Whatever happened to human
resource management
performance?
Peter Prowse and Julie Prowse
University of Bradford, Bradford, UK
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to critically explore the evidence that human resource
management (HRM) could contribute to the improvement of organizational and individual
performance. It aims to examine the historical development of HRM and its emergence as a distinct
management discipline. The evidence indicates that HRM is the product of several different traditions
that range from a concern with employee welfare to the development of workplace relationships. The
paper critically re-evaluates what human performance is and assesses its contribution to
organizational effectiveness. What is particularly important is the lack of empirical literature on the
contribution of HRM and business performance. This paper will call for the re-evaluation of more
contemporary criteria of how people contribute to organizational performance in private, public and
the emerging non-profit making sectors.
Design/methodology/approach – The methodology adopted in this research uses critical
literature on the contribution of human resource management performance.
Findings – The main finding of this research is the understanding of the problems of research design
in measuring the contribution of HRM to develop performance in organizations.
Research limitations/implications – The research presented in this paper needs to review and
standardize comparative research design to confirm the performance of HRM in organizations. It
compares the alternative perspectives of measuring performance in financial criteria.
Originality/value – This paper reviews the research between key authors for exploring the
correlation between HRM and organizational performance for future research and examines the
influence of human resource professional bodies.
Keywords Human resource management, Performance measurement (quality), Critical success factors
Paper type Literature review
Introduction
This chapter evaluates the contribution of human resource management (HRM) to
improving organisational performance. What is evident from the literature is the
linkages between human resource management and organizational performance. One
of the key issues that needs to be examined is exactly what type of performance and
the contribution of HR techniques to increase performance.
Initially, the chapter evaluates the historical development of performance
management from the HRM literature before evaluating the debates on efficiency
and performance. It then outlines the development of HRM techniques designed to
evaluate the outcomes of HRM to improve organizational and individual performance,
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/1741-0401.htm
The authors would like to thank the Editor and anonymous referees for their helpful comments
and suggestions.
Human resource
management
performance
.
Strategic human resource management a choice or compulsionAlexander Decker
This document discusses the evolution of strategic human resource management (SHRM) from personnel management to human resource management. It outlines the debate around whether SHRM should be a choice or compulsion for organizations. The document reviews literature on the relationship between business strategy and human resource management practices. It identifies gaps in existing research regarding integrating different HR practices and determining whether a best fit or best practice approach provides competitive advantage. The objective is to analyze whether SHRM should be a choice or compulsion based on a review of SHRM and its benefits for organizational sustainability.
The document discusses the strategic perspective of human resource development (HRD) and its link to business strategy and organizational performance. It covers the roots and models of HRM/HRD, including hard, soft, and strategic variants. HRD can provide competitive advantage by developing firm-specific competencies. The document also discusses linking HRD to business strategy through reactive, proactive, and matching models. Finally, it discusses how effective HRD that is properly configured can directly contribute to and improve organizational performance.
This document provides an overview of perspectives in human resource management and the evolution of the field. It discusses three main management perspectives: 1) the scientific or closed system focused on control and efficiency; 2) the human relations or semi-open system incorporated some welfare practices but still emphasized top-down control; and 3) the open system views the organization as organic and emphasizes developing human resources as key to performance. The document then discusses personnel management and its replacement by the contemporary field of human resource management, which is oriented toward business strategy and competitive advantage. It proposes using models to analyze the impact of different "hard" and "soft" HRM approaches on organizational outcomes.
A Framework For Comparative Institutional Research On HRMJames Heller
This document presents a framework for comparative institutional research on human resource management (HRM). It argues that most influential HRM research lacks consideration of external context. The framework is based on economic institutional theory and aims to bring context back into HRM research. It validates the framework using existing publications on institutionally based comparative HRM from 2007-2017. The framework considers how national institutions shape HRM practices in organizations operating across countries. It argues this approach reflects the reality faced by HRM practitioners more than existing context-free research.
Best perspectives to human resource management by Arrey Mbongaya Ivoivo arrey
Publication
Best perspectives to human resource management
Author: Ivo Arrey Mbongaya
African Centre for Community and Development
P.O. Box 181 Limbe Cameroon
Content
1.0 Introduction, Perspectives in Management and the genesis of Human Resource Management
1.1 Scientific or Closed management, Human Relations or Semi open system, Open System or Contingency system
1.2 Personnel management/ Personnel Manager
1.3 The genesis of Human Resource Management(HRM)/Defining Human Resource Management
1.4 What is ‘Hard’ and ‘Soft’ HRM?
1.5 The Debate between Human Relations(HR) and Human Resource Management(HRM)
1.6 The Human Resource Manager and his role
2.0 Attempting a framework for Human Resource Management(HRM)
2.1 Using HRM as a style, a strategy and an outcome
2.2 Is HRM a restatement of Personnel Management?
2.3 Is HRM a new managerial discipline?
2.4 HRM as a resource-based dimension of management
2.5 The Strategic and international possibilities of HRM
3.0Using some models of HRM to critically assess HRM “Hard” and “Soft” Approaches.
3.1The Harvard Model
3.2The Michigan Model
3.3Guest comparative models
3.4The ‘Choice Model’ and its benefits.
4.0The influence of senior management and their Effectiveness
4.1 policy makers
4.2 senior managers and their frames of reference
4.3 The more effective the better the policies
4.4 The Japanese example
5.0 Conclusion, limitations and proposals
5.1HRM a widespread contemporary, evolving & contingent tool
5.2The ‘softness’ of HRM, “bundles” and performance
5.3 Holistic thinking, right and egalitarian based HRM
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
This study is primarily designed to shed light on the conflicting views between the human resource
management (HRM) and industrial relations (IR) and how these two concepts can be reconciled through
providing evidences and literatures. Further, it also discusses the critical points and arguments that support the
claim that these two terms are separate and independently applied in business context but at the same time can be
combined to attain higher rate of success. To achieve the research objective, this study made use of secondary
data to gather information from books and articles and to lay out the arguments supported with appropriate
theories and literatures. The findings revealed that indeed there is difference in the concept between HRM and IR
as well as its applicability although these two terms are both used in businesses. However; it is suggested that
extensive studies can be conducted to gather more evidences to link these two concepts and considering that
arguments were mainly interpreted by the author, different perspectives are welcomed to evaluate further its
relevance especially in Sultanate of Oman where IR is perceived to be in infancy stage.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of performance appraisal. It discusses how early research from the 1950s to 1980s focused on developing different rating scales to reduce biases. Starting in the 1980s, research examined common rating errors and whether bias-free appraisals were truly accurate. Recent research has explored measuring employee attitudes towards performance appraisal systems and their effectiveness. The document also reviews literature on various ethical issues in human resource management practices.
Strategic human resource management a choice or compulsionAlexander Decker
This document discusses the evolution of strategic human resource management (SHRM) from personnel management to human resource management. It outlines the debate around whether SHRM should be a choice or compulsion for organizations. The document reviews literature on the relationship between business strategy and human resource management practices. It identifies gaps in existing research regarding integrating different HR practices and determining whether a best fit or best practice approach provides competitive advantage. The objective is to analyze whether SHRM should be a choice or compulsion based on a review of SHRM and its benefits for organizational sustainability.
The document discusses the strategic perspective of human resource development (HRD) and its link to business strategy and organizational performance. It covers the roots and models of HRM/HRD, including hard, soft, and strategic variants. HRD can provide competitive advantage by developing firm-specific competencies. The document also discusses linking HRD to business strategy through reactive, proactive, and matching models. Finally, it discusses how effective HRD that is properly configured can directly contribute to and improve organizational performance.
This document provides an overview of perspectives in human resource management and the evolution of the field. It discusses three main management perspectives: 1) the scientific or closed system focused on control and efficiency; 2) the human relations or semi-open system incorporated some welfare practices but still emphasized top-down control; and 3) the open system views the organization as organic and emphasizes developing human resources as key to performance. The document then discusses personnel management and its replacement by the contemporary field of human resource management, which is oriented toward business strategy and competitive advantage. It proposes using models to analyze the impact of different "hard" and "soft" HRM approaches on organizational outcomes.
A Framework For Comparative Institutional Research On HRMJames Heller
This document presents a framework for comparative institutional research on human resource management (HRM). It argues that most influential HRM research lacks consideration of external context. The framework is based on economic institutional theory and aims to bring context back into HRM research. It validates the framework using existing publications on institutionally based comparative HRM from 2007-2017. The framework considers how national institutions shape HRM practices in organizations operating across countries. It argues this approach reflects the reality faced by HRM practitioners more than existing context-free research.
Best perspectives to human resource management by Arrey Mbongaya Ivoivo arrey
Publication
Best perspectives to human resource management
Author: Ivo Arrey Mbongaya
African Centre for Community and Development
P.O. Box 181 Limbe Cameroon
Content
1.0 Introduction, Perspectives in Management and the genesis of Human Resource Management
1.1 Scientific or Closed management, Human Relations or Semi open system, Open System or Contingency system
1.2 Personnel management/ Personnel Manager
1.3 The genesis of Human Resource Management(HRM)/Defining Human Resource Management
1.4 What is ‘Hard’ and ‘Soft’ HRM?
1.5 The Debate between Human Relations(HR) and Human Resource Management(HRM)
1.6 The Human Resource Manager and his role
2.0 Attempting a framework for Human Resource Management(HRM)
2.1 Using HRM as a style, a strategy and an outcome
2.2 Is HRM a restatement of Personnel Management?
2.3 Is HRM a new managerial discipline?
2.4 HRM as a resource-based dimension of management
2.5 The Strategic and international possibilities of HRM
3.0Using some models of HRM to critically assess HRM “Hard” and “Soft” Approaches.
3.1The Harvard Model
3.2The Michigan Model
3.3Guest comparative models
3.4The ‘Choice Model’ and its benefits.
4.0The influence of senior management and their Effectiveness
4.1 policy makers
4.2 senior managers and their frames of reference
4.3 The more effective the better the policies
4.4 The Japanese example
5.0 Conclusion, limitations and proposals
5.1HRM a widespread contemporary, evolving & contingent tool
5.2The ‘softness’ of HRM, “bundles” and performance
5.3 Holistic thinking, right and egalitarian based HRM
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
This study is primarily designed to shed light on the conflicting views between the human resource
management (HRM) and industrial relations (IR) and how these two concepts can be reconciled through
providing evidences and literatures. Further, it also discusses the critical points and arguments that support the
claim that these two terms are separate and independently applied in business context but at the same time can be
combined to attain higher rate of success. To achieve the research objective, this study made use of secondary
data to gather information from books and articles and to lay out the arguments supported with appropriate
theories and literatures. The findings revealed that indeed there is difference in the concept between HRM and IR
as well as its applicability although these two terms are both used in businesses. However; it is suggested that
extensive studies can be conducted to gather more evidences to link these two concepts and considering that
arguments were mainly interpreted by the author, different perspectives are welcomed to evaluate further its
relevance especially in Sultanate of Oman where IR is perceived to be in infancy stage.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of performance appraisal. It discusses how early research from the 1950s to 1980s focused on developing different rating scales to reduce biases. Starting in the 1980s, research examined common rating errors and whether bias-free appraisals were truly accurate. Recent research has explored measuring employee attitudes towards performance appraisal systems and their effectiveness. The document also reviews literature on various ethical issues in human resource management practices.
Running Head STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT APPROACHES1ST.docxtoltonkendal
This literature review examines strategic human resource management approaches and their impact on organizational performance among a multigenerational workforce. It discusses the origin and definition of SHRM, key SHRM concepts and models, the role of SHRM in strategic planning, how SHRM is applied to recruiting and retaining multiple generations of employees, and how SHRM benefits organizational performance. The review finds that integrating SHRM into strategic planning and tailoring practices like recruitment, training, and compensation to different generations can improve an organization's effectiveness. However, more research is still needed to address inconsistencies between SHRM theories and practices.
This document provides teaching notes for a session on the practice of human resource management. It includes an outline of topics to be covered such as definitions of HRM, its objectives and characteristics. It also discusses how HRM has developed as a concept and reservations about it. Key concepts are defined, like hard HRM and strategic integration. Questions are provided for discussion on the nature of HRM and its focus on employees as resources or human beings. A bibliography lists additional references on the topic.
This document provides teaching notes for a session on the practice of human resource management. It includes an outline of topics to be covered such as definitions of HRM, its objectives and characteristics. A concept map shows the key concepts and practices of HRM and how they are related. Definitions are also provided for important terms like commitment, contingency theory, hard HRM, and soft HRM. The notes aim to give an overview of HRM as a strategic approach to effectively managing an organization's employees.
Strategic human resource management technology effect and implication for dis...IJECEIAES
This document discusses strategic human resource management and the effects of technology on HR. It summarizes previous research on the importance of strategic HR planning and alignment with organizational goals. The changing nature of work and the changing role of HR is discussed, including a shift toward more strategic involvement. The importance of HR activities and management is also discussed in the context of non-government organizations. A field study was conducted of 105 Saudi employees to understand attitudes toward the effects of distance learning and training on HR management and development.
A Study On The Impact Of Human Resource Management On The Performance At An E...Linda Garcia
This document summarizes a research study on the impact of human resource management (HRM) practices on the performance of an educational institution in India. The study examines how HRM practices like training, performance appraisal, career planning, employee participation, job definition, compensation and selection affect the institution's performance. It reviews several models of HRM including the Harvard model, Michigan model, and Guest comparative model. The literature review discusses previous findings on the relationship between HRM practices and organizational performance. The document provides context on the educational institution studied and outlines the objective to identify factors impacting its performance.
Chapter 5 The reality of SHRMIntroduction The reality of str.docxbartholomeocoombs
Chapter 5 The reality of SHRM
Introduction
The reality of strategic HRM (SHRM) as it has evolved over the years is that it has remained over-concerned with the interests of the business and its shareholders. But it is also an academic construct that seems to leave practitioners cold. In this chapter the reality and limitations of the SHRM concept are discussed and a case is made for modifying the approach.
The reality of SHRM
The rationale for SHRM is the perceived advantage of having an agreed and understood basis for developing and implementing approaches to human resource management which takes into account the corporate plans and priorities of the organization and the changing context in which it operates. As Dyer and Holder (1988: 13) remarked, SHRM should provide ‘unifying frameworks which are at once broad, contingency based and integrative’. This is compelling stuff. But a literature review of SHRM by Armstrong and Brown (2018) left them the impression that it is more of an academic construct than a description of the reality of strategy formulation and implementation in organizations. Brown et al (2019: 43) commented following their research for the Institute for Employment Studies (IES) that: ‘Maybe the proponents of strategic HRM had some very pertinent ideas but used jargon which got in the way of people management becoming genuinely more strategic.’ The IES researchers were struck by the absence in current HR language of the term strategic human resource management. It is interesting to note that the CIPD’s New Profession Map (CIPD, 2018) setting out its professional standards does not mention it. Strategic HRM is a concept of some academic importance but less practical significance. It only becomes real when people management professionals and line managers jointly practise strategic management and together develop and implement people strategies which address the people and business requirements and issues facing their organization.
The limitations of SHRM
As emphasized by Armstrong and Brown (2018), a fundamental problem with SHRM is that it has been over-concerned with the interests of one set of stakeholders – meeting the needs of the shareholders and business leaders – and has been much less concerned with the interests of the other stakeholders, especially employees. This issue was raised by Kaye (1999) who asked the question: ‘Does SHRM benefit employees as well as their organizations?’ He observed that virtually all SHRM research takes the managerial/organizational perspective, with an emphasis on the consequences for organizational performance. This, he wrote, suggests that SHRM may be improving the bottom line of companies, but may also be hurting employees – especially when workers are viewed as commodities. Cascio (2015: 424) argued that: ‘In SHRM research, organizational performance is sometimes viewed only in terms of operational outcomes (productivity, quality, service, innovation) and financial outcomes (.
Human Resources Policies and Practices.pptxankit singh
This document discusses factors that shape human resource management (HRM) philosophies and policies in organizations. It finds that:
- A facilitation philosophy is dominant, focusing on employee autonomy and responsibility, while some organizations also follow an accumulation philosophy focused on long-term employee development.
- Ability-enhancing and motivation-enhancing policies are most common, including policies for training, HR planning, recruitment and selection, and performance management.
- Both external factors like regulations and market pressures, as well as internal factors like organizational structure influence the adoption of HRM philosophies and policies, sometimes leading to similarities across organizations but also differences based on each organization's unique characteristics.
Effects of Human Resource Management Practices on Financial Performance of Se...iosrjce
Human resources are the source of achieving competitive advantage because of its capability to
convert the other resources (money, machine, methods and material) in to output (product/service). The
competitor can imitate other resources like technology and capital but the human resource are unique. People
are one of the most important factors providing flexibility and adaptability to organizations. People (managers),
not the firm, are the adaptive mechanism in determining how the firm will respond to the competitive
environment. This study was guided by resource based theory. The study applied descriptive research design. In
this design, the researcher does not manipulate the variables under study but instead, examines the variables in
their existing condition. The study targeted middle level managers in selected agricultural firms in the sugar
industry. In total the sample size will comprise of 134 respondents. The main research instruments that were
used in this study were questionnaires. Data analysis involved both descriptive and inferential statistics using
SPSS (Statistical Packages for Social Sciences) Computer package. Qualitative data was analyzed thematically.
Correlation was used to analyze the degree of relationship between the variables in the study. The coefficient of
correlation (r), determine the degree (strength) of relationship and its value is between -1 and 1. Regression was
used to obtain an equation which describes the dependent variable in terms of the independent variable based
on the regression model, (regression is used to determine the type of relationship). Further, factor analysis was
undertaken in order to obtain a detailed perceptual and attitudinal aspects of the data. Data was presented in
the form of frequency distribution tables, graphs and pie charts that will facilitate description and explanation
of the study findings. The findings showed the correlation between Human Resource Management practices and
financial performance of selected agricultural firms in the sugar industry.
This document provides an overview of human resource management. It defines HRM and discusses its key dimensions. HRM involves managing employees to increase commitment, flexibility, quality, and integrating HR strategies with business strategies. The document also discusses human capital management and the four types of organizational assets. HR departments aim to facilitate relationships between HR staff and operating managers to jointly achieve organizational goals.
This document discusses strategic human resource management (SHRM). It begins by outlining key principles of SHRM including integrating HR policies with business planning, shifting responsibility for personnel management to senior managers, emphasizing employee commitment and initiative, and focusing on quality and flexibility. It then examines major theoretical approaches to SHRM, including universal, matching (closed), and matching (open) models. The document also provides context on the history and origins of SHRM as a concept emerging from management theories in the 1950s in response to economic challenges and broader social and technological changes. Finally, it reviews research on the relationship between SHRM practices and organizational performance, noting the challenges but also increasing confidence in a positive correlation.
This document discusses the effectiveness of US graduate HR programs in preparing principled and competent HR professionals. It identifies key competencies needed for HR professionals, such as business knowledge, strategic contribution, and HR delivery. A study found US programs developed some but not all competencies. The document recommends strategies for graduate programs to better develop the competencies needed in the 21st century global economy.
3HR StrategiesKey concepts and termsHigh commitment .docxlorainedeserre
3
HR Strategies
Key concepts and terms
High commitment management •
High performance management •
HR strategy •
High involvement management •
Horizontal fi t •
Vertical fi t •
On completing this chapter you should be able to defi ne these key concepts.
You should also understand:
Learning outcomes
T • he purpose of HR strategy
Specifi c HR strategy areas •
How HR strategy is formulated •
How the vertical integration of •
business and HR strategies is
achieved
How HR strategies can be set out •
General HR strategy areas •
The criteria for a successful HR •
strategy
The fundamental questions on •
the development of HR strategy
How horizontal fi t (bundling) is •
achieved
How HR strategies can be •
implemented
47
48 Human Resource Management
Introduction
As described in Chapter 2, strategic HRM is a mindset that leads to strategic actions and reac-
tions, either in the form of overall or specifi c HR strategies or strategic behaviour on the part
of HR professionals. This chapter focuses on HR strategies and answers the following ques-
tions: What are HR strategies? What are the main types of overall HR strategies? What are the
main areas in which specifi c HR strategies are developed? What are the criteria for an effective
HR strategy? How should HR strategies be developed? How should HR strategies be
implemented?
What are HR strategies?
HR strategies set out what the organization intends to do about its human resource manage-
ment policies and practices and how they should be integrated with the business strategy and
each other. They are described by Dyer and Reeves (1995) as ‘internally consistent bundles of
human resource practices’. Richardson and Thompson (1999) suggest that:
A strategy, whether it is an HR strategy or any other kind of management strategy must
have two key elements: there must be strategic objectives (ie things the strategy is sup-
posed to achieve), and there must be a plan of action (ie the means by which it is pro-
posed that the objectives will be met).
The purpose of HR strategies is to articulate what an organization intends to do about its
human resource management policies and practices now and in the longer term, bearing in
mind the dictum of Fombrun et al (1984) that business and managers should perform well in
the present to succeed in the future. HR strategies aim to meet both business and human needs
in the organization.
HR strategies may set out intentions and provide a sense of purpose and direction, but they are
not just long-term plans. As Gratton (2000) commented: ‘There is no great strategy, only great
execution.’
Because all organizations are different, all HR strategies are different. There is no such thing as
a standard strategy and research into HR strategy conducted by Armstrong and Long (1994)
and Armstrong and Baron (2002) revealed many variations. Some strategies are simply very
general declarations of intent. Others go into much more detail. ...
Introduction to Human Rresource M Lecture 1.pptYounas Khan
The document provides an introduction to human resource management (HRM). It defines HRM and personnel management, outlines the key roles and functions of HRM like recruitment, training, compensation, and developing employees. It also discusses different approaches to HRM, like the Harvard model which views employees as a key resource and the Michigan model which focuses more on cost-effectiveness. The document emphasizes that HRM plays an important role in tourism organizations by supporting managers and ensuring staffing needs are met.
This document summarizes a research study that examined the relationship between human resource management (HRM) practices and three types of outcomes in healthcare organizations: financial, organizational, and employee outcomes. The study used data from 162 Dutch home care, nursing care, and care home organizations. It found that HRM practices were directly or indirectly linked to improved outcomes in all three areas. Specifically, HRM practices were related to higher net margins (financial outcome), greater client satisfaction (organizational outcome), and lower sickness absence (employee outcome). Additionally, the impact of HRM practices was larger for organizational and employee outcomes than for financial outcomes. The study also found that job satisfaction fully mediated the relationship between HRM practices and organizational and employee outcomes
Assessing the effect of hrm practices in university of educationAqsa Nawab
This document discusses assessing the effects of human resource management (HRM) practices on employee job performance at the University of Education in Lahore, Pakistan. The study examines how recruitment, training, and reward practices impact employee job performance. It reviews literature on the relationships between HRM practices and performance. The study aims to determine which HRM practices significantly correlate with employee job performance. It hypothesizes that effective HRM practices positively influence employee job performance.
This document summarizes a research article that proposes using Strategic Reference Points (SRP) to codify human resource strategies. It discusses:
1) SRP uses two questions about organizational control and available labor to determine one of four HR strategies - secondary, paternal, contractual, or committed.
2) Each strategy is suited to different types of jobs and needs for permanent vs temporary employees.
3) SRP provides a framework to conceptually coordinate different organizational elements by creating common language and points of comparison. When HR strategies are aligned with organizational strategies through SRP, organizational performance can increase.
Hr human resource competencies an empirical study on the hrMarcus Vannini
This document summarizes a study examining the vital competencies of Human Resource (HR) professionals in the manufacturing sector in Malaysia. The study used a competency survey model to examine competencies in business knowledge, strategic contribution, HR delivery, personal credibility, and HR technology. A sample of 32 HR professionals from Malaysian manufacturing companies were surveyed. The analysis found that personal credibility and HR delivery competencies like personal communication, legal compliance, relationship building, and performance management were most highly ranked. Competencies in strategic contribution, business knowledge, and HR technology also showed significant correlation with firm performance.
Human resource management practices of selected companiesAlexander Decker
This document discusses a study that assessed the human resource management (HRM) practices of selected companies to develop a comprehensive HRM program. The study tested whether the extent of HRM tool usage differed based on company size (large, medium, small). It was found that there were no significant differences in HRM practices related to acquisition, maintenance, and relations. However, significant differences were found in development practices. The study concluded some companies lacked performance evaluation systems and recommended implementing such systems to improve training and development.
This presentation focuses on the Hard and Soft HRM. The Presenter also highlighted the Harvard, Michigan and Guest Theory of HRM. The presentation not only focuses on Hard and Soft HRM model, it also encompasses scopes of HRM.
·NEWSStates Take Aim at Social Welfare Programs By Ti.docxphilipnelson29183
·
NEWS
States Take Aim at Social Welfare Programs
By
Tierney Sneed
April 9, 2015 | 5:00 a.m. EDT
Bans on steak and tattoos attract national attention, but other provisions raise concerns among advocates for the poor.
A New Jersey woman pays for food using a welfare card in January. Lawmakers in Kansas and Missouri are considering laws that would restrict what welfare recipients can buy using food stamps and other forms of public assistance.
·
·
·
·
State lawmakers attracted national attention this week for seeking to ban the use of welfare funds on lingerie, fortune tellers or even cookies, proposals that reflect a renewed focus on scrutinizing the social safety net as the country rebounds from the Great Recession.
A Missouri bill introduced by Republican state Rep. Rick Brattin would outlaw the use of welfare funds to purchase chips, energy drinks, soft drinks, seafood and steak. Kansas legislation, which has passed both chambers and is on its way to Gov. Sam Brownback’s desk, is a more comprehensive overhaul of how the state administers its benefits.
OPINION
Food Stamps Work A Lot Better Than You Think
Critics say such measures stigmatize the poor and that Republicans, who are often behind the efforts, are simply playing politics in limiting assistance programs – especially since the money is provided by the federal government rather than the state. Proponents point out that states still share the administrative costs and have an interest in pursuing programs that are effective in getting people back to work, regardless of how they’re funded.
According to those who study welfare, recipients usually prioritize the money for essentials. So provisions like those in the Kansas bill – which outlaws spending welfare money at cruise ships, tattoo parlors, casino and strip clubs – are symbolic at best.
“It’s this old idea that the poor and welfare recipients are somehow different than the rest of us, that we need to put in place controls and regulations,” says Mark Rank, a Washington University professor and author of “Living on the Edge: The Realities of Welfare in America.”
“It is also feeding into this stereotype that people have a good life on welfare and are living it up and having lobster and steak,” he says, adding, “most people are struggling to get by and the job of being poor is a very hard job."
The very poor have access to public welfare through a number of federally funded programs administered by the states. Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) provides short-term funds for families struggling to make ends meet through an Electronic Benefit Transfer (EBT) card that works like a debit card. Through Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), households bringing in under a certain level of income can receive monthly allotments for food, also administered on an EBT card.
“The interest for state lawmakers has been that, even as as the economy has improved, they continue to see a lot of individuals being ad.
·Analyze HRM legal regulations and learn proper procedures for.docxphilipnelson29183
·
Analyze HRM legal regulations and learn proper procedures for reducing an organization’s liability to HRM legal problems
·
Explain the substance of the relationship between the employer, employee and independent contractor
·
Identify the duties and right of the parties in an employment contract as well as the liabilities of each in the event of non-compliance
·
Discuss issues in discrimination in hiring, Affirmative Action and Civil Rights
·
Explain government regulations of the workplace
·
Analyze and apply various HRM legal requirements
·
Use effective communication techniques.
·
Use team and problem-solving skills to collaborate on a project.
.
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This literature review examines strategic human resource management approaches and their impact on organizational performance among a multigenerational workforce. It discusses the origin and definition of SHRM, key SHRM concepts and models, the role of SHRM in strategic planning, how SHRM is applied to recruiting and retaining multiple generations of employees, and how SHRM benefits organizational performance. The review finds that integrating SHRM into strategic planning and tailoring practices like recruitment, training, and compensation to different generations can improve an organization's effectiveness. However, more research is still needed to address inconsistencies between SHRM theories and practices.
This document provides teaching notes for a session on the practice of human resource management. It includes an outline of topics to be covered such as definitions of HRM, its objectives and characteristics. It also discusses how HRM has developed as a concept and reservations about it. Key concepts are defined, like hard HRM and strategic integration. Questions are provided for discussion on the nature of HRM and its focus on employees as resources or human beings. A bibliography lists additional references on the topic.
This document provides teaching notes for a session on the practice of human resource management. It includes an outline of topics to be covered such as definitions of HRM, its objectives and characteristics. A concept map shows the key concepts and practices of HRM and how they are related. Definitions are also provided for important terms like commitment, contingency theory, hard HRM, and soft HRM. The notes aim to give an overview of HRM as a strategic approach to effectively managing an organization's employees.
Strategic human resource management technology effect and implication for dis...IJECEIAES
This document discusses strategic human resource management and the effects of technology on HR. It summarizes previous research on the importance of strategic HR planning and alignment with organizational goals. The changing nature of work and the changing role of HR is discussed, including a shift toward more strategic involvement. The importance of HR activities and management is also discussed in the context of non-government organizations. A field study was conducted of 105 Saudi employees to understand attitudes toward the effects of distance learning and training on HR management and development.
A Study On The Impact Of Human Resource Management On The Performance At An E...Linda Garcia
This document summarizes a research study on the impact of human resource management (HRM) practices on the performance of an educational institution in India. The study examines how HRM practices like training, performance appraisal, career planning, employee participation, job definition, compensation and selection affect the institution's performance. It reviews several models of HRM including the Harvard model, Michigan model, and Guest comparative model. The literature review discusses previous findings on the relationship between HRM practices and organizational performance. The document provides context on the educational institution studied and outlines the objective to identify factors impacting its performance.
Chapter 5 The reality of SHRMIntroduction The reality of str.docxbartholomeocoombs
Chapter 5 The reality of SHRM
Introduction
The reality of strategic HRM (SHRM) as it has evolved over the years is that it has remained over-concerned with the interests of the business and its shareholders. But it is also an academic construct that seems to leave practitioners cold. In this chapter the reality and limitations of the SHRM concept are discussed and a case is made for modifying the approach.
The reality of SHRM
The rationale for SHRM is the perceived advantage of having an agreed and understood basis for developing and implementing approaches to human resource management which takes into account the corporate plans and priorities of the organization and the changing context in which it operates. As Dyer and Holder (1988: 13) remarked, SHRM should provide ‘unifying frameworks which are at once broad, contingency based and integrative’. This is compelling stuff. But a literature review of SHRM by Armstrong and Brown (2018) left them the impression that it is more of an academic construct than a description of the reality of strategy formulation and implementation in organizations. Brown et al (2019: 43) commented following their research for the Institute for Employment Studies (IES) that: ‘Maybe the proponents of strategic HRM had some very pertinent ideas but used jargon which got in the way of people management becoming genuinely more strategic.’ The IES researchers were struck by the absence in current HR language of the term strategic human resource management. It is interesting to note that the CIPD’s New Profession Map (CIPD, 2018) setting out its professional standards does not mention it. Strategic HRM is a concept of some academic importance but less practical significance. It only becomes real when people management professionals and line managers jointly practise strategic management and together develop and implement people strategies which address the people and business requirements and issues facing their organization.
The limitations of SHRM
As emphasized by Armstrong and Brown (2018), a fundamental problem with SHRM is that it has been over-concerned with the interests of one set of stakeholders – meeting the needs of the shareholders and business leaders – and has been much less concerned with the interests of the other stakeholders, especially employees. This issue was raised by Kaye (1999) who asked the question: ‘Does SHRM benefit employees as well as their organizations?’ He observed that virtually all SHRM research takes the managerial/organizational perspective, with an emphasis on the consequences for organizational performance. This, he wrote, suggests that SHRM may be improving the bottom line of companies, but may also be hurting employees – especially when workers are viewed as commodities. Cascio (2015: 424) argued that: ‘In SHRM research, organizational performance is sometimes viewed only in terms of operational outcomes (productivity, quality, service, innovation) and financial outcomes (.
Human Resources Policies and Practices.pptxankit singh
This document discusses factors that shape human resource management (HRM) philosophies and policies in organizations. It finds that:
- A facilitation philosophy is dominant, focusing on employee autonomy and responsibility, while some organizations also follow an accumulation philosophy focused on long-term employee development.
- Ability-enhancing and motivation-enhancing policies are most common, including policies for training, HR planning, recruitment and selection, and performance management.
- Both external factors like regulations and market pressures, as well as internal factors like organizational structure influence the adoption of HRM philosophies and policies, sometimes leading to similarities across organizations but also differences based on each organization's unique characteristics.
Effects of Human Resource Management Practices on Financial Performance of Se...iosrjce
Human resources are the source of achieving competitive advantage because of its capability to
convert the other resources (money, machine, methods and material) in to output (product/service). The
competitor can imitate other resources like technology and capital but the human resource are unique. People
are one of the most important factors providing flexibility and adaptability to organizations. People (managers),
not the firm, are the adaptive mechanism in determining how the firm will respond to the competitive
environment. This study was guided by resource based theory. The study applied descriptive research design. In
this design, the researcher does not manipulate the variables under study but instead, examines the variables in
their existing condition. The study targeted middle level managers in selected agricultural firms in the sugar
industry. In total the sample size will comprise of 134 respondents. The main research instruments that were
used in this study were questionnaires. Data analysis involved both descriptive and inferential statistics using
SPSS (Statistical Packages for Social Sciences) Computer package. Qualitative data was analyzed thematically.
Correlation was used to analyze the degree of relationship between the variables in the study. The coefficient of
correlation (r), determine the degree (strength) of relationship and its value is between -1 and 1. Regression was
used to obtain an equation which describes the dependent variable in terms of the independent variable based
on the regression model, (regression is used to determine the type of relationship). Further, factor analysis was
undertaken in order to obtain a detailed perceptual and attitudinal aspects of the data. Data was presented in
the form of frequency distribution tables, graphs and pie charts that will facilitate description and explanation
of the study findings. The findings showed the correlation between Human Resource Management practices and
financial performance of selected agricultural firms in the sugar industry.
This document provides an overview of human resource management. It defines HRM and discusses its key dimensions. HRM involves managing employees to increase commitment, flexibility, quality, and integrating HR strategies with business strategies. The document also discusses human capital management and the four types of organizational assets. HR departments aim to facilitate relationships between HR staff and operating managers to jointly achieve organizational goals.
This document discusses strategic human resource management (SHRM). It begins by outlining key principles of SHRM including integrating HR policies with business planning, shifting responsibility for personnel management to senior managers, emphasizing employee commitment and initiative, and focusing on quality and flexibility. It then examines major theoretical approaches to SHRM, including universal, matching (closed), and matching (open) models. The document also provides context on the history and origins of SHRM as a concept emerging from management theories in the 1950s in response to economic challenges and broader social and technological changes. Finally, it reviews research on the relationship between SHRM practices and organizational performance, noting the challenges but also increasing confidence in a positive correlation.
This document discusses the effectiveness of US graduate HR programs in preparing principled and competent HR professionals. It identifies key competencies needed for HR professionals, such as business knowledge, strategic contribution, and HR delivery. A study found US programs developed some but not all competencies. The document recommends strategies for graduate programs to better develop the competencies needed in the 21st century global economy.
3HR StrategiesKey concepts and termsHigh commitment .docxlorainedeserre
3
HR Strategies
Key concepts and terms
High commitment management •
High performance management •
HR strategy •
High involvement management •
Horizontal fi t •
Vertical fi t •
On completing this chapter you should be able to defi ne these key concepts.
You should also understand:
Learning outcomes
T • he purpose of HR strategy
Specifi c HR strategy areas •
How HR strategy is formulated •
How the vertical integration of •
business and HR strategies is
achieved
How HR strategies can be set out •
General HR strategy areas •
The criteria for a successful HR •
strategy
The fundamental questions on •
the development of HR strategy
How horizontal fi t (bundling) is •
achieved
How HR strategies can be •
implemented
47
48 Human Resource Management
Introduction
As described in Chapter 2, strategic HRM is a mindset that leads to strategic actions and reac-
tions, either in the form of overall or specifi c HR strategies or strategic behaviour on the part
of HR professionals. This chapter focuses on HR strategies and answers the following ques-
tions: What are HR strategies? What are the main types of overall HR strategies? What are the
main areas in which specifi c HR strategies are developed? What are the criteria for an effective
HR strategy? How should HR strategies be developed? How should HR strategies be
implemented?
What are HR strategies?
HR strategies set out what the organization intends to do about its human resource manage-
ment policies and practices and how they should be integrated with the business strategy and
each other. They are described by Dyer and Reeves (1995) as ‘internally consistent bundles of
human resource practices’. Richardson and Thompson (1999) suggest that:
A strategy, whether it is an HR strategy or any other kind of management strategy must
have two key elements: there must be strategic objectives (ie things the strategy is sup-
posed to achieve), and there must be a plan of action (ie the means by which it is pro-
posed that the objectives will be met).
The purpose of HR strategies is to articulate what an organization intends to do about its
human resource management policies and practices now and in the longer term, bearing in
mind the dictum of Fombrun et al (1984) that business and managers should perform well in
the present to succeed in the future. HR strategies aim to meet both business and human needs
in the organization.
HR strategies may set out intentions and provide a sense of purpose and direction, but they are
not just long-term plans. As Gratton (2000) commented: ‘There is no great strategy, only great
execution.’
Because all organizations are different, all HR strategies are different. There is no such thing as
a standard strategy and research into HR strategy conducted by Armstrong and Long (1994)
and Armstrong and Baron (2002) revealed many variations. Some strategies are simply very
general declarations of intent. Others go into much more detail. ...
Introduction to Human Rresource M Lecture 1.pptYounas Khan
The document provides an introduction to human resource management (HRM). It defines HRM and personnel management, outlines the key roles and functions of HRM like recruitment, training, compensation, and developing employees. It also discusses different approaches to HRM, like the Harvard model which views employees as a key resource and the Michigan model which focuses more on cost-effectiveness. The document emphasizes that HRM plays an important role in tourism organizations by supporting managers and ensuring staffing needs are met.
This document summarizes a research study that examined the relationship between human resource management (HRM) practices and three types of outcomes in healthcare organizations: financial, organizational, and employee outcomes. The study used data from 162 Dutch home care, nursing care, and care home organizations. It found that HRM practices were directly or indirectly linked to improved outcomes in all three areas. Specifically, HRM practices were related to higher net margins (financial outcome), greater client satisfaction (organizational outcome), and lower sickness absence (employee outcome). Additionally, the impact of HRM practices was larger for organizational and employee outcomes than for financial outcomes. The study also found that job satisfaction fully mediated the relationship between HRM practices and organizational and employee outcomes
Assessing the effect of hrm practices in university of educationAqsa Nawab
This document discusses assessing the effects of human resource management (HRM) practices on employee job performance at the University of Education in Lahore, Pakistan. The study examines how recruitment, training, and reward practices impact employee job performance. It reviews literature on the relationships between HRM practices and performance. The study aims to determine which HRM practices significantly correlate with employee job performance. It hypothesizes that effective HRM practices positively influence employee job performance.
This document summarizes a research article that proposes using Strategic Reference Points (SRP) to codify human resource strategies. It discusses:
1) SRP uses two questions about organizational control and available labor to determine one of four HR strategies - secondary, paternal, contractual, or committed.
2) Each strategy is suited to different types of jobs and needs for permanent vs temporary employees.
3) SRP provides a framework to conceptually coordinate different organizational elements by creating common language and points of comparison. When HR strategies are aligned with organizational strategies through SRP, organizational performance can increase.
Hr human resource competencies an empirical study on the hrMarcus Vannini
This document summarizes a study examining the vital competencies of Human Resource (HR) professionals in the manufacturing sector in Malaysia. The study used a competency survey model to examine competencies in business knowledge, strategic contribution, HR delivery, personal credibility, and HR technology. A sample of 32 HR professionals from Malaysian manufacturing companies were surveyed. The analysis found that personal credibility and HR delivery competencies like personal communication, legal compliance, relationship building, and performance management were most highly ranked. Competencies in strategic contribution, business knowledge, and HR technology also showed significant correlation with firm performance.
Human resource management practices of selected companiesAlexander Decker
This document discusses a study that assessed the human resource management (HRM) practices of selected companies to develop a comprehensive HRM program. The study tested whether the extent of HRM tool usage differed based on company size (large, medium, small). It was found that there were no significant differences in HRM practices related to acquisition, maintenance, and relations. However, significant differences were found in development practices. The study concluded some companies lacked performance evaluation systems and recommended implementing such systems to improve training and development.
This presentation focuses on the Hard and Soft HRM. The Presenter also highlighted the Harvard, Michigan and Guest Theory of HRM. The presentation not only focuses on Hard and Soft HRM model, it also encompasses scopes of HRM.
Similar to Whatever happened to humanresource managementperformance.docx (20)
·NEWSStates Take Aim at Social Welfare Programs By Ti.docxphilipnelson29183
·
NEWS
States Take Aim at Social Welfare Programs
By
Tierney Sneed
April 9, 2015 | 5:00 a.m. EDT
Bans on steak and tattoos attract national attention, but other provisions raise concerns among advocates for the poor.
A New Jersey woman pays for food using a welfare card in January. Lawmakers in Kansas and Missouri are considering laws that would restrict what welfare recipients can buy using food stamps and other forms of public assistance.
·
·
·
·
State lawmakers attracted national attention this week for seeking to ban the use of welfare funds on lingerie, fortune tellers or even cookies, proposals that reflect a renewed focus on scrutinizing the social safety net as the country rebounds from the Great Recession.
A Missouri bill introduced by Republican state Rep. Rick Brattin would outlaw the use of welfare funds to purchase chips, energy drinks, soft drinks, seafood and steak. Kansas legislation, which has passed both chambers and is on its way to Gov. Sam Brownback’s desk, is a more comprehensive overhaul of how the state administers its benefits.
OPINION
Food Stamps Work A Lot Better Than You Think
Critics say such measures stigmatize the poor and that Republicans, who are often behind the efforts, are simply playing politics in limiting assistance programs – especially since the money is provided by the federal government rather than the state. Proponents point out that states still share the administrative costs and have an interest in pursuing programs that are effective in getting people back to work, regardless of how they’re funded.
According to those who study welfare, recipients usually prioritize the money for essentials. So provisions like those in the Kansas bill – which outlaws spending welfare money at cruise ships, tattoo parlors, casino and strip clubs – are symbolic at best.
“It’s this old idea that the poor and welfare recipients are somehow different than the rest of us, that we need to put in place controls and regulations,” says Mark Rank, a Washington University professor and author of “Living on the Edge: The Realities of Welfare in America.”
“It is also feeding into this stereotype that people have a good life on welfare and are living it up and having lobster and steak,” he says, adding, “most people are struggling to get by and the job of being poor is a very hard job."
The very poor have access to public welfare through a number of federally funded programs administered by the states. Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) provides short-term funds for families struggling to make ends meet through an Electronic Benefit Transfer (EBT) card that works like a debit card. Through Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), households bringing in under a certain level of income can receive monthly allotments for food, also administered on an EBT card.
“The interest for state lawmakers has been that, even as as the economy has improved, they continue to see a lot of individuals being ad.
·Analyze HRM legal regulations and learn proper procedures for.docxphilipnelson29183
·
Analyze HRM legal regulations and learn proper procedures for reducing an organization’s liability to HRM legal problems
·
Explain the substance of the relationship between the employer, employee and independent contractor
·
Identify the duties and right of the parties in an employment contract as well as the liabilities of each in the event of non-compliance
·
Discuss issues in discrimination in hiring, Affirmative Action and Civil Rights
·
Explain government regulations of the workplace
·
Analyze and apply various HRM legal requirements
·
Use effective communication techniques.
·
Use team and problem-solving skills to collaborate on a project.
.
~GOODWRITER~You have now delivered the project to your customer..docxphilipnelson29183
~GOODWRITER~
You have now delivered the project to your customer. Now, it is time to reflect on what went well and what didn’t go so well. Based on feedback throughout the course, what would you have done differently in terms of scope, resources, and / or schedule, and why?
-ORIGINAL WORK - ONLY
-MUST Pass Originality Report
-MUST Pass SAFEASSIGN Plagiarism Check - 12% or LESS
-List ALL Referenced Material - NO Wikipedia Please
-B or Above Grade
.
__ captures a mother and child at the table in __ Paula Modersohn .docxphilipnelson29183
__ captures a mother and child at the table in __
Paula Modersohn Becker reflects on mothering in her __
Sonia Delaunary embraces cubism with her piece entitled _
Pregnant Maria is by _
_Created the earth Goddess
Essay Identify some of the post modern trends movement that womrn artist have participatewo
.
__ de Dolores son médicos.Dolores tiene un tío que es __.A la ab.docxphilipnelson29183
El resumen habla sobre la familia de Dolores. Menciona que algunos de sus tíos son médicos, que su tío es algo en particular, y que a su abuela le gusta algo. También dice que el padre de Dolores es algo.
[removed]
World’s Biggest Public Companies
Start with the Excel workbook (spreadsheet) World’s Biggest Public Companies
– start.xlsx.
This
data
shows
information
produced
by Forbes
in terms
of the
World’s
Largest
Public
Companies.
In column
B, the
company’s
name
is displayed;
in column
C, the
country;
in
column
D, the
company’s
2013
sales;
in column
E, the
company’s
2013
profits;
in column
F,
the
company’s
2013
assets;
in column
G, the
company’s
2013
market
value.
In the
range
I1:M5,
you
will
see
the
first
matrix
that
you
will
need
to summarize,
where
the
goal
is to determine
the
median
value
of sales,
profits,
assets
and
market
value
respective
to the
corresponding
country.
However,
to date,
Excel
does
not
feature
a MEDIANIFS
function.
Thus,
you
will
have
to use
an array
formula
similar
to our
learning
activity.
Executing
this
statement
correctly
will
produce
a median
of the
desired
values
in the
dataset
for
the
given
country
of interest.
In the
range
I7:M11,
you
will
see
the
second
matrix
that
you
will
need
to sum
marize,
where
the
goal
is to determine
the
min
value
of sales,
profits,
assets
and
market
value
respective
to the
corresponding
country.
However,
to date,
Excel
does
not
feature
a MINIFS
function.
Thus,
you
will
have
to use
an array
formula
similar
to our
learning
activity.
Executing
this
statement
correctly
will
produce
a min
of the
desired
values
in the
dataset
for
the
given
country
of interest.
In the
range
I13:M17,
you
will
see
the
third
matrix
that
you
will
need
to summarize,
where
the
goal
is to deter
mine
the
max
value
of sales,
profits,
assets
and
market
value
respective
to the
corresponding
country.
However,
to date,
Excel
does
not
feature
a MAXIFS
function.
Thus,
you
will
have
to use
an array
formula
similar
to our
learning
activity.
Executing
this
statement
correctly
will
produce
a max
of the
desired
values
in the
dataset
for
the
given
country
of interest.
In the
range
I19:M
23,
you
will
see
the
third
matrix
that
you
will
need
to summarize,
where
the
goal
is to determine
the
standard
deviation
value
of sales,
profits,
assets
and
market
value
respective
to the
corresponding
country.
However,
to date,
Excel
does
not
feature
a
STDEV.S.IFS
function.
Thus,
you
will
have
to use
an array
formula
similar
to our
learning
activity.
Executing
this
statement
correctly
will
produce
a max
of the
desired
values
in the
dataset
for
the
given
country
of interest.
Please
note
that
the
“dot
S” portion
of the
STDEV
function
indicates
that
we
are
taking
the
standard
deviation
of a sample.
This
is a sample
since
we
do not
have
information
from
all
companies
(i.e.
population).
Finally,
ensure
that
all
values
in your
summary
tables
are
formatted
with
an Accounting
style
with
two
decimals
showing
(i.e.
$52.21)
HINT:
Be
very
careful
about
what
cell
references
are
absolute
and
which
are
mixed
(the
row
or column
absolute
and
the
other
relative).
Also, remember that you must use a
Ctrl+Shift+Enter keystroke in order to implement an array form.
[removed]
1
Governmental and Not-for-Profit Accounting
Fall 2016
Project (100 points)
Obtain a copy of Comprehensive A
nnual Financial Report (CAFR) o
nline, either from Blackboard or
on the website of any municipality of your selection. Review t
he CAFR you select and answer the
following questions. Your answers
should be concise but to the
point.
This is an individual project
. You can collaborate with others
but you should submit project answers
individually. If you collaborat
e with your classmate(s), you s
hould indicate the name of persons you
collaborate with in the project.
A word about answering the questio
ns below: Don’t just answer “
yes” or “no”; try to elaborate by
combining the knowledge you learnt
from the class. This certai
nly will help you e
arn better grade
from this project.
You are required to type the ans
wers. Present your answers in
a nice and neat format; just think about
how you would make it easier to
read. A portion of your grade
will be based on the p
resentation of
project.
Part I Overview of report
1.
What are three main sections of the report?
2.
Review the introductory secti
on of the CAFR. What are key issu
es addressed in the letter of
transmittal?
3.
Review the financial section.
a.
Does the report provide a r
econciliation betw
een total governme
ntal net position per the
government-wide statement of net position and total governmenta
l fund balances per the
governmental funds balance sheet? If so, what are the main rec
onciling items?
b.
What are the major governmental
funds maintained by the entity?
c.
Does the report include “require
d supplementary information?”
If so, what are the main
areas addressed?
d.
Does the report include “combin
ing statements?” If so, what is
the nature of these
statements?
4.
Review the statistical section.
a.
What is the population of th
e entity being reported on?
b.
Who is the entity’s major employer?
c.
What is the amount of net debt per
capita? The city’s legal de
bt margin? The amount of
direct and overlapping debt?
5.
Component units
a.
Does the notes to the financial s
tatements indicate the compone
nt units that are included
within the reporting entity? D
o they indicate any units that a
re not included? Do they
explain why these units are
included or excluded?
b.
How are the component units presented in the government-wide fi
nancial statements? In
the fund statements?
2
Part II Budget
1.
In which section of the CAFR are
the budget-to-actual compariso
ns of the major funds?
a.
Which accounting basis did the City follow to prepare its annua
l operating budget?
b.
Are the actual amounts on a GAAP or a budgetary basis? Do the
statements include a
reconciliation of any difference
s between GAAP and budgetary am
ounts? If so, what are
the largest reconciled items?
c.
Are the reported variances base
d on the original budget or the
year-end amended budget?
2.
Does the CAFR include budget-to-
actual comparisons of nonmajor
funds? If so, in what sections?
3.
Do.
Zhibei Wang04172020Page 5Authoritarian or Authoritati.docxphilipnelson29183
Zhibei Wang
04/17/2020
Page: 5
Authoritarian or Authoritative Parenting Style: Which Is in Best Interest for Children
Tough Love has gone viral on internet. It is a fanfic musical production about the stepmothers of Disney princesses. It is quite a mockery for the self-pitying but in fact cruel upbringing of the young girls. It is fictional and the stepmothers don’t love their stepdaughters necessarily, but we have to reflect on it: when we are parents, what are the best method to be taken so that our children can be responsible and positive grownups. Authoritarian or authoritative? It is a hot topic that never grows old; every parent has their reason to act upon. Experiencing quite a mix of harsh and lenient ways in my childhood, I find authoritative one more favorable. In the following paragraphs, I will talk about the advantages and disadvantages of both parenting styles.
Positive authoritative are defined as parents to be instructive and highly responsive to the development of child growth (Baumrind, 1966); On the contrary, authoritarian is control over most aspects of children’s lives, to make sure they stay on track (Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2019). There are pros and cons to both sides.
As of authoritarian, the most important outcome is the high academic performances. Authoritarian parents put a lot of effort into student’s schoolwork and extracurricular activities, such as playing piano or violin. They closely follow children’s daily routine, make sure every minute will not go wasted. They want every investment to give harvests. They take their children to all kinds of competitions, and win loads of certificates to quantify how successful and extraordinary the child is. They see children as another form of themselves, impose their dreams on children. Indeed, children who have worked all day, with all kinds of championships and scholarships could end up in ivy league and possibly win a prestigious job when graduated. It seems they have lived a life everyone desires and so it satisfies the parents.
However, it is not the most favorable approach in academia, and there are a lot of downsides to it. First, it restrains the possibility of cultivating comprehensive personalities. Children become obedient to their parents, they cannot communicate well with their peers, their only profound relationship are with their parents throughout their lives, and it is no sign of a fully grown man. I personally have seen too much of a case. People who grow up under the shadow of their parents tend to be indecisive and too dependent on their parents. It is the consequence of psychological control of the authoritarian parenting. Whenever they speak of their mind, they got turned down or shouted back. Then they don’t speak much about themselves with self-centered parents, who think they are doing the best for kids. Under high pressures from parents and with no one can turn to, children are also bearing overwhelming stress and defeated feelings, which c.
Zinn Ch 14 - http://www.historyisaweapon.com/defcon1/zinnwarhea14.html
In what ways did the United States government sway public opinion to support the war effort? From your own perspective, was it appropriate for the government to employ such methods to build a consensus?
Upon passage of the Espionage and Sedition Acts, many people felt that their civil liberties were under attack as the government sought to stifle dissent. Do you think these measures were an appropriate domestic policy during a time of war? Explain. Do you think they were constitutional? Why or why not?
When Eugene Debs was in prison serving his term for violating the Espionage Act of 1917, he ran for president during the 1918 presidential election. While he was in prison, he won almost one million votes. Ho was that possible? What does this tell you about American society in 1918?
Explain how Americans used the language of freedom when discussing foreign policy. Look specifically at the foreign policies of Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson in your answer. Did the meaning of freedom change with each administration or stay constant?
Compare Roosevelt’s and Wilson’s attitudes toward blacks. How significant were the actions of the federal government in advancing freedoms for blacks during the early twentieth century?
Explain and analyze W. E. B. Du Bois’s political ideas. How did he attempt to expand civil rights for African-Americans?
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Zeno of Elea.Heres the assignment Write a double-spaced paper .docxphilipnelson29183
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Here's the assignment: Write a double-spaced paper and submit it online.
In your paper, give a short biography of the philosopher and include his views on at least two of these subjects: REALITY, DIVINITY, HUMANITY, KNOWLEDGE or SOCIETY.
Please make this paper approximately 500 words long.
Make sure you spell and grammar check your papers.
And try using the Hemingwayapp!
I assume you will be doing some research, so cite your sources!
I do not care about the format of your citations.
Use whatever way is comfortable for you.
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Yo los libros en la mochila.Ana y Salvador la ta.docxphilipnelson29183
Yo los libros en la mochila.
Ana y Salvador la tarea.
La profesora Álvarez matemáticas.
Celinda y yo a la cafetería.
Tú a la residencia estudiantil.
Usted el autobús.
Lisa y Ángel inglés en la biblioteca.
Esperanza un libro.
Yo un diccionario en la librería.
Nosotros salsa muy bien.
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Youve now read Johnathan Swifts brilliant (it is, trust me) satiri.docxphilipnelson29183
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Write a 2-3 page dialogue between Swift and a comedian of your choice. You can certainly use John Stewart, Trevor Noah. or pick one you like - even the late great Richard Prior. You're going to discuss how comedy and society intersect, how they reflect and impact one other. So have at it and have fun.
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Youre gonna respond to Are too many people going to college by Ch.docxphilipnelson29183
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Please disagree with the author with his 4 points:
1. Students don't have the ability to finish tough materials of college.
2. The opportunity cost of going to colleges is too high. People can use the same time to lean things that are helpful for living.
3. College doesn't guarantee good jobs.
4. Finishing colleges doesn't really give people self-satisfication.
Those are points I summarize from Murray's article. If you think they are not good, you can read the article and change them. Then provide evidences to oppose them.
There are 5 pages of the MLA essay. You need to bring all evidences from my posted 4 articles. The prompt and requirement are within the uploaded files. Please read it carefully.
The payment can be negotiated. Please do it nice and neatly. Thank you.
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Your team was invited to present to a high school IT class to explai.docxphilipnelson29183
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Together as a team,
access
CrypTool (
http://www.cryptool-online.org/
).
Click
on the CrypTool link, then click
Ciphers
.
Click
and
choose
a type of cipher you would like to use under
Classical Ciphers
.
Use
CrypTool to do the following:
Determine at least five pieces of data to encrypt and decrypt
Determine a key (or a set of keys) that is different from the samples provided in CrypTool.
Attempt to break the encrypted ciphertext data using the cryptanalysis tools provided by CrypTool.
Note:
It may not always be possible to break the ciphertext. Regardless of the attempt's outcome. Document the steps taken and relevant observation notes.
Create
a tutorial with text and images (screenshots) on how to use CrypTool.
Include
the following:
Steps needed to encypt data
Steps needed to decrypt data
Steps taken to attempt to break the encrypted data using the cryptanalysis tools provided by CryptTool
Submit
the tutorial to the Assignment Files tab above.
.
Your Paper (8 pages) should include the following areas1. Cover P.docxphilipnelson29183
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Create
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Analyze the effects of globalization of project teams on project execution.
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Your outline should be a detailed overview of the Service Learning .docxphilipnelson29183
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Also, upload your properly formatted (ASA or APA) reference page.
I have attached
Service Learning Reflection and Research Paper Guidelines
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it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
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ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
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Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
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The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Whatever happened to humanresource managementperformance.docx
1. Whatever happened to human
resource management
performance?
Peter Prowse and Julie Prowse
University of Bradford, Bradford, UK
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to critically explore the
evidence that human resource
management (HRM) could contribute to the improvement of
organizational and individual
performance. It aims to examine the historical development of
HRM and its emergence as a distinct
management discipline. The evidence indicates that HRM is the
product of several different traditions
that range from a concern with employee welfare to the
development of workplace relationships. The
paper critically re-evaluates what human performance is and
assesses its contribution to
organizational effectiveness. What is particularly important is
the lack of empirical literature on the
contribution of HRM and business performance. This paper will
call for the re-evaluation of more
contemporary criteria of how people contribute to
organizational performance in private, public and
the emerging non-profit making sectors.
Design/methodology/approach – The methodology adopted in
this research uses critical
literature on the contribution of human resource management
2. performance.
Findings – The main finding of this research is the
understanding of the problems of research design
in measuring the contribution of HRM to develop performance
in organizations.
Research limitations/implications – The research presented in
this paper needs to review and
standardize comparative research design to confirm the
performance of HRM in organizations. It
compares the alternative perspectives of measuring performance
in financial criteria.
Originality/value – This paper reviews the research between key
authors for exploring the
correlation between HRM and organizational performance for
future research and examines the
influence of human resource professional bodies.
Keywords Human resource management, Performance
measurement (quality), Critical success factors
Paper type Literature review
Introduction
This chapter evaluates the contribution of human resource
management (HRM) to
improving organisational performance. What is evident from the
literature is the
linkages between human resource management and
organizational performance. One
of the key issues that needs to be examined is exactly what type
of performance and
the contribution of HR techniques to increase performance.
3. Initially, the chapter evaluates the historical development of
performance
management from the HRM literature before evaluating the
debates on efficiency
and performance. It then outlines the development of HRM
techniques designed to
evaluate the outcomes of HRM to improve organizational and
individual performance,
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is
available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/1741-0401.htm
The authors would like to thank the Editor and anonymous
referees for their helpful comments
and suggestions.
Human resource
management
performance
145
Received March 2009
Revised July 2009
Accepted September 2009
International Journal of Productivity
and Performance Management
Vol. 59 No. 2, 2010
pp. 145-162
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
4. 1741-0401
DOI 10.1108/17410401011014230
and links this to performance in organizations. The outcomes of
techniques intended to
increase organisational commitment and increase job
satisfaction will be critically
evaluated. The chapter further examines the North American
and the European (and
particularly the UK) literature on efficiency and effectiveness
and the evidence whether
human resource management improves organizational
performance.
What is HRM and how does it link to organizational
performance?
Initially it is helpful to identify the factors that influenced HRM
developments and
consider if these approaches to managing people represent
something different or a
continuation of previous management practices (Legge, 1995,
Keenoy, 1990). Over the
last 30 years there has been an increased interest in HRM.
Arguably, it represented a
new and radically different way of managing people and is a
critical lever for
improving organizational performance in terms of productivity
and harnessing and
increasing employee commitment (Storey, 2007).
Storey (1989, p. 3) notes that HRM is associated in a number of
organisations with
only a change in terminology from industrial relations to
5. employee relations and from
personnel management to human resource management.
Similarly the number of
definitions of HRM reflects the diversity of the subject. Beer et
al. (1984, p. 1) define
HRM as, “all management decisions that affect the relationship
between organisations
and employees – its humans”. Whilst Guest (1991) defines HRM
in terms of four key
policy goals: high commitment, high quality, flexibility and
strategic integration.
Storey (1995, p. 5) argues:
Human resource management is a distinctive approach to
employment management which
seeks to achieve competitive advantage through the strategic
deployment of a highly
committed and capable workforce, using an integrated array of
cultural, structural and
personnel techniques.
Blyton and Morris (1992, p. 116) make the observation that
“underpinning this linkage
of HRM and flexibility is the argument that HRM posits a closer
connection between
business strategies, personnel policies and practices”. However,
a number of authors
(Sisson, 1994; Legge, 1995; Noon, 1992; Storey, 1995) suggest
it remains unclear exactly
what HRM is, a view reiterated by Guest (1998, p. 43) who
comments that “after more
than a decade, it can be argued that we still don’t know what
HRM is”. Whilst Sisson
(1990, p. 1) defines HRM as “in the most general of senses to
refer to the policies,
procedures and processes involved in the management of people
6. in work
organizations”. Poole (1990, p. 3) suggests that:
Human resource management is viewed as strategic; it involves
all managerial personnel; it
regards people as the most important single asset of the
organisation; it is proactive in its
relationship with people; and it seeks to enhance company
performance, employee “needs”
and societal well being.
Hartley and Stephenson (1992, p. 5) observe that HRM has
generated new ideas about
how to motivate rather than control employees that involves
engendering a climate of
commitment, genuine flexibility and adaptability and employee
concern for quality.
The extent to which HRM has achieved this is open to debate.
Sisson (1994, p. 4) argues
that there is little evidence that HRM has been implemented in
the UK and that it is “a
moot point whether British management are developing a more
strategic approach to
managing human resources or whether they are muddling
through”. This view is
IJPPM
59,2
146
supported by Storey (1992) who contends that many writers in
the 1980s presented
HRM as something new and distinct, when in reality little had
7. changed. Blyton and
Morris (1992, p. 127) concur with this point and suggest that
“although the theory of
HRM focuses on a long-term and strategic approach, the reality
is that workforce
flexibility is driven by short-term responses, primarily cost
driven and ad hoc”.
Both Guest (1987) and Storey (1992), 2007) argue that since the
1980s strategic
managers have been interested in different methods of managing
people and
performance. Arguably, changes in the HR practices of
organisations signify a move
away from the “collective” (trade union negotiated
involvement) to the “individual”
(harnessing employee commitment using the management of
culture); resulting in a
shift to payment systems that focus on an individual’s
contribution to profitability and
performance and employment strategies that reward individual
performance (Storey,
2007).
During the 1980s and 1990s in both the USA and UK a number
of different HRM
models were developed that represent the various perspectives
and encompass both
hard and soft approaches to HRM and these will now be briefly
discussed (Beer et al.
1984, Fombrum et al., 1984; Guest, 1987, Hendry and
Pettigrew, 1990).
The Harvard model (Beer et al. 1984) presents a “map of HRM
territory” that
emphasises communication, teamwork, and the utilization of
8. individual talents and
advocates a soft HRM approach (Pinnington and Edwards,
2000). This model proposes
that HRM policy choices are determined by a combination of
stakeholder interests and
situational factors resulting in: HRM policy choices and human
resource outcomes that
have long term consequences. Beardwell et al. (2004) suggest
that the Harvard model
recognises the legitimate interests of various groups and this is
translated into a
human resource strategy. A number of criticisms have been
leveled at the model.
Sisson and Timperley (1994, p. 163) observe that that the
elements of strategic choice
has a “strong prescriptive” overtone and the model suggests that
there is in effect one
preferred and superior set of HR policy choices.
In contrast, the Michigan model (Fombrum et al., 1984) presents
a hard approach to
HRM and introduces the concept of strategic human resource
management (Storey,
1992). In this model, HRM policies are linked to the formation
and implementation of
strategic and corporate objectives and the needs of the
organisation are paramount
(Pinnington and Edwards, 2000). The Michigan model is
presented as a triangle that
represents both the external and internal factors of HRM and a
tight fit between human
resource strategy and business strategy (Beardwell et al., 2004).
The internal factors
revolve around the firm and comprise of the mission and
strategies, organisational
structure and HRM, these respond to the external economic,
9. political and cultural
forces.
In the UK a number of HRM models have also been developed
(Guest, 1987; Hendry
and Pettigrew, 1990; Storey, 1992). Guest’s (1987) model
included a set of interrelated
factors and includes: “strategic integration, high quality,
flexibility and high
commitment” necessary for creating an effective organisation.
The premise
underpinning this approach is the link between HRM aims,
policies and outcomes.
The Practice of HRM
Wood and Wall (2002) argue that the practice of HRM is
comprised of a range of
organizational activities that focus on recruitment and the
development and
Human resource
management
performance
147
management of employees. Wall and Wood (2005, p. 430)
outline HRM practices that
emphasize or include the following:sophisticated selection
methods, appraisal,
training, teamwork, communications, empowerment,
performance related pay and
employment security. Collectively, these are deemed to
contribute to skill and
10. knowledge base within the organization, and to the employees’
willingness to deploy
their learning to the benefit of the organization. Interest in
HRM was stimulated by a
number of developments (Blyton and Morris, 1992). In the USA
a combination of
increasing competitive markets, the introduction of Japanese
work systems, declining
unionization in the USA private sector and the limited power of
personnel management
in individual organizations encouraged the development of
HRM (Beaumont, 1992).
Similar conditions prevailed in the UK, but also included the
recession of the 1980s, the
loss of competitiveness and the introduction of new technology,
that encouraged the
introduction of HRM (Blyton and Morris, 1992; Beaumont,
1992). Hendry and Pettigrew
(1990, p. 54) observed:
The political climate of Thatcherism, heralded a new legitimacy
for entrepreneurial and anti-
legislation which encouraged firms to introduce new labour
practices and to re-order
collective barraging arrangements.
In contrast, Blyton and Morris (1992, p. 119) are skeptical of
the extent to which the UK
moved from short-term defensive flexibility strategies and
engaged more fully in long
term developments implicit in the ideas that underpin strategic
HRM. Sisson (1994, p. 7)
observes that the prescriptions offered to manage people are
based on a number of
features that include functional flexibility, team working but
have “the principal aim of
11. developing a highly committed and adaptable workforce willing
to learn new skills and
tasks”.
The various HRM models also reflected the two dimensions of
“hard” and “soft”
HRM. Storey (1992, p. 29) provides a model of two dimensions
of HRM hard and soft
the former represents a manpower planning approach, the latter
a HRM and defines
them as:
The hard version emphasises the quantitative, calculative and
business-strategic aspects of
managing the headcounts resource in as “rational” way as for
any other economic factor, By
contrast the “soft” version traces its roots to the human-
relations school: it emphasises
communication, motivation and leadership.
Blyton and Morris (1992, p. 4) observe that the Harvard model
is associated with the
developmental humanism; in contrast to the Michigan school
(Fombrun et al., 1984) is
utilitarian- instrumentalism. In the UK the distinction is made
between “soft” and
“hard” HRM, with human resources emphasized in the former
and management in the
latter. “Soft” HRM is seen as a method of “releasing untapped
reserves of human
resourcefulness by increasing commitment, participation, and
involvement, the notion
of ‘developmental humanism’” (Legge, 1995, p. 66). In contrast
“hard” HRM is a method
of maximizing economic returns from labour resources by
integrating HRM into
12. business strategy and based on “utilitarian instrumentalism”
(Blyton and Morris, 1992;
Keenoy, 1990). Blyton and Morris (1992) suggest that the
differences between long and
short term forms of flexibility are paralleled in the soft and hard
distinctions of HRM.
Soft HRM emphasises the long term maximization of human
potential, whilst hard
HRM focuses on the short-term control of labour resources.
Clarke and Newman (1997)
observe that soft HRM stresses commitment building and the
empowerment of staff
IJPPM
59,2
148
through the utilization of affective management practices, with
emphasis placed on
participation and involvement. This approach ensures that
committed employees will
not only be prepared to work flexibly, but want to succeed
(Storey, 1995). However,
Keenoy and Anthony (1992) challenges this assumption and
contends that flexibility
has resulted in “deskilling is one of the consequences of
managerial efforts to increase
control over work and has also had the effect of minimizing the
potential for employee
involvement and commitment”.
Sisson (1994) suggests that one of the clearest explanations of
hard HRM is
13. contained in Burawoy’s (1985) examination of management
behaviour. This analysis
contends that HRM does not replace simple, technical or
bureaucratic controls of
Taylorist organisations, rather new controls have been
implemented in the form of
surveillance (Sewell and Wilkinson, 1992). Bach and Sisson
(2000, p. 14) reflecting on
HRM observe “that there is growing concern that hard HRM
was being wrapped in the
language of the soft version as a means to manipulate and
control the workforce”.
Stiles et al. (1997) support this view and observe:
That the rhetoric adopted by the companies frequently embraces
the tenets of soft,
commitment model while the reality experienced by employees
is more concerned with
strategic control, similar to the hard model.
The measure of performance without humans?
One key area of concern is the definitions and limitations of
performance used in
evaluation. Current measures of performance are largely
determined by financial
performance and productivity, usually within a highly
managerialist perspective
(Guest, 1997). However, this approach neglects the role and
contribution of employees
in achieving organizational performance and fails to consider
how employees’ perceive
HR practices (Guest, 1999). Rogers and Wright (1999) reviewed
29 empirical studies
containing 80 observations and tested the links between HRM
and organizational
performance. The authors reported three measures related to HR
14. issues, 34 measures
related to organizations, 24 related to accounting and 19 to
financial market outcomes
(see Table I).
Most US studies on HRM and performance use large qualitative
datasets and
statistical associations (e.g. Becker and Gerhart, 1996; Huselid,
1995; Huselid et al.,
1997; Ichionowski et al., 1997; McDuffie, 1995; Capelli and
Neumark, 2001; Richard and
Johnson, 2001: Batt, 2002; Wright et al., 2003; Wright et al.,
2005). In the UK studies
have also included statistical measures (e.g. Guest, 1997;
Patterson et al., 1997; Wood
and de Menezes, 1998; Hoque, 1999; Guest et al., 2003: Way,
2002).
What has differentiated testing whether HR practices improve
organisational
performance is if the evidence and links with causation between
statistical studies are
1. Human resources Employee turnover
2. Organizational Productivity, quality, customer satisfaction
3. Financial accounting Return on assets
4. Financial markets Differential between market and book
value of firm’s assets
Source: Rogers and Wright (1999)
Table I.
Review of performance
measures in 29 empirical
studies on HRM and
15. performance
Human resource
management
performance
149
the measures or factors that can be correlated and tested for
statistical associations
between HR practices and organizational performance. These
approaches to testing
causality between HRM practices and performance will be
evaluated using different
methods of research design to determine evidence then the
current evidence of if there
are an exact forms or techniques of HRM practices that
contribute to organizational
performance. The evidence will then examining some HRM
agendas that influence the
research and will examine the politics of non-managerialist
approaches before finally
analysing the need to demonstrate such research to gain
influence and credibility in the
politics of management functions.
The link between HRM and performance is examined using
three main schools of
thought titled “best practice”, “best fit” and “configurational”
fit. The first is the “best
practice” test which is the hypothetical links of a set of
techniques/practices known as
“universalistic prescriptive” and “best fit” (contingency) models
16. (Storey, 2007, p. 14).
Testing the “universalistic prescriptive” school has used
evidence in the USA (Delaney
and Huselid, 1996; Huselid (1995) and Huselid et al. (1997).
One group of UK
researchers used a longitudinal study of people management
practices to examine
improved company performance compared to investment in
research and
development, focus on quality or even business strategy
(Patterson et al., 1997).
Wider UK evidence on “best fit” confirmed that use of “new
management practices”
such as the improving workplace climate, improving job
satisfaction and employee
commitment plus job security can effect organisational
performance. Practices used to
increase workplace commitment in the UK private sector can be
found in Table II
(Cully et al., 1999). What is clear is that the terms “high
commitment” and “high
performance” work practices have been used interchangeably.
The second thesis on HRM and performance causation is the
practices of
“contingency/best fit”. This argues there is a link between
business strategy and
different approaches to HRM). However studies of UK
workplace performance found
(see Table II) evidence that UK HRM practices in the 1990s
focused on cost
minimization practices, using low pay, disposable labour and
outsourcing rather than a
development of a high skilled, co-operative and mutual gains
partnership with their
workforce (Kochan and Osterman, 1994; Bach and Sisson,
17. 2000).
Financial
performance
Labour
productivity
Climate of
employee
relations
Largest group has:
Personality testing U
Performance tests U
Formal off the job training for most employees U U
Regular appraisals U U U
Fully autonomous/semi autonomous teams U U
Guaranteed job security U U
Workforce employees participate in problem solving groups U
U U
Two or more family friendly practices or special leave schemes
U U
Source: Adapted from Cully et al. (1999, Table 12.5, p. 285)
Table II.
Measures of workplace
performance in UK by
high commitment
practices
IJPPM
59,2
150
18. The final thesis argues that in addition to universalistic and
contingency/best fit there
is a “configurational” perspective that are contingent to the
situation (e.g. Delery and
Doty, 1996). The question is how do these approaches test HR
practices and causality
of increased performance?
Approaches to testing causality of HRM practices and
performance
This discussion will evaluate and critically appraise methods of
research design to
determine whether there is evidence that an exact forms or
techniques of HRM
practices contribute to improve organizational performance.
Firstly, this discussion
will evaluate the research methodologies and studies that test
causality of HRM and if
it increases performance.
The majority of the quantitative US and European Union
studies, particularly in the
UK, use surveys and are rarely longitudinal. The issues also
evaluate if there is
causality that HRM policies and techniques specifically produce
positive outcomes.
There are specific methodological approaches that attempt to
establish measureable
and linear causal relationships. These Legge (2001, p. 31)
describes as “beloved of
positivists”. However there are two contemporary literature
reviews that attempt to
examine the HR performance relationship and adopt a critical
19. approach to the testing
of causality of HR techniques to high performance. Firstly, the
evidence of Wall and
Wood (2005) and in contrast, the evidence of Wright et al.
(2005). What is important to
consider is the inter-related linkages in the literature reviews
and the omissions in
evidence between the two studies. Wall and Wood (2005) use
their choice of 25 research
studies on causality of HRM measures and performance in
reputable refereed journals
excluding books and reports (see Table III).
What is particularly important is the breadth of both authors in
reviewing the HR
performance literature methodology. Wall and Wood (2005) in
their evaluation of 25
empirical studies suggest caution on the evidence that HR
practices do have a positive
effect on performance. What is important to note is that the 25
studies have rather
small organizational sample sizes, with 18 organizations
employing less than 300
employees in 25 of the studies and less than 100 employees in
nine studies (Wall and
Wood, 2005, p. 435). The authors argue that there is a wide
diversity of 13 particular
practices but the majority (20) of the studies used single
respondents and respondents
describing their own context of the organization. Wall and
Wood (2005, p. 441) argue
that, “Measurement of the dependent (performance) minimally
should come from a
different source from that used to measure HRM practices and
would be objective”.
The methodological consequences of managers self ratings are
20. important to note
(Huselid and Becker, 1996). The investigation potential
consequences of both random
and systematic measurement error in research on HR and firm
performance has been
identified by Gerhart et al. (2000) and they argue for greater
attention to measurement
error and construct validity issues. This was developed in
evidence by Wright et al.
(2005) and Wood and Wall (2002) who both argue that current
evidence suggests a
positive relationship between HR and performance. Wright et al.
highlight that “little
or any research has utilized research designs to test the
hypothesis that employing
progressive HRM systems actually results in higher
organizational performance in a
causal sense” (Wright et al., 2005, p. 410).
On research design Wall and Wood’s examination found 21 of
25 studies were cross
sectional studies providing weak grounds for causal inference,
whilst 17 of the 21 studies
Human resource
management
performance
151
“involve a relationship between current HRM and prior
performance” (Wall and Wood,
2005, p. 443). Wright et al. (2005, p. 412) concurs with Wall
and Wood’s comments on
21. predictive causality. In their review of 68 studies, Wright et al.
(2005) criticize the
over-reliance on a singular research design which measures HR
performance after the
performance period and predicts past performance. This is the
case in the majority of
studies (71 per cent). This analysis of most evidence and data
on HR and performance
used a single data collection with the respondent providing data
on both the assessment
of their HR performance and their firm’s information. The
second most popular design (7
per cent) asked respondents to retrospectively recall HR
practices before the performance
data period which could lead to inaccurate recall. The third
category of studies (6 per
cent) used recent year end data with HR performance with a
matter of months to and
during a similar period of measures or concurrent analysis.
Finally 12 per cent of the
studies explored if assessment of HR practices related to
subsequent performance over
an extended time period of data over a period of 2-3 years.
The authors argued that the strongest research study on causal
and predictive
causality of HR practices was used in ten of the 68 reported
studies. Few of the studies
are tested for reverse causal nature of the relationships which
fail to evaluate the
measure of design that measures performance after using the HR
practice. Testing for
spurious relationships are also critical if there were co-
variation. Wall and Wood (2005,
Wall and Wood (2005) Wright et al. (2005)
22. 1. Number of studies 25 empirical studies 68 Refereed empirical
studies
1994-2003 in reputable
highly citations journals
1994-2003 and one applied
longitudinal study of 45
businesses in large food
corporation
2. HR/performance All report at least one
relationship
All report at least one significant
relationship
3. Studies of single HR
Practice (e.g. training, pay)
Excluded Excluded
4. Performance Economic (productivity) Profitability
Affective and organizational
commitment
Operational (productivity, quality,
shrinkage, workers compensation)
Financial performance (expenses,
profit) measures organizational
commitment
5. Comparative omission
between studies
Guest and Hoque (1994); Koch and
McGrath (1996), Wood and de Menezes
23. (1998), Hoque (1999), Patterson et al.
(2004)
6. Methodological
comparison
Yes For selected cases
Sources: Wall and Wood (2005); Wright et al. (2005)
Table III.
Comparison with studies
on the HR-performance
relationship
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59,2
152
p. 450) suggest in their examination of 25 studies, control for
third factors is used in 23
of their selected studies and the major studies use multiple HR
measures performance
indicators. They argue tests for findings were statistically
significant at p , 0.05 (that
is an analysis of variance significant difference at less than 5
percent) and there were
few any interactions in tests 12 of the 25 studies with a wide
variation in interactions
(Wall and Wood, 2005, p. 452). There is no examination of the
relative effects of specific
HR practices with 15 of the 25 studies making it problematic to
ascertain that HR
24. systems are linked to performance. The solutions to lack of
robust evidence on
causation of HR practices leading to enhanced performance.
Wall and Wood (2005,
p. 456) recommend the solutions of enhanced research design
can be resolved by
avoiding an-over reliance on single source measures of HRM
practices, increasing
sampling of larger samples with higher response rates and the
use of longitudinal
studies with independent audit of introduction of specific HR
practices and measures of
their effects on performance.
Wright develops this challenge by examining a study using
causality between HR
practices and affective commitment and operational and
financial measures (see Table II).
The data was collection from 45 self contained units in a single
US enterprise between
1998-2000. The data also used employees surveys in each job
group from a business unit.
The response rate was collected under the HR Director in
anonymous questionnaires and
resulted in a high response rate of nearly 99.4 per cent with a
total sample of 13,005
respondents. The job profiles of respondents were
merchandising, warehouse workers
and drivers with a total size of 21.6 per cent of all employees
across 62 business units.
One important methodological issue in this design was access to
a single company using
a limited range of questions to respondents. Key questions
included examined HR
practices such as selection, performance pay, training and
participation and included
25. highly reliable measures that allowed individuals in multiple
job groups to rate their own
employment relationships and the number of individual HR
practices they experienced.
These were tested for reliability and aggregated.
In an attempt to measure affective commitment five statement
items were
aggregated by multiple respondents at business level using half
the employees sample
from scale of 1 (lowest) to 5 (highest). The ANOVA calculated
the respondents as a
significant reliability (at 0.001 level) confirming levels of
agreement that there was high
affective commitment at business unit level. However, Wright et
al. (2005, p. 432) found
a causal relationship between “HR practices impacting on
collective commitment,
operational performance, expenses, and profits were supported
in a predictive sense”.
The results of HR practices linked with operational and
financial measures through
observations, supported earlier evidence that robust HR
practices result in improved
operational and financial performance (Becker and Huselid,
1998; Dyer and Reeves,
1995). Guest et al. (2003) examination of HR practices using
past and parallel
performance data identified concerns that the use of past
performance correlations
were higher than future performance ratings. Both Wright et al.
(2005) and Guest et al.
(2003) contend that investment in HR and performance suggests
a positive cost/benefit
but less than the earlier predicted research of Huselid and
Becker (1996, 2000).
26. Both Wall and Wood (2005) and Wright et al. (2005)
recommend further use of
longitudinal research as a solution to more robust tests on HR
and causality of
performance and Wright et al. actually designed and test this in
their case. Wright
recommended that extension of sampling business units in a
single corporation could
Human resource
management
performance
153
be developed by testing an enhanced range of organizations
using data analysis and
evaluating how HR practices are causations of improved
performance. The future of
research or as Wall and Wood (2005, p. 457) title “big science”
of enhanced HR
performance research to wider surveys using government,
research councils, and
academics linked to European surveys such as the Work,
Employee Relations Survey
(WERS) or Australian surveys (Morehead et al., 1997). The
critical issue is to maintain
there is an evaluation which tests for the reverse causation
effect. The range of HR
factors measures in Wall and Wood’s (2005) review highlighted
the different factors
used in the 25 studies and argued the broader variation in HR
practices and tests for
27. causation require more precise practices and in comparison
Wright et al. (2005) tested
nine practices.
The research agenda however on performance measures and
causality may also link
to organizational cases with distinct performance measures that
may be beyond the
current financial performance measures. For example, evidence
on reducing patient
mortality (West et al., 2002) and “strategic fit” to compare
organizational data on staff
turnover, patient complaints on lack of skill, staff grievance,
discipline, stress and staff
injury Bertam et al. (2007). The study of non-profit
organizations such as healthcare still
reported the focus remains focused upon financial activity and
patient satisfaction and
less evaluation of performance measures related to improve
practice in healthcare
organizations. Such limited evaluation may ignore the critical
measures on non-financial
outcomes such as cost-effective outcomes and processes
(Bertam et al., 2007).
In comparison, performance management research in areas such
as accounting
examines performance and control systems. In a review of 120
field studies published
in Accounting, Organizations and Society and Management
Accounting Research
between 1990-2004 examining and emphasizing how
performance elements are
combined (Stringer, 2007). The review by Stringer identified a
framework of elements
of developing performance studies using a framework by Otley
28. (1999) by budgeting,
transfer pricing, capital expenditure, performance evaluation,
economic valued added,
balanced scorecard and reward systems (Stringer, 2007, p. 94).
This review in
accounting compares in methodological terms to evidence on
Human resource
management. Many of the studies in accounting research use
particular groups such as
accountants and senior management rather than evaluate
independent data. The
evidence also identified few longitudinal studies and lack of
theoretical model building
with a tendency foe description. Similarly to HRM and
performance research, there is
little examination of causality or research design testing of
models. There is an over
emphasis on performance research contrasting performance
management practices in
a single organization (or a range of organizations) using similar
methodological
approaches adapted by Wright et al. (2005) in research on HRM
and performance using
longitudinal data analysis. In conclusion the difficulties in use
of methodologies to test
the causation and contribution of performance are not solely
difficulties encountered
by HRM literature.
Some possible agendas within the politics of non-managerialist
approaches
One critical area within measuring performance is the politics
of human resource
management performance. The discussion by critical writers
(e.g. Keenoy, 1999, p. 15;
Legge, 1995; Wilmott, 1993) highlights the unitaristic approach
29. that rejects other
perspectives. Guest (1999) argues that neglect of the employee
perspectives on the
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154
introduction of HR policies and the effects on employees are
accepted as positive by
employees. The issue of testing causation and developing links
with HR and
performance are criticized by Legge (2001) who argues that the
practice of HR and
performance has a misplaced conviction on positivist studies.
Secondly, Legge (2001)
argues that the setting of performance standards and audit has
become a twenty-first
century obsession and the rhetoric of HR contributions to
organizational performance
has influenced policy and research agendas.
Thirdly, there is the consensus that the general adoption of
financial performance
measures, ignores the employees perspective. Moreover, it fails
to address the issue of
passive employees who can be manipulated to improve
performance. Finally the use of
evidence based HR performance and its use to promote
consultancy services by global
consultancies have been an influence to promote universalistic
of contingent practices.
A Google search on global HR consultancies on 31 July 2009
30. highlighted 2,380,000 hits
for consultancy services (Google, 2009). A range of reports by
consultancy services
who publicize services through their research has not been a
recent phenomenon. Guest
(1997) argues that earlier Consultant-led evidence has
contributed to generation of
training and consultancy interventions to improve performance
based on lack of
authoritative evidence based performance initiatives.
The politics of HRM professionals
Any examination of the debate on HRM and performance also
needs to include the
professional/occupational perspective that emphasizes the
existence and strategic
contribution of HRM. This perspective argues that HR research
and practitioners are
also important for providing influence for HR qualified
professionals and the prevailing
influence of the UK professional body, the Chartered Institute
of Personnel and
development (CIPD) in the UK and the US Society for Human
Resource Management
(SHRM). A survey in the 1990s found evidence from the CIPD
(then the IPD) and
examined if active IPD members influenced the debate on
developments in HRM and the
dominate people’s perceptions and influence of HR
practitioner’s thinking (Grant and
Oswick, 1997, p. 191). This evidence confirmed the
professional zeal of the HR
professional to attain power and influence in management by
emphasizing the
professional using HR techniques to improve performance
through the organization. One
31. particular recent example is by the CIPD Chief executive using
the contribution of HR
contribution to improve hospital performance (Royles, 2009). In
contrast, to the CIPD
with 135,00 individual members, the USA Society of Human
Resource Management
(SHRM) has 236,498 members in 140 countries (Society of
HRM, 2008). The professional
associations representing HRM in the UK and the USA
publishes and promotes
continued evidence for HR contributions to increased
performance with little critical or
generalized application throughout all sectors. This is what
Legge (1978) defined as
“conformist innovation” by advocating social science practice
to resolve performance
issues in organizations. Despite this recommendation evidence
by Guest and King (2004,
p. 13) still found in their research to test HR Directors’ lack of
knowledge of any research
on the contribution of HR performance to their organization.
Conclusion
After evaluating the development of HRM since the 1980s the
differing approaches
to managing people by strategic managers in organizations in
practice has been
Human resource
management
performance
155
32. more complex. Commentators on HRM have noted changes in
the practices of firms
emphasizing changes from trade union involvement to the
development of
promoting individualized employee commitment. However, the
evidence on
generating individual commitment and development of the
management of
culture, payment systems focusing on individual contribution
and performance
have been highlighted but proved more difficult to test for
improving performance.
What has been identified has been development of employment
strategies which
managers claim to be a critical factor in developing
organizational strategy (Storey,
2007).
Despite the rhetoric that emphasizes HRM as a valued asset and
line managers used
in the critical delivery of HRM how they are used and
contribute to improving
performance has been difficult to evaluate. What has been
critical in this chapter is the
difficulty and current limitations of measures of performance
used in most published
research and studies. Current measures still over-emphasize the
use and measures
relationships of financial performance and productivity and the
managerialist
perspective (Guest, 1997).
The conclusion however will review the issue of consistency,
generalisability, the
critical issue of causality and the hidden agenda of politics in
managerial power and
33. status between approaches to performance. There are four key
issues to be
addressed.
Firstly, the review of empirical studies has developed into a
wider range of research
studies have little consistent methodological approaches.
Evaluation of the studies and
methodological consistency has been limited to reviews by
Rogers and Wright (1999),
Gerhart et al. (2000), Wall and Wood (2005) and Wright et al.
(2005). All four studies
have been critical of methodological inconsistency of empirical
studies testing links
between HRM and organizational performance. What has been
developed is the large
complex positivistic set of studies including large qualitative
datasets and statistical
associations but with different measures of performance which
are carefully evaluated
by Wall and Wood (2005). Just to compare some of the key
evidence as an illustration,
Huselid (1995) evaluates employee turnover and productivity
whilst Ichionowski et al.
(1997) measure increase in shareholder value. UK studies also
include associated
statistical studies (e.g. Guest, 1997; Wood and de Menezes,
1998; Hoque, 1999; Guest
et al., 2003; Way, 2002). The causal links between HRM and
performance have two
main theses for empirical testing.
Firstly, “best practice” testing the hypothetical links of a set of
techniques/practices
in a universalistic prescriptive may be too difficult to generalize
(Storey, 2007, p. 14).
34. The association and categorization of performance studies are
unclear. The terms
“high commitment” and “high performance” work practices
have been used
interchangeably without any real associations..
Secondly, linked to this issue of methodological inconsistency
is the difficult issue of
testing causality of HRM practices and performance. From the
review of studies the
majority of the quantitative US studies and EU (and particularly
the UK) use surveys of
organizational studies and use of longitudinal analysis rare. The
evaluation of causality
that HRM policies and techniques specifically produce positive
outcomes has been
inconsistent. It is important to contrast the inter-related
linkages in the literature reviews
and the consistent omissions. Wall and Wood (2005) analysis on
key empirical studies
suggest caution using evidence that HR practices have a
positive effect on performance.
IJPPM
59,2
156
Their caution on universalistic prescriptions for performance
and hypothesis that
employing progressive HRM systems actually results in higher
organizational
performance in a causal sense are supported by Wright et al.
(2005, p. 410).
35. Causality testing has over-reliance of a singular research design
measuring HR
performance after a performance period whilst predicting past
performance. This
suggests more care in future with research design and causality.
With the increasing
use of singular cases in an organisation is the problem for
generelisability and limits of
the universalistic approach.
In conclusion, to resolve the criticism of positivistic methods to
link causality
between HR and organizational performance, both Wall and
Wood (2005) and Wright
et al. (2005) recommend longitudinal research. These studies
examine causality and
test effects in a more robust statistical manner and can test the
issues of HR causality
and the performance agenda. The research agenda however on
performance measures
and causality may also link to organizational cases with distinct
performance
measures that may be contributions to performance there has
been little evaluation of
the possible agendas within the politics of non-managerialist
approaches. In terms of
HR performance and the inclusion of trade unions using a
collective effect has been
underplayed in the evidence on testing despite the lack of
evidence from employees on
the employee perceptions effects of HR practices on their work
environment. The
testing and lack of employee perspective treats employees as
passive agents and
commodifies employees despite the rhetoric of their importance.
36. This unitaristic
approach tends to reject other perspectives. Guest identifies the
neglect employee
perspectives on the introduction of HR policies and the effects
of HR policies are rarely
evaluated despite the limited evidence that HR practices are
welcomed as a positive
effect by employees (Guest, 1999).
The evidence may be critical of ignoring employees and their
evaluation of
experiencing HR and developing performance. Perspective by
employers simply
highlight the issue of passive employees who can be
manipulated to improve
performance but also neglect the union effect on performance in
larger
organisations or the argument that unionization could assist in
the improvement
of the employment relationships and is rarely used studies in
employee/employer
climate.
The continuing emphasis and fixation on measuring
performance Legge (2001)
argues means that the setting of performance standards and
audit has become a
twenty-first century obsession and the rhetoric of HR
contributions to organizational
performance has influenced policy and research agendas. The
continued use of best
practice requires benchmarking, testing of processes and
measurement of outcomes.
The politics and influence of the HR performance agenda also
must include the use of
positive evidence to support the agenda and increasing power
37. for HRM Professions.
What needs to be evaluated is how employees experience and
link their experiences in
areas such as performance management and move away from the
generalisability of
HR practices as a universalistic solution. More complex
external challenges may not
necessarily be profit or financial control. We need to challenge
the Universalistic
solutions for all sectors and the outcomes may not be financial.
A move may be
towards best practice to improve performance in sectors or a
consideration of
contingency rather than the conformity of driving cutting costs
that eventually leads to
reducing quality and commitment.
Human resource
management
performance
157
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meaning of the high commitment
management/performance relationship”, in Storey, J. (Ed.),
Human Resource Management:
A Critical Text, Thomson Learning, London, pp. 20-36.
McDuffie, J.P. (1995), “Human resource bundles and
manufacturing performance: organizational
44. logic and flexible production systems in the world
manufacturing industry”, Industrial
and Labor Relations Review, Vol. 48 No. 2, pp. 197-221.
Morehead, A., Steele, M., Alexander, M., Stephen, K. and
Duffin, L. (1997), Changes at Work: The
1995 Australian Workplace Industrial Relations Survey,
Addison - Wesley Longman,
Melbourne.
Noon, M. (1992), “HRM: a map, model or theory?”, in Blyton,
P. and Turnbull, P. (Eds),
Reassessing Human Resource Management, Sage, London.
Otley, D.T. (1999), “Performance management: a framework for
management control systems
research”, Management Accounting Research, Vol. 10 No. 4,
pp. 363-82.
Patterson, M.G., West, M.A. and Wall, T. (1997), “Integrated
manufacturing, empowerment and
company performance”, Journal of Organizational Behaviour,
Vol. 25 No. 5, pp. 641-5.
Patterson, M.G., West, M.A. and Wall, T.D. (2004), “Integrated
manufacturing, empowerment,
and company performance”, Journal of Organizational
Behaviour, Vol. 25 No. 5, pp. 641-65.
Pinnington, A. and Edwards, T. (2000), Introduction to Human
Resource Management, Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
Richard, O.C. and Johnson, N.B. (2001), “Strategic human
resource management effectiveness and
firm performance”, The International Journal of Human
45. Resource Management, Vol. 12
No. 2, pp. 299-310.
Rogers, E.W. and Wright, P.M. (1999), “Measuring
organizational performance in strategic
human resource management: problems, prospects, and
performance information
markets”, Human Resource Management Review, Vol. 8, pp.
311-31.
Royles, D. (2009), “The Royles Charter”, People Management,
7 May, p. 30.
Sewell, G. and Wilkinson, P. (1992), “Empowerment or
emasculation? Shopfloor surveillance in a
total quality organisation”, in Blyton, P. and Turnbull, P. (Eds),
Reassessing Human
Resource Management, Sage, London, pp. 97-115.
Sisson, K. (1990), “Introducing the Human Resource
Management Journal”, Human Resource
Management Journal, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 1-11.
Sisson, K. (1994), Personnel Management: A Comprehensive
Guide to Theory and Practice in
Britain, Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 153-84.
Sisson, K. and Timperley, S. (1994), “From manpower planning
to strategic human resource
management”, in Sisson, K. (Ed.), Personnel Management: A
Comprehensive Guide to
Theory and Practice in Britain, Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 153-84.
Society of Human Resource Management (2008), “Annual
Report 2008”, available at: www.shrm.
org/about/reports/Pages/default.aspx (accessed 13 June 2009).
46. Stiles, P., Gratton, L., Truss, C., Hope-Hailey, V. and
McGovern, P. (1997), “Performance
management and the psychological contract”, Human Resource
Management Journal,
Vol. 7 No. 1, pp. 57-66.
IJPPM
59,2
160
Storey, J. (Ed.) (1989), New Perspectives on Human Resource
Management, International
Thomson Business Press, London.
Storey, J. (1992), Developments in the Management of Human
Resources, Blackwell, Oxford.
Storey, J. (1995), Human Resource Management. A Critical
Text, Routledge, London.
Storey, J. (2007) “Human resource management today: an
assessment” in Storey, J. (Ed.), Human
Resource Management: A Critical Text, Thomson, London.
Stringer, C. (2007), “Empirical performance management
research: observations from the AOS
and MAR”, Qualitative Research in Accounting & Management,
Vol. 4 No. 2, pp. 92-114.
Wall, T. and Wood, S. (2005), “The romance of human resource
management and business
performance, and the case of the big science”, Human Relations,
47. Vol. 58 No. 4, pp. 429-62.
Way, S.A. (2002), “High performance work systems and
intermediate indicators of firm
performance within the US small business sector”, Journal of
Management, Vol. 28 No. 6,
pp. 765-85.
Wilmott, H. (1993), “Strength is ignorance; slavery is freedom:
managing culture in modern
organizations”, Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 30 No. 4,
pp. 515-52.
West, M., Borrill, C., Dawson, J., Scully, J., Carter, M., Anely,
S. and Patterson, M. (2002), “The link
between the management of people and patient mortality in
acute hospitals”, International
Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 13 No. 8, pp.
1299-310.
Wood, S.J. and Wall, T.D. (2002), “Human resource
management and business performance”, in
Warr, P.B. (Ed.), Psychology at Work, Penguin,
Harmondsworth.
Wood, S. and de Menezes, L. (1998), “High commitment
management in the UK: evidence from
the Workplace Industrial Relations Survey and employers”,
Human Relations, Vol. 51
No. 4, pp. 485-515.
Wright, P.M., Gardner, T.M. and Moynihan, L.M. (2003), “The
impact of HR practices on the
performance of business units”, Human Resource Management
Journal, Vol. 13 No. 3,
pp. 21-36.
48. Wright, P.M., Gardner, T.M., Moynihan, L.M. and Allen, M.R.
(2005), “The relationship between
HR practices and firm performance: examining causal order”,
Personnel Psychology, Vol. 58
No. 2, pp. 409-46.
Further reading
Bach, S. (2005), “Personnel management in transition”,
Managing Human Resources, Blackwell,
Oxford.
Becker, B.E., Huselid, M.A. and Ulrich, D. (2001), The HR
Scorecard: Linking People, Strategy and
Performance, Harvard Business School Publishing, Boston, MA.
Bertram, T., Stanton, P. and Leggat, S. (2007), “Lost in
translation; exploring the link between
HRM and performance in healthcare”, International Journal of
Human Resource
Management, Vol. 17 No. 1, pp. 21-41.
Brown, M. and Heywood, J.S. (2005), “Performance appraisal
systems: determinants and change”,
British Journal of Industrial Relations, Vol. 43 No. 4, pp. 659-
79.
Benkhoff, B. (1997), “A test of the HRM model: good for
employers and employees”, Human
Resource Management Journal, Vol. 7 No. 4, pp. 44-6.
Grugulis, I. (2005), “Human resource management”, in Prowse,
P. and Spicer, D. (Eds), People in
Organizations: Distance Learning Bradford MBA Study Book,
Bradford University School
49. of Management, Bradford.
Human resource
management
performance
161
Hendry, C., Woodward, S., Bradley, P. and Perkins, S. (2000),
“Performance and rewards:
cleaning out the stables”, Human Resource Management
Journal, Vol. 10 No. 3, pp. 46-62.
Hutchinson, S., Kinnie, N., Purcell, J., Swart, J. and Rayton, B.
(2003), Understanding the People
and Performance Link: Unlocking the Black Box, CIPD,
London.
Schuler, R.S., Jackson, S.E. and Rivero, J.C. (1989),
“Organizational characteristics as predictors of
personnel policies”, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 42, pp. 727-85.
Huselid, M.A. and Becker, B.E. (1997), “The impact of high
performance work systems,
implementation effectiveness, and alignment with strategy on
shareholder wealth”,
Academy of Management Proceedings, pp. 144-8.
Wood, S. (1999), “HRM and performance”, International
Journal of Management Reviews, Vol. 1
No. 4, pp. 367-413.
About the authors
Peter Prowse is a Senior Lecturer in Human Resource
50. Management and Employee Relations at
University of Bradford School of Management. His research
interests are public services reform
and management.
Julie Prowse is a Senior Lecturer at University of Bradford
School of Health Studies. Her
research interests include National Health Service reforms and
the implications for employees.
Julie Prowse is the corresponding author and can be contacted
at: [email protected]
IJPPM
59,2
162
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Major Assessment #4
Doctorate in Nursing Practice NURS 8200
Rubric
Article Critique Assignment
Program LO: 1
51. 1: Scholar/Evidence-based Practitioners
DNP Essential: 3
3: Clinical Scholarship and Analytical Methods for Evidence-
Based Practice
(Scroll down for table)
ASSIGNMENT PROMPT
Target
6.6 points
Acceptable
4.6 points
Unacceptable
2.6 point
Score/Level
Article Critique Evaluation
Part 1: Overview of the study
(6.6 points)
52. Program LO: 1
DNP Essential: 3
Exemplary quality.
Content is of a professional portfolio quality; addresses every
major subsection in the assignment [fully developed overview
of the selected research study] using advanced critical thinking
skills; does not summarize or paraphrase the content of the
selected article, rather demonstrates content mastery using
examples of and/or personalized reflections about the content of
the article; demonstrates an applied level of understanding
through personalized reflections about the content area. Excels
in meeting expectations for graduate level work.
Fully meets expectations for LO 1
Fully meets expectations for Essential 3
Well-developed good quality work.
Content is of a professional portfolio quality; addresses at least
80% of the major subsections in the assignment using adequate
critical thinking skills; includes some summarizing or
paraphrasing of article; demonstration of content mastery using
examples of and/or personalized reflections about the content of
the selected research article; demonstration of an applied level
of understanding through personalized reflections about the
53. content area. It fully meets expectations for graduate level
work.
Meets expectations for LO 1
Meets expectations for Essential 3
Superficially developed, unacceptable quality.
Content needs substantial revision for it to be of a professional
portfolio quality; addresses less than 50% of the major
subsections in the assignment using weak critical thinking
skills; consists primarily of a summary of main ideas from the
research article; does not demonstrate an applied level of
understanding. Lags behind expectations for graduate level
work.
Insufficient to meet expectations for LO 1
Insufficient to meet expectations for Essential 3
Part 2: Strengths of the research study
(6.6 points)
54. Program LO: 1
DNP Essential: 3
Exemplary quality.
Content is of a professional portfolio quality; addresses every
major subsection in the assignment, clearly identifying two or
55. three strengths with support that demonstrates advanced critical
thinking skills; does not summarize or paraphrase the content of
the research article, rather demonstrates content mastery using
examples of and/or personalized reflections about the strengths
of the research study; demonstrates an applied level of
understanding through personalized reflections about the
strengths of the research study. Excels in meeting expectations
for graduate level work.
Fully meets expectations for LO 1
Fully meets expectations for Essential 3
Well-developed good quality work.
Content is of a professional portfolio quality; addresses at least
80% of the major subsections in the assignment, clearly
identifying two or three strengths of the research study, which
are supported using adequate critical thinking skills; includes
some summarizing or paraphrasing of the research article;
demonstration of content mastery using examples of and/or
personalized reflections about the strengths of the research
study; demonstration of an applied level of understanding
through personalized reflections about the strengths of the
research study. It fully meets expectations for graduate level
work.
Meets expectations for LO 1
Meets expectations for Essential 3
Superficially developed, unacceptable quality.
Content needs substantial revision for it to be of a professional
portfolio quality; addresses less than 50% of the major
subsections in the assignment using weak critical thinking
56. skills; consists primarily of a summary of strengths of the
research study; does not demonstrate an applied level of
understanding. Lags behind expectations for graduate level
work.
Insufficient to meet expectations for LO 1
Insufficient to meet expectations for Essential 3
Part 3: Weaknesses of the research study
(6.6 points)
57. Program LOs: 1
DNP Essential: 3
Exemplary quality.
Content is of a professional portfolio quality; addresses every
major subsection in the assignment, clearly identifying two or
three weaknesses with support that demonstrates advanced
critical thinking skills; does not summarize or paraphrase the
content of the research study, rather demonstrates content
mastery using examples of and/or personalized reflections about
the weaknesses of the research study; demonstrates an applied
level of understanding through personalized reflections about
the weaknesses of the research study. Excels in meeting
expectations for graduate level work.
Fully meets expectations for LO 1
Fully meets expectations for Essential 3
Well-developed good quality work.
Content is of a professional portfolio quality; addresses at least
80% of the major subsections in the assignment identifying two
or three weaknesses with support demonstrating adequate
58. critical thinking skills; includes some summarizing or
paraphrasing of research study; demonstration of content
mastery using examples of and/or personalized reflections about
the weaknesses of the research study; demonstration of an
applied level of understanding through personalized reflections
about the weaknesses of the research study. It fully meets
expectations for graduate level work.
Meets expectations for LO 1
Meets expectations for Essential 3
Superficially developed, unacceptable quality.
Content needs substantial revision for it to be of a professional
portfolio quality; addresses less than 50% of the major
subsections in the assignment using weak critical thinking
skills; consists primarily of a summary of weaknesses of the
research study; does not demonstrate an applied level of
understanding. Lags behind expectations for graduate level
work.
Insufficient to meet expectations for LO 1
Insufficient to meet expectations for Essential 3
Part 4: Proposed changes to improve the quality of the research
study
(6.6 points)
59. Program LO: 1
DNP Essential: 3
Exemplary quality.
Content is of a professional portfolio quality; addresses every
major subsection in the assignment, fully and clearly describes
changes to improve the quality of the research study using
advanced critical thinking skills; does not summarize or
paraphrase the content of research article, rather demonstrates
content mastery using examples of and/or personalized
reflections about the proposed changes and how they will
improve the quality of the study; demonstrates an applied level
of understanding through personalized reflections about the
proposed changes. Excels in meeting expectations for graduate
level work.
Fully meets expectations for LO 1
Fully meets expectations for Essential 3
Well-developed good quality work.
Content is of a professional portfolio quality; addresses at least
80% of the major subsections in the assignment using adequate
critical thinking skills; includes some summarizing or
paraphrasing of the proposed changes to improve the quality of
60. the research study; demonstration of content mastery using
examples of and/or personalized reflections about the content of
the research article; demonstration of an applied level of
understanding through personalized reflections about the
proposed changes and how they will improve the quality of the
study. It fully meets expectations for graduate level work.
Meets expectations for LO 1
Meets expectations for Essential 3
Superficially developed, unacceptable quality.
Needs substantial revision to be of a professional portfolio
quality; addresses less than half the major subsections in the
assignment using weak critical thinking skills; consists
primarily of a summary of the proposed changes; does not
demonstrate an applied level of understanding. Lags behind
expectations for graduate level work.
Insufficient to meet expectations for LO 1
Insufficient to meet expectations for Essential 3
Part 5: Summary of the implications for nursing practice
(6.6 points)
61. Program LO: 1
DNP Essential: 3
Exemplary quality.
Content is of a professional portfolio quality; addresses every
62. major subsection in the assignment [summarizing the
implications of the research study for nursing practice] using
advanced critical thinking skills; demonstrates content mastery
using examples of and/or personalized reflections about the
implications for practice; demonstrates an applied level of
understanding through personalized reflections about the
content area. Excels in meeting expectations for graduate level
work.
Fully meets expectations for LO 1
Fully meets expectations for Essential 3
Well-developed good quality work.
Content is of a professional portfolio quality; addresses at least
80% of the major subsections in the assignment summarizing
the implications of the research study for nursing practice using
adequate critical thinking skills;; demonstration of content
mastery using examples of and/or personalized reflections about
the implications for practice; demonstration of an applied level
of understanding through personalized reflections about the
content area. It fully meets expectations for graduate level
work.
Meets expectations for LO 1
Meets expectations for Essential 3
Superficially developed, unacceptable quality.
Needs substantial revision to be of a professional portfolio
quality; addresses less than half the major subsections in the
assignment using weak critical thinking skills; weak summary
of the implications for practice; does not demonstrate an applied
level of understanding. Lags behind expectations for graduate
63. level work.
Insufficient to meet expectations for LO 1
Insufficient to meet expectations for Essential 3
Up to 5 points (20%) may be deducted for errors in grammar
and/or APA style, as described below.
Assignment:
Select one of the four articles listed on the Week 2 Learning
Resources page and referenced below.
· Fouquier, K.F. (2011). The concept of motherhood among
64. three generations of African American women. Journal of
Nursing Scholarship, 43(2), 145–153.
· Grey, M., Whittemore, R., Jaser, S., Ambrosino, J.,
Lindemann, E., Liberti, L. … Dziura, J. (2009). Effects of
coping skills training in school-age children with Type 1
diabetes. Research in Nursing & Health, 32, 405-418.
· Methey, N.A., Davis-Jackson, J., & Stewart, B.J. (2010).
Effectiveness of an aspiration risk-reduction protocol. Nursing
Research, 59, 18-25.
· Newhouse, R.P., Morlock. L., Pronovost, P., & Breckenridge-
Sproat, S. (2011). Rural hospital nursing: Results of a national
survey of nurse executives. Journal of Nursing Administration,
41(3), 129-137.
In a 5- to 7-page paper written in APA format you will:
· Provide a brief one to two paragraph overview of the study.
· Identify two to three strengths of the study and support your
selection (i.e. why is this a strength)
· Identify two to three weaknesses of the study and support your
selection (i.e. why is this a weakness)
· Note: The strengths and weaknesses should be in relation to:
· Design
· Sampling
· Data collection
· Statistical analysis
· Results and discussion.
· Propose changes to improve the quality of the study
capitalizing on the strengths and improving on the weaknesses
you identified in the study.
· Summarize the implications for nursing practice.
Due by Day 7 of Week 9
65. Writing (5 points): Up to 5 points (20%) may be deducted for
grammar and APA style errors.
(Total points possible: 25)
Application 1: Article Critique [Major Assessment 4]
DNP graduates are expected to apply research findings and
integrate nursing science into
evidence-based practice. To develop your ability to engage in
this high level of nursing practice,
you will analyze the strengths and weaknesses of a research
study over the next several weeks
using the concepts presented throughout Weeks 1 through 9 of
the course. Your final analysis
will be a 5- to 7-page paper that includes the following:
Brief one to two paragraph overview of the study
Two to three strengths of the study and support for your
selection (i.e. why is this a strength)
Two to three weaknesses of the study and support for your
selection (i.e. why is this a
weakness)
Note: The strengths and weaknesses you identified should be in
relation to design, sampling,
data collection, statistical analysis, results and discussion of the
study
Proposed changes to improve the quality of the study,
capitalizing on the strengths and
66. improving on the weaknesses identified in the study
Summary of the implications for nursing practice
The purpose of the analysis is to help you develop a deeper
understanding of the research
process, to inspire you to think critically and deeply about
research on a specific topic, and to
strengthen your ability to integrate research findings into
evidence-based nursing practice. This
assignment also gives you practice in analyzing the research
literature, which will support you
when you begin your DNP project. Before you proceed, please
review the rubric for this
assignment, which is located in the Grading section in the left-
hand navigation menu of this
course. Keep in mind that you will be working on your article
critique throughout Weeks 2
through 9 with your critique due by Day 7 of Week 9.
To prepare for this week's assignment complete the following:
Select one of the four research articles cited in this week's
required readings.
Review the various quantitative research designs presented in
the textbook readings and
research articles and discussed in the "Musings: Aligning
Research Question and Methodology"
media.
Consider the research design used in your selected article. Ask
yourself the following questions.
Is the design appropriate for the study? Would a different
design provide better results?
You are not required to submit this assignment this week.
Resources to Use:
67. Fouquier, K.F. (2011). The concept of motherhood among three
generations of African
American women. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 43(2), 145–
153. Retrieved from the Walden
Library databases.
Grey, M., Whittemore, R., Jaser, S., Ambrosino, J., Lindemann,
E., Liberti, L., Northrup, V., &
Dziura, J. (2009). Effects of coping skills training in school-age
children with Type 1 diabetes.
Research in Nursing & Health, 32, 405–418. Retrieved from the
Walden Library databases.
Methey, N.A., Davis-Jackson, J., & Stewart, B.J. (2010).
Effectiveness of an aspiration risk-
reduction protocol. Nursing Research, 59, 18–25. Retrieved
from the Walden Library databases.
Newhouse, R.P., Morlock. L., Pronovost, P., & Breckenridge-
Sproat, S. (2011). Rural hospital
nursing: Results of a national survey of nurse executives.
Journal of Nursing Administration,
41(3), 129–137. Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further
reproduction prohibited without permission.
The "fit for purpose" HR function
Ashton, Chris;Haffenden, Mike;Lambert, Andrew
Strategic HR Review; Nov/Dec 2004; 4, 1; ProQuest Central
pg. 32
68. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further
reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further
reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further
reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further
reproduction prohibited without permission.
Creating the indispensable HR function
Miranda, Steve
Strategic HR Review; Mar/Apr 2005; 4, 3; ProQuest Central
pg. 32
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further
reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further
reproduction prohibited without permission.
69. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further
reproduction prohibited without permission.
INTRODUCTION
Connecting human resources
management and knowledge
management
Ivan Svetlik
University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia, and
Eleni Stavrou-Costea
University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus
Abstract
Purpose – The article seeks to demonstrate the benefits of using
an integrative approach between
human resource management (HRM) and knowledge
management (KM), where one reinforces and
supports the other in enhancing organisational effectiveness and
performance.
Design/methodology/approach – This contribution is a
collection of research articles that explore
how HRM and KM are interrelated and provide empirical
support for such connection.
70. Findings – The authors firmly believe that the articles of this
issue will not only provide for
interesting and worthwhile reading material, but also set the
stage for enlarging and enriching the
research base on the relationship between HRM and KM.
Research limitations/implications – It is not an exhaustive
analysis of the connections between
HRM and KM; however, it is a very good first step in that
direction. Even though HRM and KM have
much in common, there are few studies that make such a
connection explicit.
Practical implications – The article provides a very useful
source of information and practical
advice on how the connection between the two disciplines can
enhance organisational functioning.
Originality/value – This special issue fulfils a gap in the
existing literature for both academics and
practitioners on the merits of using HRM and KM integratively.
Keywords Human resource management, Knowledge
management
Paper type Literature review
Introduction
In this issue of the International Journal of Manpower we try to
demonstrate the
interface between human resource management (HRM) and
knowledge management
(KM) and the benefits of using an integrative approach between
the two disciplines
having the employee at the centre. While HRM, KM, and
similar disciplines, such as
71. management of intellectual capital and information
management, address the issues of
increasing the role of knowledge in contemporary organisations
and the economy from
different angles, it is felt that combining these angles into an
integrative approach
could be more fruitful.
This belief has been recently put forward and empirically
verified by various
authors. To illustrate, Scarbrough (2003) found that the
innovation process could be
facilitated if HRM and KM are linked within organisations.
Furthermore, Scholl et al.
(2004) explain that the most effective approach to the
theoretical and empirical issues
of KM would be an interdisciplinary and a multi-disciplinary
one. According to their
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is
available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/0143-7720.htm
Connecting HRM
and KM
197
International Journal of Manpower
Vol. 28 No. 3/4, 2007
pp. 197-206
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0143-7720
72. DOI 10.1108/01437720710755209
www.emeraldinsight.com/0143-7720.htm
research, the most pressing and challenging practical problem
for the understanding
and advancement of KM is to give priority to human factors. In
a similar fashion, Oltra
(2005) criticises academics for not taking rigorous and
systematic steps toward
comprehensive theory building in linking KM and HRM.
Finally, Yahya and Goh
(2002) argue that:
The focus of KM should rightly be placed on humans
themselves, and the impact made by
human resource management on KM practices . . . and that KM
is actually an evolved form of
human resource management . . .
To address the aforementioned arguments, we have organised an
international
conference held in Ljubljana in June 2004 and titled HRM in the
knowledge-based
economy. The main idea of the conference was to explore the
question on how HRM
does, could and should contribute to knowledge-based
organisations and the economy.
The implicit assumption was that HRM and KM should come
closer together. We used
three articles from that conference, for this special issue. In
addition, we recruited four
additional ones through an open call in order to provide a wider
array of studies to this
link between HRM and KM.
73. These articles are primarily empirical, each focusing on a
different aspect of HRM
and KM. Their conceptualisations, methods and findings
demonstrate the importance
of an interdisciplinary approach. Therefore, before providing an
overview of each
paper, we will first put forward some considerations regarding
each as well as the
interfaces between the two managerial disciplines, HRM and
KM.
Human resource management
Strait forward definitions of human resource management are
difficult to find. A
typical handbook usually defines HRM as the management of
the organisation’s
employees (Scarpello and Ledvinka, 1988, p. 4). Armstrong
(2000) defines HRM as
strategic personnel management emphasising the acquisition,
organisation and
motivation of human resources. Beardwell and Holden (2001,
pp. 9-16) hold that
understanding HRM depends highly on the perspective taken:
HRM could be conceived
as traditional personnel management, as a fusion of personnel
management and
industrial relations, as a resource-based employment
relationship or as a part of
strategic managerial function. With respect to this, HRM
involves managing
employees, their interpersonal relations and relations with the
organisation.
Perhaps the most crucial point about HRM is that people and
their interpersonal
74. relations become and are treated as resources, something that
could be considered both
good and bad: the negative side is that recourses are often
treated as expendable; we
promote the positive side, that recourses are valuable and
necessary for an
organisation to become exceptional. In line with the resource-
based view (Penrose,
1959) employees with all their capacities become desirable and
real resources for the
organisation if they are to a high degree: valuable and scarce,
inimitable,
non-substitutable and appropriable (Boxall and Purcell, 2003, p.
75). Boxall and
Purcell continue that:
Firms have the possibility of generating human capital
advantage through recruiting and
retaining outstanding people: through “capturing” a stock of
exceptional human talent, latent
with powerful forms of “tacit” knowledge. Organisational
process advantage, on the other
hand, may be understood as a function of historically evolved,
socially complex, causally
IJM
28,3/4
198
ambiguous processes, such as team-based learning and cross-
functional cooperation –
processes which are very difficult to imitate . . . In a nutshell,
“human resource advantage” . . .
75. can be traced to better people in organisations with better
process (Boxall and Purcell, 2003,
pp. 85-86).
There are two points to remember: first, HRM does not manage
people as such, but
their personal and interpersonal (inter-group, organisational)
characteristics, which
could be considered resources and create organisational
advantages; and second,
human resources are not only brought into the organisation by
means of recruitment
and selection but also developed within the organisation by
investment in their
personal capacities and deployed by nurturing of interpersonal
and inter-group
relations.
Another important point for our discussion is how human
resources are composed;
what is their structure and how it is changing? According to
O’Donnell et al. (2003),
people are evaluated through their competencies, knowledge,
know-how, adaptability,
network connections and experiences. Among these
components, knowledge has
become most accentuated: according to Drucker (1999), the
basic economic resource is
no longer capital, natural resources or labour, but knowledge.
What really
distinguishes work results from each other is the share of
embedded knowledge
(Burton, 1999, p. 4). In their study of the Irish ICT sector
O’Donnell et al. (2003) found
that approximately two thirds of organisational value is
perceived to be composed of
76. intellectual capital and that over half of this capital stems
directly from people
working, thinking and communicating.
Knowledge management
Unlike human resource management, which is seldom explicitly
defined, a bundle of
definitions of knowledge exist. However, like human resource
management, definitions
of knowledge and how to manage it, are usually incomplete
because they deal with a
rather slippery subject (Winter, 1987). Furthermore, no
universally accepted
foundation for knowledge has yet been developed (Barabas,
1990, p. 61). Perhaps the
most profound distinction in the study of knowledge has been
made between
knowledge as a subjective state in individuals’ minds embedded
in organisations and
communities – constructivist approach (Davenport and Prusak,
1998, p. 5; Lang, 2001),
and knowledge as an objective state of things – objectivist
approach (Spender, 1998).
This distinction coincides to some extent with that made
between tacit and explicit
knowledge (Polanyi, 1966; Nonaka, 2002), soft and hard
knowledge (Hildreth et al.,
1999), background and foreground knowledge (Bhatt, 2001).
The proponents of the second view would argue that knowledge
management is a
conscious strategy of getting the right knowledge to the right
people at the right time
and helping people share and put information into action in
ways that strive to
improve organisational performance (O’Dell and Jackson, 1998,
77. p. 4). Knowledge is a
commodity to be traded (Gibbons et al., 2000) and needs to be
managed (Dodgson, 2000,
p. 37).
The proponents of the first view rely on the difference between
information and
knowledge. According to Bhatt (2001) knowledge is different
from data and
information. Data are raw facts and when organised they
become information.
Knowledge is meaningful information. They claim that “the
most important parts of
knowledge cannot be handled as a thing for others” (Scholl et
al., 2004). Rooney and
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Schneider (2005) explain that knowledge is bound to human
consciousness while data,
texts and images are contained in storage media. In a similar
fashion, Kakabadse et al.
(2003) argue that:
KM is not about managing knowledge but about changing entire
business cultures and
strategies of organisations to ones that value learning and
sharing. Although some aspects of
knowledge, such as culture, organisational structure,
communication process and
information can be managed, knowledge itself, arguably, cannot
78. . . . Hence, one can
manage or support processes of learning rather than managing
knowledge.
Finally, Rooney and Schneider (2005, p. 33) are explicit that
“because knowledge is
sensitive to context and is fallibly enacted, it cannot be
managed”.
The constructivist approach accepts not only individual
knowledge but also for
knowledge that exists in the social context of groups,
organisations and societies
(Yahya and Goh, 2002). While knowledge is created by and
rests in individual
employees, it is also created through social interaction and is
embedded in the social
structure of organisational members (Narasimha, 2000).
According to Davenport and
Prusak (1998) knowledge in organisations often becomes
embedded not only in
documents and repositories, but also in organisational routines,
processes, practices
and norms. As Malhotra (1998) states KM “embodies
organisational processes that
seek synergistic combination of data and information processing
capacity of
information technologies, and the creative and innovative
capacity of human beings”.
This means that the distinction made between knowledge as a
thing and knowledge as
a state of mind cannot be conceived in terms of “either or”.
In our view they complement each other. Objective knowledge
encoded in written,
electronic and other forms has helped enormously in functioning
79. of the existing
educational systems, which strive for the transfer of knowledge
to the new generations.
A well-structured textbook keeps its value even in a modern
study process. The same
stands for the production systems, which use written plans,
designs, manuals etc.
However, to make encoded knowledge available to individuals
and organisations and
to create additional knowledge on this basis, human touch is
unavoidable. They must
read, listen and speak in order to reach a new level of
comprehension. Only this way a
new piece of knowledge could become encoded.
If knowledge does not exist and cannot be observed and
managed in its pure form,
the concept of knowledge embeddedness deserves special
attention. According to
Blacker (2002, pp. 48-50) knowledge could be embedded in
several ways: embrained in
terms of conceptual skills and cognitive abilities; embodied in
terms of being action
oriented, situational and only partially explicit, linked to
individuals’ senses and
physical abilities; encultured in terms of shared understandings
achieved in the
process of socialisation and acculturation; embedded in
systemic routines that include
relationships between technologies, roles, formal procedures
and emergent routines;
and encoded in terms of information conveyed by signs and
symbols in books,
manuals, codes of practice and electronic media.
Ingrained into the process of KM is the so-called knowledge
80. cycle. This cycle
integrates knowledge through four main phases, which should
be observed
interactively rather than by a linear approach (OECD, 2001):
the first is knowledge
acquisition, which focuses primarily on searching among
various sources of
information and knowledge, on their selection, and on ways to
bring the existing
knowledge in the possession of individuals and organisations;
the second involves
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knowledge creation, which focuses on the development and
increasing bulk of new
knowledge; the third is knowledge transfer, distribution,
dissemination and sharing,
aiming for relevant knowledge to reach relevant individuals,
groups and organisations
as soon as possible; and the fourth entails knowledge utilisation
and application in
various environments, which is the ultimate goal of the
economic organisations and
systems as well as individuals who work for them.
Where HRM and KM meet
If we compare the enumerated characteristics of HRM and KM
as described above, the
following observations could be made: If HRM is about
managing people effectively
81. and if people’s most valuable resource is knowledge, then HRM
and KM come closely
interrelated. Even more, HRM and KM share common activities
and goals when
creating work units, teams, cross-functional cooperation, as
well as communication
flows and networks inside the organisation and across its
borders.
If we compare the KM cycle with HRM processes, we will find
the various activities
shared between KM and HRM. Knowledge acquisition is about
recruiting outstanding
people and about helping them learn and grow as individuals
and as professionals. It is
also about encouraging employees to participate in professional
networks and
communities of practice that extend beyond organisational
boundaries (Wenger et al.,
2002). Knowledge creation is achieved by creating a supportive
environment, through
requisite HRM, for individuals, groups and teams in order to be
challenged by the
organisational problems, to search for the problems’ solutions
and to innovate. It goes
from the creation of positions and teams, to the provision of
information feedback
flows, to the design of stimulating remuneration and other
systems of encouragement.
It includes also investment in the training and development of
human resources.
Knowledge transfer concerns various forms of learning, the
creation of a knowledge
sharing climate, establishment of training units which assess
and analyse training
needs, provide and evaluate training, and lead towards learning
82. organisations (Senge,
1994). Finally, knowledge utilisation is about the deployment of
human resources by
means of proper leadership, division of tasks and
responsibilities, remuneration
systems, and performance appraisal.
It would be difficult to find an area where HRM and KM do not
meet. Perhaps one
such area could be management of the encoded knowledge,
although one could argue
that this is not a KM but an information management issue. It
seems, however, that
encoding knowledge and putting it in an explicit form could go
beyond sheer
information management. Furthermore, codification is usually
associated with the
process of abstraction, which should provide for effective
diffusion (Boisot, 2005,
pp. 178-190). Thus, managing knowledge and managing human
resources, even
though not interchangeable concepts, they are certainly highly
inter-related. Teece
(2000) takes this argument a step further, suggesting that KM is
more multifaceted
than HRM because it involves managing intellectual property
rights and the
development and transfer of individual and organisational
know-how. Nevertheless,
knowledge cannot be managed in a void – without people – and
the other way around.
Therefore, the two disciplines are not only inter-related but also
highly interdependent
By this comparison we propose an integrative approach between
KM and HRM, one
83. that will advance knowledge in both fields as well as improve
organisational
effectiveness. If HRM neglects the requisite management of
knowledge and does not
Connecting HRM
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201
adjust its concepts and practices to the multi-faceted nature of
knowledge, it puts itself
on a side-track. The same stands for KM if it does not focus on
the requisite
management of individuals, their interpersonal relations and
their relations with their
respective organisations. To put it affirmatively:
The focus of KM should rightly be placed on humans
themselves, and the impact made by
human resource management on KM practices . . . The main
tasks of HRM are to monitor,
measure and intervene in construction, embodiment,
dissemination and use of knowledge of
employees (Yahya and Goh, 2002).
Shih and Chiang (2005) have already attempted to provide
empirical support for the
connection among HRM, KM and corporate strategies and we
seek to enrich such
support with similar studies through this special issue.
About the articles
Given the aforementioned discussion and without further due,
84. we introduce below the
various articles in this special issue (International Journal of
Manpower, Vol. 28 No. 3/4,
2007) that demonstrate the merits of integrating KM and HRM.
The first article, by B.A. Lundvall and P. Nielsen, deals with
the establishment of
“learning organisations” as a central element of knowledge
management – especially
among firms operating in markets where product innovation is
an important
parameter of competition. The authors argue that the wide use
of information extends
the potential for codifying knowledge but at the same time it
makes tacit knowledge
scarcer and it contributes to the formation of “a learning
economy”. They support their
argument with an empirical analysis demonstrating that firms
that introduce several
human resource management practices assumed to characterise
the learning
organisation are more innovative than the average firm. HRM
contributes thus to
knowledge creation.
Following the above is an article on measuring organisational
learning among
employees, by R. Chiva, J. Alegre and R. Lapiedra. In this
article, the authors describe
the development and validation of a diagnostic tool which aims
to capture the
organisational propensity to learn, something which as they
claim is missing from
extant literature. They propose five dimensions that represent
the essential factors that
determine organisational learning capability: experimentation,
85. risk taking, interaction
with the external environment, dialogue, and participation in
decisions. This tool may
be related to a dynamic training approach applied to
organisations or serve as a
mechanism to facilitate learning, as the five dimensions may
represent a useful target
for organisational change initiatives.
In the third article, N. Zupan and R. Kase examine the structural
positions of line
managers and HR specialists (called “HR actors”) within
relational networks for
creating and sharing knowledge; and explore the implications
for designing and
implementing HR practices in knowledge-intensive firms (KIF).
This is a very
interesting article as it demonstrates that line managers who are
HR actors are
centrally positioned within the knowledge networks examined,
while HR specialists
are not. These results imply that a decentralised approach to
HRM in KIF can be
effective. Furthermore, the study shows that HRM can affect the
process of knowledge
creation and sharing by implementing HR practices through
centrally positioned line
managers.
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86. In line with the aforementioned articles, but shifting gears a bit
towards
organisational competitive advantage, the fifth article of this
issue deals with the
development of a proactive approach to competency modelling
and its application to
facilitate strategic change by supporting communication,
understanding of business
goals and the incorporation of new behaviours, roles and
competencies within the
organisation. M. Vakola, K.E. Soderquist and G.P. Prastacos
base their study on the
central role that competencies have in integrating the different
human resource
management activities into a requisite system and the real need
to translate business
strategy into the people competencies necessary to implement
and support that
strategy at the operational organisational levels. Through a case
study, M. Vakola and
her colleagues have demonstrated that their suggested approach
was successful in
anchoring the competencies in the new organisational strategy,
ensuring focus on
job-related skills, and allowing for significant flexibility while
keeping areas and
competencies generic.
Adding to the richness of this special issue, in the next article
T.J. Chang and S.P.
Yeh explore how knowledge sharing among new product
development members of
high technology Taiwanese firms is positively related to team-
based joint reward
systems and organisational citizenship behaviours. They also
investigate the