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![Company: How Japanese companies create the dynamics of
innovation. New York: Oxford University Press.
Nonaka I, Toyama R and Konno N (2000) SECI, Ba and
leadership: a unified model of dynamic knowledge creation.
Long Range Planning 33(1): 5-34.
Laucuka, A. (2018). Communicative Functions of Hashtags,
Economics and Culture, 15(1), 56-62
Donald, H., 2018. Knowledge Management In Organizations.
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- 1. Organisational Analysis Analysing andCodifying Organisational Knowledge ‹#› Aims To discuss knowledge as an organisational resource (VIRO) To discuss knowledge creation cycles in organisations To build on your understanding of knowledge cycles organisations. Codifying knowledge Controlled dictionaries, vocabularies Taxonomies Folksonomies Organisational Implications ‹#› Definition of Knowledge Management “Knowledge Management is the process of capturing, distributing, and effectively using knowledge.” Davenport, T. and Prusak, L. (1998)
- 2. This definition doesnot commit any stakeholder to any particular form of method or technology. ‹#› Job Profiles in Knowledge Management ‹#› Knowledge and Competitive Advantage As a Resource: Knowledge, in the organisational context, is: the sum of what is known among organisational members. Organisational success requires organisations to develop new techniques and competencies to fully utilise the intelligence & knowledge among its organisational members. To become aware of and utilise both explicit and tacit knowledge. ‹#› Knowledge – Resource Based View Competitive Advantage Part of strategy is taking a resource based view of the organisation Knowledge, learning are intangible resources
- 3. Competition in the‘knowledge economy’ requires organisations: to acquire & make use of (i.e. exploit) existing knowledge (within and beyond the organisation) manage and utilise knowledge innovatively through exploration and searching for new options ‹#› Explicit versus Tacit Knowledge Explicit knowledge: Can be codified (tangible) Precisely and formally articulated Easy to transfer, share, document and communicate "Explicit knowledge is emphasised as a management tool to be exploited as organisational knowledge. Groupware, intranets, list servers, knowledge repositories, database management and knowledge action networks allow the sharing of organisational knowledge” Scarbrough et al. (1999) “Managers hope that these tools will retain knowledge within the company when employees have left, and also that this will encourage learning and the flourishing of communities of interest across functional boundaries" Radcliffe-Martin, Coakes and Sugden (2000) ‹#›
- 4. Explicit versus TacitKnowledge Tacit knowledge: Subconsciously understood or applied Difficult to articulate and often context-specific Developed from direct action and experience Shared through conversation or story-telling "Tacit knowledge is not available as a text. . . .It involves intangible factors embedded in personal beliefs, experiences, and values" (Pan and Scarbrough 1999). ‹#› Knowledge as a Resource Resource Analysis (VIRO) Organisational Analysis examines resources as: V - Valuable I – Imitable (or non-imitable) R - Rare O – Organised (well deployed) Preparing some business students for their Capstone course How do we put a “value” on knowledge as a resource? ‹#› Challenges to Knowledge Management A number of challenges exist to KM Different knowledge formats in organisations Lack of systems integration Knowledge creation – how does this occur? Knowledge loss focus on artefact rather than process
- 5. ‹#› Knowledge Formats Whether weare aware, knowledge is held in organisations in various ways: Think of all the paper based instances you can encounter Digital: Databases, and serialised in different formats What has been missed? ‹#› Diversity of Applications in Organisations SAP Procurement Manufacturing Planning Sales Finance HR No system is integrated – different formats Nor may it desirable for systems to integrated ‹#›
- 6. Lack of SystemsIntegration Does digitisation offer the solution? The challenge: once digitisation occurs, knowledge can become more difficult to discover No system is integrated, with different data formats causing problems Nor is it always desirable for systems to be completely integrated ‹#› Knowledge loss Remember Organisational Learning Cycles Single, Double and Triple Loop Learning Organisational Learning Occurs through a number of activities, e.g. Strategy Human Resources Project management - Project start to completion Human interaction, e.g. Concurrent Engineering Design thinking, e.g. Controlled Convergence Manufacturing Sales Marketing All of these are value adding activities – How? ‹#›
- 7. The Richness ofKnowledge Focus on artefact (end result) rather than process A large part of learning is a social activity Remember organisational isomorphism: how do we become the same? Or rather, should we be the same? ……….. and therefore knowledge loss ‹#› Spiral of Knowledge Creation Let’s discuss these four steps When value adding activities occur: (i) existing knowledge is drawn upon and (ii) new knowledge is generated. Nonaka I, Toyama R and Konno N (2000) ‹#› The Challenge of Knowledge Management – the “Sociology” of Knowledge Creation Knowledge is constantly being constructed What we often think of as being “knowledge” is only the end result What is often missed out, is the process of knowledge creation. Innovation Social interaction Individual thinking Nonaka I, Toyama R and Konno N (2000)
- 8. ‹#› Knowledge Capture Mustbe Continuous The process of socialisation, i.e. Design, Development Codifying is continuous and the meaning of codes changes, i.e. easily forgotten In a neohumanist – postmodernist sense, the organisational narrative changes ‹#› Knowledge Management – Understanding Ontology Remember, there may be different ontological assumptions Therefore, if you understand ontology, the neohumanist (postmodernist) paradigm views knowledge as liberating. ‹#› Role of Consultants in Analysis As a consultant or manager, you must become aware that ‘ideas’ and ‘values’ influence social and organisational behaviour. The social world is negotiated, organised and reproduced (i.e. constructed) by our interpretations of events, the action of others and the symbols around us. The social world is ‘objectified’ through repeating past behaviours and shared experience, understanding (i.e. meaning) and interaction. Inter-subjectivity: an individual’s internalisation and interpretation of shared experience and meaning.
- 9. The Social Constructionof Reality (Berger and Luckmann,1966) ‹#› The Neohumanist Perspective Each organisation has its narrative… captured in language and imagery. ‹#› Meta-Data, Tagging We now examine the technical aspects of knowledge management Not in terms of technical platforms, but how knowledge is “highlighted” Assuming individuals recognise patterns Wants to highlight an aspect of knowledge that is interesting For the purpose of creating interest and sharing ‹#› Meta-Data
- 10. Example of tagging Doyou use document properties? ‹#› Document Meta-Data Purpose of “tagging” is to give more information about an artefact Make knowledge “discoverable” Microsoft Word Document Document Properties Opportunities for you to “tag” ‹#› Tagging – Making Knowledge Discoverable Database Knowledge Management Platform Database Database Knowledge Management solutions exist – often technology driven. Application Application Application Tags Tags Tags
- 11. ‹#› How do YouCodify Knowledge? We will discuss some ways of “codifying” knowledge. Codes identify and associate meaning Taxonomies (enterprise taxonomies) Folksonomies #Hashtag Trending ‹#› How do you codify knowledge? Codes that identify and associate meaning Taxonomies (enterprise taxonomies) Folksonomies #Hashtag Trending ‹#› Enterprise Taxonomies Formal Classification structure Developed top-down Namespace – contextual Hierarchical (parent-child relationships) Controlled - rules are created for each taxonomy term Taxonomy terms tend not to appear in more than one branch
- 12. Vocabulary tagging makesknowledge visible, i.e. findable/retrievable/discoverable, but organisations tend to lack the time or resources to build a taxonomy ‹#› A system of collating and harvesting concepts User generated, i.e. own vocabulary Non-hierarchical Bottom-up Trending #Hashtagging Folksonomies ‹#› The Rise of Fake-News In a social media sense, just because something trends, is it “correct”? ‹#› Critical Thinking - Consequences Could the notion of “fake news” affect organisations? How would you manage it? The requirement of "truth" is part of the analysis of knowledge" (Tienson J., 1973)
- 13. ‹#› Analysing the OrganisationalNarrative As a tool, we look at a further perspective which is the organisational narrative. What or who controls language use? the meaning (semantics) e.g. dictionary, meta-data? ‹#› Summary We have covered a number of issues relating to knowledge management Technology solutions exist You now understand the sociology behind KM More equipped to understand what needs to be captured Focus on the social process and not the artifact ‹#› References Davenport, T. and Prusak, L. (1998). Working knowledge: how organizations manage what they know. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Hislop, D., 2018. Knowledge Management in Organizations: A critical introduction. 4th ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Nonaka I and Takeuchi H (1995) The Knowledge-Creating
- 14. Company: How Japanesecompanies create the dynamics of innovation. New York: Oxford University Press. Nonaka I, Toyama R and Konno N (2000) SECI, Ba and leadership: a unified model of dynamic knowledge creation. Long Range Planning 33(1): 5-34. Laucuka, A. (2018). Communicative Functions of Hashtags, Economics and Culture, 15(1), 56-62 Donald, H., 2018. Knowledge Management In Organizations. Oxford University Press. ‹#› PRINTED BY: [email protected] Printing is for personal, private use only. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted without publisher's prior permission. Violators will be prosecuted. PRINTED BY: [email protected] Printing is for personal, private use only. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted without publisher's prior permission. Violators will be prosecuted. PRINTED BY: [email protected] Printing is for personal, private use only. No part of this book may be reproduced or
- 15. transmitted without publisher's priorpermission. Violators will be prosecuted. Organisational Analysis Power, Control and Coalition ‹#› 1 Organisational Power, Control and Conflict Objectives: Introduce the concepts of power, control, conflict and coalition Understanding a subjectivist approach to analysis Powerful internal and external stakeholders Analysing the roots of dissatisfaction, dissent, suspicion and coalition Is worker coalition the answer? ‹#› 2 Critical Organisational Analysis and Strategy Development
- 16. Strategy Development Resource BasedView External Environment External Stakeholders Internal Stakeholders Inward Looking Outward Looking ‹#› PESTEL Political Economic Social Technology Environment Legal Strategy Development Framework Outwards looking organisations ‹#› A Precarious Balance of Power for Organisations In strategic management: We look at resources within the organisation Internal stakeholder engagement And we look outside organisational boundaries External stakeholder engagement Identifying social and environmental issues that matter most to performance in order to improve decision-making and
- 17. accountability. ‹#› Critical Theory asan Analytical Tool Critical Theory as enabling managers to understand both sides of an argument Understand that arguments are intractable because they emanate from people holding different assumptions ‹#› The Need to Go Beyond “Rationality” Organisations are portrayed as systems of oppression, rather than as systems of order Stories of social divisions, power, exploitation, inequality and conflict within organisations Social classes in organisations exist and are in conflict Emergence of pejorative language in the description of organisations: “Capitalist organisations alienate and exploit workers” (Burawoy, 1979) ‹#›
- 18. Critical Theory Analysis CriticalTheorist: Systems of Oppression Systems of Production: Places of Work Capitalist organisations alienate and exploit workers Worker emancipation requires the establishment of a more democratic and egalitarian organisation ‹#› Critical Theory Analysis Organisations are analysed as capitalist class relations (i.e. owner and labourer). Organisations are portrayed in terms of Capitalist mode of production characterised by exploitation and alienation of the workers by the owners of the means of production Calls for worker emancipation, and for the establishment of a more democratic and egalitarian organisation The emergence of a ‘critical’ organisational discourse. In the US: C. Wright Mills (1956) The Power Elite Alvin Gouldner (1954) Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy (1955) Wildcat Strike In the UK: Ralf Dahrendorf (1959) Class and Class Conflict In An Industrial Society ‹#›
- 19. Justification for CriticalTheory Analysis If organisations do not recognise and address problems, then these problems are often exposed in more uncomfortable settings: Social media News reports “Haterade” (excessive negativity, criticism, or resentment) “Clicktivism” ‹#› Understanding the Critical Theory Viewpoint Organisations experience social divisions from within and outside Differences stem from ideological differences Major influence Karl Marx (1818-1882) Concerned with social divisions, power, inequality and conflict within organisations and broader society ‹#› Limitations of Functional Analysis Organisational ‘Truths’ are only partially represented by process models What is missing from Process Models? Are Process Models incomplete? Analysis of Organisations through Critical Theory
- 20. ‹#› Critical Theory Ontology (WorldView) There is an objective reality about organisations But Accounts of organisations are discovered through subjectivist interpretations ‘Nature cannot be seen as it ‘really is’ or ‘really works’ except through a value window’ Guba (1990: 24) By “world view” it means some are ideologically oriented to see “capitalist” organisations as exploitative and thus disputes occur ‹#› The uncovering or “reveal” of ideology Inductive: a process of developing theory from observation and interpretation: Reflexive Historical Discourse Analysis Self-awareness Introspection
- 21. Critical Theory Analysis ‹#› Previously:Application of Science to Control Workers Machine paced labour (Scientific Management Strategies): Grounded in a technical rational paradigm that advantages quantifiable information Increase efficiencies by simplifying the production process into specialised tasks Management develops precise scheduling and organising of work activities ‹#› 15 Inequality Regimes within Organisations Critical Theory Analysis of Inequality Regimes All organisations have inequality regimes (gender, age, etc) Organisational members are misled by those in power Systems of inequality are reinforced, embedded, routinised Defined as loosely interrelated practices, actions, meanings that result in and maintain class, gender, and racial inequalities within particular organisations
- 22. ‹#› Unequal Systems andResistance How do workers redress the reduction in bargaining power or inequalities? How is freedom from oppression and exploitation attained? ‹#› Calls for Emancipation: Workers as Active Agents Within Organisational Relationships Workers’ resistance to unequal power in the workplace: Individual action: Verbal complaints Go-slows ‘Cheating’ Absenteeism Looking for other work Sabotage Theft Collective Action: Strikes Go-slows ‘Sick-out’ The formation of trade unions ‹#› 18
- 23. A Different Portrayalof Management A more ‘critical’ analysis of dominant organisational ideas and management practices. ‘critical theorists have shifted the image of management and the theoretical agenda ‘from saviour to problem’ Crowther and Green (2004: 119). ‹#› Critical Theory Analysis Unpacking stories from opposing perspectives The organisation’s narrative is not only internal communications, websites, annual reports, etc. The organisation’s story comprises a totality of narratives Allows us to interrogate, critically, the nature of any institutionalised pattern of social relationships within a society (and organisation) in the context of manifest imbalances of power, i.e. between advantaged and disadvantaged ‹#› Critical Theory: Discourse Analysis Let us step through a number of examples of narratives What is the truth? What people accept as being the truth ‘Knowing’ the ‘truth’ is ‘tainted’ by dominant ideology and values of the those seeking ‘truth’.
- 24. ‹#› How do disputesmanifest? Linking awareness and human emancipation or improvement ‹#› The Corporate Point of View ‹#› Critical Studies of Power and Control Portrayal of organisations as places exploitation Organisations are excessively or obsessively driven by capital accumulation Greater the exploitation of labour—greater the profit. Extension of the working day (for the same wages) Efficiency drive to produce more in the same amount of time for the same wages Technological development (reduction of wages) ‹#›
- 25. 24 Understanding why peopleresist People resist systematic disparities in organisations Unrest Coalition, workforce organisation against management, corporate greed Managers need to be aware of the organising processes that constitute inequality regimes in organisations, that are related to the “economic decision making that results in dramatically different local and regional configurations of inequality” ‹#› Giving Voice to the Exploited ‹#› Emancipation through Worker Coalition Organisational members (workers) are misled by those in power ‹#› Issues are heavily contested The purpose is, therefore, to develop appropriate organisational
- 26. practices to addressthe problems What Outcome are We Trying To Achieve? ‹#› Do Coalitions, themselves, become Exploitative? THE former Health Services Union leader was leading a charmed life. Kathy Jackson appeared to be a wealthy woman who was living in luxury. She travelled the world and bought expensive cars and designer clothing. But her world has come crashing down as she has been charged with 70 theft and deception offences by union corruption investigators………………… ‹#› Do Coalitions, themselves, become Powerful? Construction unions using bikies as 'hired muscle' in industrial disputes: Victoria Police By Alison Savage Updated 8 Jan 2016, 2:50pm
- 27. ‹#› Summary: Why CriticalTheory? Contrasting a Modernist-Functionalist mindset with a Critical Theory mindset (ontology) To show different world-view (ontological) assumptions Ideologies have fundamental different assumptions Explains why some ideologies conflict Managers have to analyse the roots of conflict Some organisational problems are intractable ‹#› References Dahl, R. A. (1957). The concept of power. Behavioral science, 2(3), 201-215. Freund, J. (1969). TheSociology of Max Weber. Giddens, A. (1985). The nation-state and violence (Vol. 2). Univ of California Press. Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Hamilton, P. (Ed.). (1991). Max Weber, Critical Assessments 2 (Vol. 2). Taylor & Francis. Hatch, M. J., & Cunliffe, A. L. (2012). Organization theory: modern, symbolic and postmodern perspectives. Oxford university press. Dahrendorf, R. (1959). Class and class conflict in industrial society. Stanford University Press. Durkheim, E. (2014). The division of labor in society. Simon and Schuster. Gouldner, A. W. (1954). Patterns of industrial bureaucracy. Guba, E. G. (Ed.). (1990). The paradigm dialog. Sage Publications. Mills, C. W. (1999). The power elite. Oxford University Press.
- 28. Guy, G. (2011).Language, social class and status. In R. Mesthrie (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of sociolinguistics (1st ed., Vol. 1, pp. 159–185 ‹#› Cover page Contents 1Introduction3 1.1Problem statement3 2Methodology – Demonstration of Critical analysis – thinking (how)3 3Literature Review (Find and Generate)4 4Analysis/Response: Solution Development and Proposal5 5Discussions5 6References5 7Discussion6 8References6
- 29. 9Appendices6 Introduction Students need toarticulate the various issues they have identified drawn from the case study details. Students should identify the issues and make substantive or critically engaging comment about the relevant paradigm perspectives involved, as well as identifying related course concepts, including. Do not be descriptive, make sure you engage with the paradigm.Problem statement The problem statement is an incisive, insightful, powerful and engaging statement of the problem. This section conveys your groups’ identification of the problem. Remember, what an organization states as being the problem may be vague and it is the result of your group’s critical engagement with the problem that has resulted in your group’s statement of what you present the problem to be. How do you, as an individual, see what the problem is? This problem statement also drives your search for literature for inspiration to solve your problem. What themes did you identify? What have others done? · The pre-campaign functionalist approach of the mining
- 30. company. Assumptions suchas: that it is merely an organisation going through a commercial process - 'making money = sustainability ?Methodology – Demonstration of Critical analysis – thinking (how) To help you write the methodology, you must draw from the given readings from Assignment 1 when constructing this section. As reminder, one of the required readings is: Hirschheim, R. and Klein, H. K. (1989). Four Paradigms of Information Systems Development. Communications of the ACM, 32(10), pp. 1199-1216. Which two of the given readings did you identify and de- construct as being Radical Structuralist and Neohumanist? Importantly, how did you apply these perspectives in developing your solution? Literature Review (Find and Generate) Find scholarly resources, that will help you ground your
- 31. solution proposal What themeswould you search? Do this on your own and try to identify researchable questions or themes, worth asking. These themes can help you to build your solution, you do not re-invent the wheel but identify gaps in knowledge. You may create a hierarchy of themes based on “find and generate”. For example, you might think about: · Risk management frameworks? · Project planning, life-cyles? · Reputational risk? You might create a list of sub-themes if necessary to convey how you wish to organize your literature. · Importantly, identify gaps, are these frameworks too functional, and if so, what do they miss out? · Analysis/Response: