INTRODUCTION :
Ophthalmic dosage are the preparation designed for application to the eye:-
For treatment,
For symptomatic release of symptoms,
For diagnostic purpose,
As aid to surgical procedures.
They are the sterile products meant to instillation in to the eye in the space between eye lid and the eye ball
They are also prepared as parenteral product.
Example :Eye drops, Eye lotion, Eye ointment, Eye suspension, Contact lens solution
D-pharma B- Pharma topical preparation pharmaceutics pharmaceutical chemistry Pharmacy topical preparations ointment page gel cream limit suppositories access accessories pessesries paste lotion liniment topical preparations are those drugs that are applied locally to on the mucus membrane administered by rubbing or we are spreading over them on the skin to protect and moisturizer and various therapeutic effect they contain silver nitrate kilora accident gluconate ionic silver boric acid bleaching powder potassium permanganate hydrogen peroxide sodium chloride jink jink oxide ointment base vehicles
Introduction to ophthalmic products useful as a basic & theoretical tool for pharmacy, medical & nursing students for their graduate and post graduate studies
D-pharma B- Pharma topical preparation pharmaceutics pharmaceutical chemistry Pharmacy topical preparations ointment page gel cream limit suppositories access accessories pessesries paste lotion liniment topical preparations are those drugs that are applied locally to on the mucus membrane administered by rubbing or we are spreading over them on the skin to protect and moisturizer and various therapeutic effect they contain silver nitrate kilora accident gluconate ionic silver boric acid bleaching powder potassium permanganate hydrogen peroxide sodium chloride jink jink oxide ointment base vehicles
Introduction to ophthalmic products useful as a basic & theoretical tool for pharmacy, medical & nursing students for their graduate and post graduate studies
Ophthalmic dosage are the preparation designed for application to the eye:-
For treatment
For symptomatic release of symptoms
For diagnostic purpose
As aid to surgical procedures
They are the sterile products meant to instillation in to the eye in the space between eye lid and the eye ball
They are also prepared as parenteral product. Example
Eye drops, Eye lotion, Eye ointment, Eye suspension, Contact lens solution
Anatomy of eye and adrena, absorption of drug in the eye, classification of ophthalmic
products, safety consideration of ophthalmic products, formulation, vehicles and additives,
manufacturing consideration, environment, manufacturing techniques, quality control of
ophthalmic products, packaging of ophthalmic products.
Diuretic drugs are medications that increase urine production and promote the excretion of excess fluid and electrolytes from the body. They are commonly used in the treatment of conditions such as hypertension, heart failure, and edema. Mechanism of Action:
Diuretics work by acting on different parts of the nephron, the functional unit of the kidney, to increase urine output.
Loop diuretics, such as furosemide and bumetanide, inhibit the reabsorption of sodium and chloride in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle.
Thiazide diuretics, such as hydrochlorothiazide and chlorthalidone, inhibit sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule.
Potassium-sparing diuretics, such as spironolactone and amiloride, work by either blocking the aldosterone receptor (spironolactone) or directly inhibiting sodium channels (amiloride) in the collecting duct.
Clinical Indications:
Diuretics are primarily used to manage conditions characterized by fluid overload, such as hypertension, heart failure, cirrhosis, and certain kidney disorders.
Loop diuretics are often employed in acute settings, such as pulmonary edema or severe hypertension, where rapid diuresis is needed.
Thiazide diuretics are commonly used as first-line agents for hypertension and can also be helpful in managing edema associated with heart failure.
Potassium-sparing diuretics are often used in combination with other diuretics to prevent potassium loss and hypokalemia, especially in patients at risk, such as those with heart failure or liver cirrhosis.
Adverse Effects:
Common side effects of diuretics include electrolyte imbalances (e.g., hypokalemia, hyponatremia, hyperkalemia with potassium-sparing diuretics), dehydration, hypotension, and metabolic abnormalities (e.g., hyperglycemia, hyperuricemia).
Loop diuretics may cause ototoxicity (especially with rapid IV administration) and can exacerbate renal impairment in certain individuals.
Thiazide diuretics may increase blood glucose levels and lipid levels, potentially worsening glycemic control and dyslipidemia in patients with diabetes or metabolic syndrome.
Monitoring and Patient Education:
Patients taking diuretics should be regularly monitored for electrolyte levels, renal function, blood pressure, and signs of volume depletion or fluid overload.
It's essential to educate patients about the importance of maintaining adequate hydration, avoiding excessive alcohol consumption, and adhering to dietary restrictions (e.g., low-sodium diet) to optimize the effectiveness and safety of diuretic therapy.
Patients should also be advised to report any unusual symptoms or side effects, such as dizziness, muscle cramps, weakness, or changes in urinary frequency or volume.
Pharmacotherapy of Gastroenteritis infection.pptxdrsriram2001
Pharmacotherapy for gastroenteritis typically focuses on managing symptoms, preventing dehydration, and treating the underlying cause if it's bacterial or parasitic in nature.
Ophthalmic dosage are the preparation designed for application to the eye:-
For treatment
For symptomatic release of symptoms
For diagnostic purpose
As aid to surgical procedures
They are the sterile products meant to instillation in to the eye in the space between eye lid and the eye ball
They are also prepared as parenteral product. Example
Eye drops, Eye lotion, Eye ointment, Eye suspension, Contact lens solution
Anatomy of eye and adrena, absorption of drug in the eye, classification of ophthalmic
products, safety consideration of ophthalmic products, formulation, vehicles and additives,
manufacturing consideration, environment, manufacturing techniques, quality control of
ophthalmic products, packaging of ophthalmic products.
Diuretic drugs are medications that increase urine production and promote the excretion of excess fluid and electrolytes from the body. They are commonly used in the treatment of conditions such as hypertension, heart failure, and edema. Mechanism of Action:
Diuretics work by acting on different parts of the nephron, the functional unit of the kidney, to increase urine output.
Loop diuretics, such as furosemide and bumetanide, inhibit the reabsorption of sodium and chloride in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle.
Thiazide diuretics, such as hydrochlorothiazide and chlorthalidone, inhibit sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule.
Potassium-sparing diuretics, such as spironolactone and amiloride, work by either blocking the aldosterone receptor (spironolactone) or directly inhibiting sodium channels (amiloride) in the collecting duct.
Clinical Indications:
Diuretics are primarily used to manage conditions characterized by fluid overload, such as hypertension, heart failure, cirrhosis, and certain kidney disorders.
Loop diuretics are often employed in acute settings, such as pulmonary edema or severe hypertension, where rapid diuresis is needed.
Thiazide diuretics are commonly used as first-line agents for hypertension and can also be helpful in managing edema associated with heart failure.
Potassium-sparing diuretics are often used in combination with other diuretics to prevent potassium loss and hypokalemia, especially in patients at risk, such as those with heart failure or liver cirrhosis.
Adverse Effects:
Common side effects of diuretics include electrolyte imbalances (e.g., hypokalemia, hyponatremia, hyperkalemia with potassium-sparing diuretics), dehydration, hypotension, and metabolic abnormalities (e.g., hyperglycemia, hyperuricemia).
Loop diuretics may cause ototoxicity (especially with rapid IV administration) and can exacerbate renal impairment in certain individuals.
Thiazide diuretics may increase blood glucose levels and lipid levels, potentially worsening glycemic control and dyslipidemia in patients with diabetes or metabolic syndrome.
Monitoring and Patient Education:
Patients taking diuretics should be regularly monitored for electrolyte levels, renal function, blood pressure, and signs of volume depletion or fluid overload.
It's essential to educate patients about the importance of maintaining adequate hydration, avoiding excessive alcohol consumption, and adhering to dietary restrictions (e.g., low-sodium diet) to optimize the effectiveness and safety of diuretic therapy.
Patients should also be advised to report any unusual symptoms or side effects, such as dizziness, muscle cramps, weakness, or changes in urinary frequency or volume.
Pharmacotherapy of Gastroenteritis infection.pptxdrsriram2001
Pharmacotherapy for gastroenteritis typically focuses on managing symptoms, preventing dehydration, and treating the underlying cause if it's bacterial or parasitic in nature.
CASE STUDY ON CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE.pptxdrsriram2001
Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) is a progressive condition characterized by the gradual loss of kidney function over time. Here's a comprehensive explanation of CKD in four steps:
Causes and Risk Factors: CKD can result from various underlying conditions or risk factors that damage the kidneys' filtering units (nephrons) and impair their function. Common causes and risk factors include:
Diabetes: High blood sugar levels over time can damage the blood vessels in the kidneys.
Hypertension (high blood pressure): Elevated blood pressure can strain the kidneys' blood vessels and impair kidney function.
Glomerulonephritis: Inflammation of the kidney's filtering units can lead to scarring and loss of function.
Polycystic kidney disease: Inherited disorder characterized by the growth of cysts in the kidneys, leading to kidney enlargement and loss of function.
Prolonged obstruction of the urinary tract: Conditions such as kidney stones or an enlarged prostate can obstruct urine flow, leading to kidney damage.
Autoimmune diseases: Conditions like lupus or vasculitis can cause inflammation and damage to the kidneys.
Certain medications: Long-term use of certain medications, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or some antibiotics, can contribute to kidney damage.
Stages and Progression: CKD is typically classified into five stages based on the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), which measures how well the kidneys are filtering waste from the blood. The stages are as follows:
Stage 1: Kidney damage with normal or high eGFR (≥90 mL/min/1.73 m²)
Stage 2: Mild decrease in eGFR (60-89 mL/min/1.73 m²)
Stage 3: Moderate decrease in eGFR (30-59 mL/min/1.73 m²)
Stage 4: Severe decrease in eGFR (15-29 mL/min/1.73 m²)
Stage 5: Kidney failure (eGFR <15 mL/min/1.73 m² or dialysis)
CKD progresses slowly over time, and symptoms may not be apparent until the later stages when significant kidney damage has occurred.
Symptoms and Complications: In the early stages, CKD may be asymptomatic, and symptoms may only become evident as kidney function declines. Common symptoms and complications of CKD include:
Fatigue and weakness
Swelling of the legs, ankles, or feet (edema)
Shortness of breath
Nausea and vomiting
Itching
Loss of appetite
Muscle cramps
Difficulty concentrating
Electrolyte imbalances (e.g., high potassium levels)
Bone disease (e.g., osteoporosis)
Anemia
Complications of advanced CKD include cardiovascular disease, fluid overload, electrolyte imbalances, and kidney failure requiring dialysis or kidney transplantation.
Management and Treatment: The management of CKD aims to slow the progression of the disease, manage symptoms, and prevent complications. Treatment may involve:
Lifestyle modifications: Maintaining a healthy diet low in salt, potassium, and phosphorus, exercising regularly, maintaining a healthy weight, and quitting smoking.
Blood pressure control: Medications such as ACE inhibitors
case study on urinary tract infection.pptxdrsriram2001
A urinary tract infection (UTI) is a bacterial infection that occurs anywhere in the urinary tract, including the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. Here's a detailed explanation of urinary tract infections in four steps:
Cause and Risk Factors: UTIs are typically caused by bacteria, most commonly Escherichia coli (E. coli) which is found in the digestive system. However, other bacteria such as Klebsiella and Staphylococcus saprophyticus can also cause UTIs. UTIs can occur when bacteria enter the urinary tract through the urethra and multiply in the bladder. Risk factors for developing UTIs include:
Female anatomy: Women have a shorter urethra than men, making it easier for bacteria to reach the bladder.
Sexual activity: Sexual intercourse can introduce bacteria into the urinary tract.
Certain types of birth control: Diaphragms and spermicides can increase the risk of UTIs.
Menopause: Decreased estrogen levels can lead to changes in the urinary tract that increase susceptibility to infections.
Urinary tract abnormalities: Conditions such as kidney stones or an enlarged prostate can obstruct the flow of urine, increasing the risk of UTIs.
Symptoms: The symptoms of a UTI can vary depending on which part of the urinary tract is affected. Common symptoms include:
Pain or burning sensation during urination (dysuria)
Frequent urination
Urgency to urinate
Blood in the urine (hematuria)
Cloudy or strong-smelling urine
Pelvic pain in women
Rectal pain in men
Symptoms of a UTI in the elderly or individuals with weakened immune systems may be less specific and may include confusion or agitation.
Diagnosis: Diagnosis of a UTI typically involves a medical history, physical examination, and laboratory tests. A urine sample may be collected to test for the presence of bacteria, white blood cells, or other indicators of infection. In some cases, a urine culture may be performed to identify the specific bacteria causing the infection and determine which antibiotics are most effective for treatment. Imaging tests such as ultrasound or CT scans may be ordered if there is suspicion of complications such as kidney infection or urinary tract obstruction.
Treatment and Prevention: Treatment for UTIs usually involves antibiotics to eliminate the bacteria causing the infection. The choice of antibiotic and duration of treatment may vary depending on the severity of the infection, the specific bacteria involved, and any underlying health conditions. In addition to antibiotic therapy, drinking plenty of fluids and urinating frequently can help flush bacteria from the urinary tract. Preventive measures for UTIs include:
Drinking plenty of water to stay hydrated
Urinating soon after sexual intercourse
Wiping from front to back after using the toilet
Avoiding the use of irritating feminine products or douches
Taking showers instead of baths
Cranberry products may help prevent recurrent UTIs in some individuals by preventing bacteria from adhering to the uti
Pharmacotherapy Of Tuberculosis infection.pptxdrsriram2001
Tuberculosis (TB) is a contagious infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It primarily affects the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body, such as the brain, kidneys, or spine. Here's a four-step explanation of tuberculosis:
Cause and Transmission: Tuberculosis is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. When an infected person with active TB coughs, sneezes, or talks, they release droplets containing the bacteria into the air. Another person can become infected by inhaling these droplets. TB is primarily transmitted through the air, making close and prolonged contact with an infected individual the main risk factor for transmission.
Symptoms: TB can manifest differently depending on whether it's active or latent. Latent TB infection occurs when the bacteria are present in the body but are not causing symptoms or spreading to others. Active TB disease occurs when the bacteria are actively multiplying and causing symptoms. Common symptoms of active TB include a persistent cough, chest pain, coughing up blood, fatigue, weight loss, fever, and night sweats.
Diagnosis: Diagnosis of TB involves several steps. Firstly, a medical history and physical examination are conducted to assess symptoms and risk factors. Following this, diagnostic tests such as the tuberculin skin test (TST) or interferon-gamma release assays (IGRAs) are used to determine if a person has been infected with TB bacteria. If these tests are positive, further tests such as chest X-rays, sputum tests, or cultures may be performed to confirm active TB disease and determine the most effective treatment.
Treatment and Prevention: Treatment for TB usually involves a combination of antibiotics taken for several months. Commonly used antibiotics include isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide. It's essential to complete the full course of treatment to prevent the development of drug-resistant strains of TB. Additionally, preventive measures such as vaccination with the Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine, good ventilation in living and working spaces, and early identification and treatment of active cases can help control the spread of TB.
HIV AND OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS IN HIV.pptxdrsriram2001
Definition
Opportunistic infections (Ols) are infections that occur more often or are more severe in people with weakened immune systems (people living with HIV) than in people with healthy immune systems.
MALARIAL FEVER A CASE PRESENTATION .pptxdrsriram2001
Definition of Malaria:
Malaria is a life-threatening infectious disease caused by parasites of the Plasmodium genus. It is transmitted to humans through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes.
2. Causative Agent and Life Cycle:
Plasmodium Species:
The primary malaria parasites affecting humans are Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium ovale, and Plasmodium knowlesi.
Life Cycle:
Mosquito Stage: The cycle begins when an infected female mosquito bites a human, injecting sporozoites into the bloodstream.
Liver Stage: Sporozoites travel to the liver, where they mature into schizonts, releasing merozoites.
Blood Stage: Merozoites invade red blood cells, leading to cycles of replication and causing symptoms. Some parasites develop into sexual forms (gametocytes), which can be taken up by mosquitoes during a blood meal, completing the cycle.
3. Symptoms:
Febrile Paroxysms:
Malaria typically presents with recurrent episodes of fever, chills, and sweating, known as paroxysms.
Anemia:
The destruction of red blood cells by the parasites can lead to anemia.
Organ Dysfunction:
Severe malaria, often caused by P. falciparum, can lead to organ dysfunction, including cerebral malaria affecting the brain, severe anemia, respiratory distress, and kidney failure.
4. Treatment:
Antimalarial Drugs:
Artemisinin-based Combination Therapies (ACTs) are the first-line treatment for uncomplicated malaria. Examples include artemether-lumefantrine and artesunate-amodiaquine.
For severe malaria, intravenous artesunate is often recommended.
Preventive Measures:
Bed nets treated with insecticides are effective in preventing mosquito bites.
Chemoprophylaxis with antimalarial drugs is recommended for individuals traveling to malaria-endemic regions.
Vector Control:
Mosquito control measures, such as insecticide spraying and environmental management, are crucial for malaria prevention.
Etiology, pathophysiology, Pharmacotherapy of AIDS .pptxdrsriram2001
Definition of AIDS:
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a late stage of HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infection. It is characterized by a severe depletion of the immune system, making the individual susceptible to opportunistic infections and certain cancers.
2. Etiology (HIV):
HIV Structure:
HIV is a retrovirus that primarily targets CD4+ T cells, a crucial component of the immune system.
The virus has two main types: HIV-1 and HIV-2, with HIV-1 being the most common and virulent worldwide.
3. Transmission:
Modes of Transmission:
HIV is primarily transmitted through unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person.
It can also be transmitted through sharing of contaminated needles, from an infected mother to her child during childbirth or breastfeeding, and through blood transfusions with infected blood (though this is rare now due to blood screening).
4. Clinical Stages:
Acute HIV Infection:
Occurs within the first few weeks after exposure.
Presents with flu-like symptoms such as fever, fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes.
Chronic HIV Infection (Asymptomatic Stage):
Can last for several years with few or no symptoms.
The virus is actively replicating, and the immune system is gradually compromised.
Symptomatic HIV Infection (Symptomatic Stage):
As the immune system weakens, symptoms such as persistent fever, weight loss, and diarrhea may occur.
AIDS:
Diagnosed when the immune system is severely compromised, typically when the CD4+ T cell count falls below a critical threshold.
Opportunistic infections (e.g., Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia) and certain cancers (e.g., Kaposi's sarcoma) become more common.
5. Preventive Measures:
Condom Use:
Consistent and correct use of condoms during sexual intercourse helps prevent the sexual transmission of HIV.
Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP):
Antiretroviral medications, when taken consistently by HIV-negative individuals at high risk, can prevent HIV infection.
Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP):
Emergency treatment with antiretroviral drugs within 72 hours of potential exposure to HIV to prevent infection.
Needle Exchange Programs:
Reducing the sharing of needles among injecting drug users helps prevent the transmission of HIV.
INTRODUCTION :
Ocular administration of drug is primarily associated with the need to treat ophthalmic diseases.
Eye is the most easily accessible site for topical administration of a medication.
Ideal ophthalmic drug delivery must be able to sustain the drug release and to remain in the vicinity of front of the eye for prolong period of time.
The bioavailability of ophthalmic drugs is very poor due to efficient protective mechanisms of the eye.
Blinking, reflex lachrymation, and drainage rapidly remove drugs, from the surface of the eye.
To overcome these, two approaches can be followed.
The first involves using alternate delivery routes to conventional ones allowing for more direct access to intended target sites.
Second approach involves development of novel drug delivery systems providing better permeability, treatability and controlled release at target site.
Combination of both these approaches are being utilized and optimized in order to achieve optimal therapy with minimal adverse effects.
MANUFACTURING OF PARENTRALS
1. Formulation and Raw Materials:
Concept: The process begins with the formulation of the parenteral drug, determining its composition and concentration.
Raw Materials: High-quality pharmaceutical-grade raw materials, including active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), excipients, and solvents, are selected based on their compatibility and purity.
2. Sterilization of Raw Materials:
Concept: Due to the sterile nature of parenteral products, all raw materials, including the API and excipients, must undergo rigorous sterilization.
Methods: Common sterilization methods include autoclaving, filtration, and aseptic processing to ensure aseptic conditions throughout the manufacturing process.
3. Manufacturing Process:
Preparation: The formulation is prepared, and various components are weighed and measured precisely.
Mixing: The ingredients are mixed under controlled conditions to achieve a homogeneous blend, ensuring uniform distribution of the API and other components.
Filtration: The solution is then filtered to remove any particulate matter and ensure clarity.
Filling: The sterile drug solution is filled into vials, ampoules, or other suitable containers in a controlled environment, maintaining sterility.
4. Sterilization of Final Product:
Terminal Sterilization: The final product, in its container, undergoes terminal sterilization methods like autoclaving or gamma irradiation to eliminate any microbial contamination that may have occurred during the manufacturing process.
INTRODUCTION :
Diagnostic agents are the substances used to examine the body in order to detect impairment of its normal functions. Usually these agents find no other use in medicine.
Diagnostic agents are divided according to the use as
drugs used as X-ray contrast media
drugs used to test organ functions
drugs used to determine blood volume and haemopoietic function and
drugs used for miscellaneous agents.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
2. INTRODUCTION :
Ophthalmic dosage are the preparation designed for application to the eye:-
For treatment,
For symptomatic release of symptoms,
For diagnostic purpose,
As aid to surgical procedures.
They are the sterile products meant to instillation in to the eye in the space
between eye lid and the eye ball
They are also prepared as parenteral product.
Example :Eye drops, Eye lotion, Eye ointment, Eye suspension, Contact lens
solution
3. OPHTHALMIC PREPARATIONS
Liquid preparation
For application to the surface of
the eye. Example: eye drop and
eye lotion.
Semisolid preparation
Introduced to the margin of eye
lid or conjunctival sac.
example : eye ointment and
cream and gel
Solid preparation
such as Ocular insert
intended to be placed in
contact with the surface of
the eye to produce prolong
effect
CLASSIFICATION:
4. CONSIDERATION OF OPHTHALMIC PREPARATIONS:
The preparation of ophthalmic should consider the following properties:-
1.Foreign particles,
2. Viscosity,
3.Tonicity,
4.pH of preparation,
5.Sterility,
6.Surface activity.
5. 1.Foreign particles:
All the ophthalmic products should be clear and free from foreign particles, fibers and
filaments.
Ophthalmic solutions should be clarified very carefully by passing through bacteria
proof filters such as membrane filters, sintered glass filters.
The particle size of the eye suspension should be in an ultrafine state of subdivision to
minimize irritation.
A separate filter should be used for different ophthalmic products in order to avoid the
contamination.
6. 2. Viscosity:
In order to prolong the contact time of the drug in the eye, various thickening agents
are added in the ophthalmic preparations.
Polyvinyl alcohol (1-4%), polyethylene glycol, methylcellulose, carboxymethyl
cellulose are some of the commonly used thickening agents.
These agents improve the viscosity of the preparation.
An ideal thickening agent should possess the following properties:
1) It should be easy to filter,
2) It should be easy to sterilize,
3) It should be compatible with other ingredients.
Thickening agents are not included drops and eye lotions which are required to be
used during or after surgery due to some possible adverse effects on the interior of the
eye.
7. 3.Sterility:
Ophthalmic preparations must be sterile when prepared.
Pseudomonas aeroginosa is very common gram-ve bacteria which is generally found
to be present in ophthalmic products. It may cause serious infections of cornea.
It can cause complete loss of eye sight in 24-48hrs.
To maintain sterility in multi dose container, containing ophthalmic products, a
suitable preservative is added, The preservative should be
•non-toxic
•non-irritant
•should be compatible with medicaments.
The ophthalmic products generally are sterilized by autoclaving, filtration through
bacteria proof filters and addition of bactericides at low temperature.
8. 4.Tonicity :
Ophthalmic products should be isotonic with lachrymal secretions to avoid discomfort
and irritation.
It has been observed that eye can tolerate a range of tonicity from 0.5-2% NaCl.
There are certain isotonic vehicles which are used to prepare ophthalmic products like
1.9% boric acid, sodium acid phosphate buffer.
5.Surface Area:
Vehicles used in ophthalmic preparations must have good wetting ability to penetrate
cornea and other tissues.
Certain surfactants or wetting agents added which are found to be suitable for
ophthalmic products.
It should not cause any damage to the tissue of eye.
Benzalkonium chloride, polysorbate 20, polysoabatc80, dioctyl sodium sulpho
succinate etc., are some of the surfactants which are commonly used.
9. 6.pH of preparation:
pH plays an important role in therapeutic activity, solubility, stability and comfort to the
patient.
Tears have a pH of about 7.4 Eye can tolerate solution having wide range of pH
provided they are not strongly buffered, since the tear will rapidly restore the normal pH
value of the eye.
11. 1.Epidermis:
The outermost layer of the skin is called the epidermis. It is primarily composed of
epithelial cells and serves as a protective barrier against pathogens, UV radiation, and
dehydration. The epidermis contains several layers, including the stratum corneum,
stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale.
2.Dermis:
Beneath the epidermis lies the dermis, a thicker layer consisting of connective tissue,
blood vessels, nerves, and appendages such as hair follicles and sweat glands.
Collagen and elastin fibers in the dermis provide strength, elasticity, and support to the
skin. Blood vessels in the dermis supply nutrients and regulate temperature
12. 3.Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Tissue):
The hypodermis is the deepest layer of the skin and is composed of adipose (fat)
tissue and connective tissue. It serves as insulation, padding, and energy storage. The
hypodermis helps regulate body temperature and provides a cushioning effect.
4.Appendages and Specialized Structures:
Within the skin, various appendages contribute to its functions. Hair follicles are
responsible for hair growth, sebaceous glands produce sebum to lubricate the skin and hair,
and sweat glands regulate body temperature by producing sweat. Nails, derived from
specialized epidermal cells, protect the fingertips.
13.
14. OINTMENTS:
Ointments are homogenous, translucent, viscous semi-solid preparations, most
commonly a greasy, thick oil (oil 80% - water 20%) intended for external application to
the skin or mucous membrane.
They are used as:
- Emollients
- Protective
- Therapeutic
- Prophylactic purpose
15. Classification of ointments:
A- Epidermic ointments:
These ointments are intended to produce their action on the surface of the skin and produce
local effect, they are not absorbed.
They acts as protectives, antiseptics and parasiticides.
B- Endodermic ointments:
These ointments are intended to release the medicaments that penetrate into the skin. They
are partially absorbed and acts as emollients, stimulants and local irritants.
C- Diadermic ointments:
These ointments are intended to release the medicaments that pass through the skin and
produce systemic effects.
16. Preparation of Ointments:
Both on a large and a small scale, ointments are prepared by three general methods:
(1) incorporation method
(2) fusion method
(3) emulsification method
The method for a particular preparation depends primarily upon the nature of the
ingredients
(1) incorporation:
-The components of the ointment are mixed together by various means until a uniform
preparation has been attained.
- On a small scale, the pharmacist may mix the components of an ointment in a mortar
with a pestle, or a spatula and an ointment slab may be used to rub the ingredients together.
18. (2) Fusion method:
• By the fusion method, all or some of the components of an ointment are combined by
being melted together and cooled with constant stirring until congealed.
• Those components not melted are generally added to the congealing mixture as it is
being cooled and stirred.
• Naturally, heat-labile substances and any volatile components are added last when the
temperature of the mixture is low enough not to cause decomposition of volatilization
of the components.
19.
20. (3) Emulsification:
In the preparation of ointments having an emulsion type of formula, the general
method of manufacture involves a melting process as well as an emulsification process.
21. Storage Conditions:
1.Environmental Sensitivity: Ointments are sensitive to environmental factors,
necessitating proper storage for stability.
2.Temperature Control: Store ointments in a cool, dry place to prevent changes in
consistency or degradation of active ingredients.
3.Sunlight Avoidance: Keep ointments away from direct sunlight, as exposure can impact
their composition.
4.Extreme Temperature Caution: Avoid storing ointments in areas with extreme
temperatures, as this can compromise their effectiveness.
5.Product-Specific Instructions: Some ointments may require refrigeration; always
follow specific storage instructions provided by the product.
22. Container Material and Design:
1.Non-reactive Materials: Use containers made of materials that do not react with the
ointment's components to maintain its integrity.
2.Glass or Plastic: Opt for glass or plastic containers with tight-sealing lids to prevent
contamination and ensure product longevity.
3.Dispensing Convenience: Choose a container design that facilitates easy dispensing,
promoting user convenience.
4.Labeling Importance: Ensure that the container is appropriately labeled with crucial
information to aid identification and proper usage.
5.Manufacturer's Instructions: Adhere to any additional recommendations from the
manufacturer regarding the container material and design for specific ointments.
23. Labeling Requirements:
•Accurate and comprehensive labeling is essential for ointments. The label should
include the following information:
• Name of the Ointment: Clearly state the name of the ointment for
identification.
• Active Ingredients: List all active components and their concentrations.
• Instructions for Use: Provide clear directions on how to apply the ointment.
• Storage Conditions: Specify temperature and humidity requirements.
• Expiry Date: Clearly indicate the expiration date for ensuring efficacy and
safety.
• Manufacturer Information: Include the name and contact details of the
manufacturer.
24.
25. JELLIES
INTRODUCTION:
• Jellies are transparent or translucent non-greasy semisolid dosage form.
• They are less greasy compare with gel.
• They are mainly used for mucous lubricating, antiseptic purpose. membrane for
• Jellies are also used for lubricating surgical gloves, catheters & rectal thermometers.
• Vaginal jellies & contraceptive jellies are also commonly used.
Types of Jellies:
1. Medicated jellies: Medicated jellies contains a considerable amount of water therefore
those are suitable for water soluble medicaments & used for anesthetics, antiseptics and
spermicidal. After evaporation of water they produce cooling sensation to the skin.
2. Lubricating jellies:
3. Miscellaneous jellies: Patch testing: Used for allergens which are applied on skin to
check the sensitivity. Electro-cardiography:
26. Preparation of Jellies;
1. Usually prepared by adding thickening agent : Tragacanth, Carboxymethyl
cellulose
2. Thickening agent is added to aqueous solution in which drug has to be dissolved.
3. Mass is triturated in a mortar until a smooth product is obtained.
4. When colored drug to be incorporated glass mortar is used
5. Whole gum is preferred to powdered gum to get clear preparation of uniform
consistency