)
TMT HR experience -0.79* -0.53
(0.14) (0.27)
QICC 914.17 895.62 358.00 908.53 354.60
N = 2150. Standard errors are in parentheses. All variables
besides CHRO presence and year were
measured in t - 1
Model 1 includes only control variables, model 2 control and
contingency variables, model 3 control and
institutional variables, model 4 control and homophily
variables, and model 5 control, contingency,
88. institutional, and homophily variables. Size is measured by a
firm’s number of employees less the mean
value at a two-digit SIC level (no logarithm is used). We used
M-dependent as working correlation
matrix structure and logit as link function
* p 0.05; ** p 0.01; *** p 0.001
66 Business Research (2017) 10:49–77
123
the other two-way interactions yielded significant results, nor
did any decrease
QICC by more than 5.00.
Since institutionalization in a firm was found to be a highly
significant antecedent
of CHRO presence, we examined the annual CHRO occurrence
in single firms more
closely (cf. Hambrick and Cannella 2004). We identified 102
firms (47.4 %) that
always had a CHRO during the observed 10-year period, and
compared them to the
57 firms (26.5 %) that did not have a CHRO at any time. We
defined ‘‘CHRO-
89. proneness’’ (1 if the firm had a CHRO for all 10 years) as a new
dependent variable,
and adjusted all antecedents and sizes by calculating the
averages across the
observed period. We also tested the influence of all contingency
factors on ‘‘CHRO-
proneness’’, ‘‘institutionalization within the industry’’, and
homophily variables, by
using logistic regressions. As our dependent variable ‘‘CHRO-
proneness’’ and
independent variable ‘‘institutionalization within firm’’
correlate by definition, we
excluded this antecedent from our analysis. We first tested the
variables from each
theory separately before combining all variables in one model.
The results, as shown
in Table 3, support those of the earlier GEE analyses. The
results for the variable
‘‘institutionalization within the industry’’ were particularly
notable, as they not only
had the most significant influence, but also explained the most
variance.
To ensure that the industry effects were due to
institutionalization and
90. legitimization aspects, rather than other industry peculiarities,
we also more closely
considered CHRO presence by industry. Table 4 shows that, at
this level of analysis,
there are major differences in the percentages of CHRO
presence. To determine
whether the differences are caused by legitimacy aspects or
context conditions, we
examined whether our contingency variables varied
systematically across industries
and verified these results with the different industry measures
published by the US
Bureau of Labor Statistics. We controlled for the possibility
that unemployment
rates, mass layoff events, wages of employees, injury rates,
training requirements,
qualifications of workers, hours worked per week, or benefits
offered by trade (e.g.,
health insurance, pension plans) influenced the incidence of
CHROs. However, no
underlying pattern could be found. Although it is possible that
industries develop
conventions or traditions that predispose them to having a
CHRO, this incidence is
91. not anchored with any observable contextual contingency.
4 Discussion and directions for further research
The purpose of this study was to determine the factors
associated with the likelihood
of a CHRO on a TMT, and establish what theories are suitable
for explaining these
factors.
By testing different theories and exploring approaches that
motivate having a
TMT member primarily responsible for HR issues, we analyzed
different rationales
for the composition of TMTs. In doing so, we particularly
contribute to the growing,
but still sparse, body of upper echelon research that analyzes
the determinants of
particular functional TMT roles. As the presence of a CHRO is
an important factor
for HR influence on corporate strategy, this study equally
contributes to the dialog
on the strategic role of HRM (e.g., Caldwell 2003; Hailey et al.
2005; Pfeffer 1998;
Business Research (2017) 10:49–77 67
92. 123
Ulrich et al. 2012) by providing rationale for the differing HR
influence at the
corporate level.
Our results show that the institutional theory explains most of
the variance and
addresses the variables that have highly significant influences
on CHRO presence
(Paawe and Boselie 2003). Therefore, CHRO presence mainly
depends on social
legitimization aspects and internal and external environment
forces. This is an
important finding, as most upper echelon literature analyzing
the determinants of
Table 3 Results of logistic regression with CHRO-proneness as
dependent variable
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5
Constant -4.58 -5.69 -4.33 -3.18 -3.71
(3.18) (3.54) (2.85) (2.33) (3.18)
Size 0.34* 0.32* 0.29* 0.31* 0.24*
(0.05) (0.05) (0.04) (0.05) (0.05)
94. CEO HR experience -0.15 0.07
(0.16) (0.11)
TMT HR experience -0.16 -0.26
(0.09) (0.10)
Nagelkerke’s R2 0.14 0.26 0.30 0.17 0.37
N = 159. Standard errors are in parentheses. All variables
besides CHRO presence were measured in
t - 1
Model 1 includes only control variables, model 2 control and
contingency variables, model 3 control and
institutional variables, model 4 control and homophily
variables, and model 5 control, contingency,
institutional, and homophily variables. Size is measured by a
firm’s number of employees less the mean
value at a two-digit SIC level (no logarithm is used)
*p 0.05; ** p 0.01; *** p 0.001
68 Business Research (2017) 10:49–77
123
TMT structure has concentrated on contingency factors (e.g.,
95. Hambrick and
Cannella 2004; Marcel 2009; Menz and Scheef 2014; Nath and
Mahajan 2008). In
summary, by applying the institutional theory, our research has
two important
insights: (1) CHRO presence is subject to intra-organizational
inertia (Hannan and
Freeman 1977; 1984), and (2) CHRO presence is subject to
industry-level traditions
or inclinations.
The evidence for the tendency toward intra-organizational
inertia contrasts with
extant research that assumes or emphasizes that the composition
of a TMT is at least
implicitly revisited each year (Hambrick and Cannella 2004;
Nath and Mahajan
2008). CHRO-proneness appears to be a characteristic that
organizations either have
or do not have, is deeply embedded within organizational
culture, and reflects a
tendency to give high strategic importance to HR-related
considerations (Baron and
Hannan 2002; Hannan et al. 2006).
96. That industry-level traditions and inclinations explain the most
variance is partly
in line and partly at odds with the insights and underlying
paradigms of strategic
management research. The classic industrial organization
theories argue that
industry structures determine business approaches (in our case,
HRM practices) and
performance, while more recent evidence shows the impact of
antecedents at the
business and corporate levels (for a review of this discussion,
see McGahan and
Porter 2002). Industry life cycle theorists (e.g., Klepper 1997)
suggest that the
maturity of an industry heavily influences the degree to which
the industry or
business/firm effects can explain variance. Similarly, the logic
underlying institu-
tional theory is that pioneers employ contingency rationales,
while later adopters
seek legitimacy in their organizational structures by imitating
other firms
(DiMaggio and Powell 1983; Meyer and Rowan 1977).
Unfortunately, our sample
97. does not allow for a systematic exploration of imitation effects
in industries in a
manner that corresponds to institutional theory. To facilitate
inferences about
precursors and followers, and therefore about imitation, future
research should
involve the observation of an entire industry over an extended
period of time. This
Table 4 Percentage of CHRO presence by industry
Industry SIC %
Food and kindred products 20 15.2
Furniture and fixtures 25 27.6
Paper and allied products 26 44.5
Chemicals and allied products 28 67.7
Rubber and plastic products 30 27.1
Fabricated metal products 34 47.6
Machinery and computer equipment 35 45.7
Electronic and other electrical equipment 36 22.1
Transportation equipment 37 66.0
Instruments and clocks 38 31.2
98. Communications 48 62.7
Business services 73 24.9
Business Research (2017) 10:49–77 69
123
would also allow for the comparison of followers and non-
adapters and, therefore,
generate hypotheses regarding why some firms imitate the
symbolic and strategic
decision to have a CHRO, and what role mimetic, normative and
coercive pressures
play in this process (following, e.g., the abovementioned
propositions by Paawe and
Boselie 2003). Analyzing complex institutionalization processes
and historical
patterns may also improve the understanding of TMT
heterogeneity across
industries. Finally, the inclusion of a more ‘‘agentic’’ view
within institutional
theory, as opposed to the ‘‘structuralist camp’’ on which we
have relied so far
(Heugens and Lander 2009), may assist in determining why
firms may deviate from
99. well-established norms and act as institutional entrepreneurs to
create CHRO roles.
In addition to institutionalization aspects, rational
considerations influence
CHRO presence. According to the contingency theory, CHRO
presence is more
beneficial and, therefore, more likely when critical areas of the
HR domain are more
complex and uncertain. The results for most of our contingency
variables, such as
the rate of unionization, strong increase or decrease in
employees, and having an
outsider or new CEO,6 support this assumption to a certain
extent. However,
whether this can be qualified as rational requires testing the
performance
implications of CHRO presence, in line with existing research
of chief officers
(see, e.g., Hambrick and Cannella 2004; Marcel 2009; Nath and
Mahajan 2008). We
do indeed have weak evidence that CHRO presence has positive
performance
implications, especially when HR issues cause complexity at the
apex of the firm
100. and/or other TMT members are less experienced in HRM (Abt
and zu Knyphausen-
Aufseß 2010). However, Hambrick (2007) argues that the
measurement of
performance implications makes more sense on the team level
than on the level
of individual team members (such as the CHRO).
Simultaneously, we believe a
careful evaluation of performance implications must go beyond
focusing on
financial success and should, for example, consider the
possibility that the CHRO
establishment primarily serves symbolic management functions
(see e.g., Galang
and Ferris 1997). Thus, we suggest a more careful theoretical
and empirical
conceptualization of firm performance from what has been
employed in existing
studies (Miller et al. 2013). We also believe that a better
understanding of the daily
function of a CHRO and how it is embedded into the overall
SHRM system is
required. To gain such an understanding, the application of a
strategy-as-practice
101. perspective could be helpful (for an overview see Jarzabkowski
and Spee 2009, and
for an application in TMT research Angwin et al. 2009). The
inclusion of these
additional theoretical perspectives as well as empirical
approaches are beyond the
scope of our paper, but present opportunities for further
research.
The formulated homophily hypotheses could not be confirmed
by our results. In
opposition to the principles of the homophily theory, some
researchers argue that
diversity exists among members of task-oriented teams,
especially with respect to
achieved characteristics, such as functional backgrounds (Ruef
et al. 2003; for meta-
studies on the diversity perspective, see Homberg and Bui 2013
and Horwitz and
Horwitz 2007). In our study, TMT or CEO HR experience had
neither a significant
6 Our results regarding the impact of knowledge intensity on
CHRO presence will be briefly discussed
below.
102. 70 Business Research (2017) 10:49–77
123
positive nor negative influence on CHRO presence. Thus,
neither the homophily
theory nor diversity approaches were empirically supported.
Nevertheless, we
believe that homophily aspects influence CHRO presence,
possibly in the more
indirect way as suggested by Zhu and Westphal (2014; see
footnote 4). It is possible
that the relevant aspect is not necessarily the CEOs’ or TMTs’
HRM experience,
measured by the years served in this functional domain, but
rather their openness
and affinity for the HR aspects of the business (Groysberg et al.
2011). This
presumption should be tested in the future through personal
interviews or
questionnaires, as related psychological attitudes cannot be
measured by objective
data. We are, however, aware of the difficulty in gaining access
to TMT members.
103. In addition, our study only focused on US firms, which are
dominated by a
corporate governance system that considers shareholder value as
the cornerstone of
corporate performance, implying that CFOs have risen within
the TMT and are now
second to the CEOs (Zorn 2004). Given this, other TMT
positions, such as the
CHRO, have a less important role for US firms. Studies by
scholars such as Farndale
and Paauwe (2007) and Pudelko (2006) show that national
institutional drivers help
shape HRM systems and practices, indicating the need to study
more than intra-firm
or industry levels to understand the role of institutional
embeddedness in the HRM
context. Moreover, since our sample only covered the period
between 1998 and
2007, it is possible that the relative weights of TMT positions,
including the position
of the CHRO, have changed following the 2008 financial crisis
(Sparrow et al.
2013). This implies the need for more recent and comprehensive
data that allow us
104. to consider the rise and fall of different chief officer positions
within TMTs. This
perspective also suggests that further research is required using
samples that include
other countries and reflect the ‘‘varieties of capitalism’’ (Hall
and Soskice 2001) and
their development at the intersection between financial and
human capital. The
Cranfield Network on International Human Resource
Management (CRANET)
studies strategic HRM issues in more than 40 countries, but
without a distinctive
consideration of the CHRO position (for an overview see Parry
et al. 2011).
Crossland and Hambrick (2011) investigate differences of
managerial discretion
across 15 countries, and Doms and zu Knyphausen-Aufseß
(2014) present an upper
echelon study based on a three-country sample, again without a
specific focus on
CHROs. Our call for research in this direction might be of
special interest for
German researchers since the German co-determination act of
1976 makes the
105. establishment of a ‘‘labor director’’ for companies with more
than 2000 employees
obligatory, suggesting that the CHRO position might be more
established in
Germany compared to the US. This also presents the possibility
that our binary
assumption that companies either have or do not have a CHRO
position may be too
simplistic since single TMT members may have multiple
functions. Therefore, this
also presents an opportunity for future research.7
Finally, the emergence of CHROs goes beyond influencing
strategic decisions
within particular organizations (Menz 2012). At the macro
level, the HR community
is establishing its power and influence within industries and the
overall economy by
placing members in the upper echelons of organizations (cf.
Hambrick and Mason
7 We thank an anonymous reviewer for this suggestion.
Business Research (2017) 10:49–77 71
123
106. 1984). As stated, there are reasons to believe that this
development is related to the
development of modern capitalism and how modern
technologies (most importantly
digital technologies) impact the role of labor and the need for
HR qualifications
(see, e.g., Brynjolfsson and McAfee 2014). From this point of
view, the implications
for CHRO research go beyond particular organizations or
particular industries. In
particular, our hypothesis regarding the impact of knowledge
intensity, which may
coincide with the increasing technology orientation within
modern society, on
CHRO presence could not be confirmed in our empirical study.
This presents the
need for a detailed analysis of knowledge and technology-
related aspects on the
development of SHRM and the role of CHROs. This would also
provide valuable
insight into the role of the CHRO, not only important for HR or
TMT researchers
and practitioners, but also for those with broader interests in the
development of our
107. economy and society, particularly in the aftermath of the 2007–
2008 financial crisis
that, according to historians such as Rödder (2015),
significantly impacted the rules
of the capitalistic game.
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits
unrestricted use, dis-
tribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give
appropriate credit to the original
author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative
Commons license, and indicate if changes were
made.
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131. Business Research is a copyright of Springer, 2017. All Rights
Reserved.
Chief human resources officers on top management teams: an
empirical analysis of contingency, institutional, and homophily
antecedentsAbstractIntroductionContext, theory, and
hypothesesThe head of HR in US firmsRoles of CHROs in
TMTsSelection of theory perspectivesCHROs on TMTs: a
contingency perspectiveRepresentation of unionsStrategic and
organizational changeKnowledge intensityOutsider CEONew
CEOCHROs on TMTs: an institutionalization
mechanismCHROs as a homophilic phenomenonResearch
methodologyOperationalization of the TMT members and CHRO
presenceAntecedentsAntecedents belonging to contingency
theoryAntecedents belonging to institutional theoryAntecedents
belonging to homophily theoryControlsAnalysis and
resultsReasons for CHRO presenceOpen AccessReferences
BUSI 240
Discussion Assignment Instructions
The Discussions present an opportunity for you to evaluate
yourself and your role within your organization. For the
assigned Module: Week, you will complete multiple self-
assessment activities and select one to discuss. You will be
required to write a thread of at least 250 words on the self-
assessment, complete with page references and specifics to
document the response, and submit it to the corresponding
Discussion Thread. Correct use of English and grammar are
required. You will find the Self-Assessment Activities in
Connect.
Additionally, you will be required to submit a substantive
written reply of at least 100 words to at least 2 classmates’
Discussion Threads.
To complete your thread:
1. Complete four self-assessments. Select one to discuss with
the class.
2. Conduct a search through the
132. Jerry Falwell Library, which can be found in the
Disccussion Assignment Resources, to find and read 1
recent scholarly business article that relates to the self-
assessment content.
3.
Submit a thread that contains the following information
in the following format, using the headers so that you ensure
that all aspects of the assignment are completed as required.
Failure to follow these instructions will result in a point
deductions.
a.
Self-assessment: Give a brief explanation of the
selected self-assessment and your results. The textbook should
be used and cited for this portion of the assignment.
b.
Discussion:
i. Give a brief discussion of how the article relates to the self-
assessment and how you can use the self-assessment results to
contribute to an organization. This gives you the opportunity to
add value to the discussion by sharing your experiences,
thoughts, and opinions. Draw your peers into discussion of
topics by asking questions. This is the most important part of
the thread.
ii. Biblical Integration: Use at least one appropriate scripture
verse or narrative from the Bible to support your discussion and
use it in proper context. How can you apply Scripture to the
assessment results?
c.
References: Each reference and article read must adhere
to current APA edition format. Include the complete URL for
the selected article (use a persistent link for articles from the
Jerry Falwell Library). These do not count toward the