2. INTRODUCTION
• Pregnancy causes major changes in all the systems of the body.
• Visual Impairment and other ocular changes are rare in pregnancy.
• Ocular changes in pregnancy are categorised as :-
1. Physiological
2. Pathological
3. INTRODUCTION
• Pregnancy related pathological changes may present as:-
• 1. New ocular changes
• 2. Changes in existing ocular pathology
• 3. Ocular complications of systemic diseases.
4. Physiological Changes in Pregnancy
S No. STRUCTURE PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGE
1. IOP Low IOP
2. Lid Chloasma (5-70%)
3. Conjunctiva Hyposphagma (10%)
4. Tear Film Tear film composition alterations (14%)
5. Cornea Decreased Sensations
Krukenberg’s Spindles
Increased Thickness (14%)
Alteration in refractive power
6. Lens Increased Thickness (14%)
Refractive change
7. Optic Nerve Pituitary gland enlargement.
Sharma S RW, Sharma T, Downey G.: Refractive issues in pregnancy.
Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 2006; 46: 186–8.
6. Pathological Changes
S no. STRUCTURE PATHOLOGICAL CHANGE
1. Orbit Growth of hemangiomas
Carotid-cavernous fistula
2. Lid Ptosis
Horner’s Syndrome
Facial nerve palsy
3. Conjunctiva Vasospasm in pre-eclampsia
4. Retina Worsening of Diabetic retinopathy
Vascular changes in Pre-eclampsia (40-100%)
Serous Retinal Detachment (0.005%)
Central serous chorioretinopathy
Growth of melanomas
5. Optic nerve Ischemic optic neuropathy
Papilloedema
6. Optic Pathway Cortical Blindness in eclampsia (0.06%)
Reddy SC NS, George S Ra, Who TS: Fundus changes in pregnancy induced hypertension.
Int J Ophthalmol 2012; 5: 694–7.
Achanna S, Monga D, Sivagnanam: Transient blindness in pregnancy induced hypertension.
Asia-Oceania Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology/AOFOG 1994; 20: 49–52.
7. Physiological Ocular Changes
• Increased pigmentation around eyes.
• Darkening of face - Pregnancy Mask or Chloasma or Melasma
• Causes:-
1. Increased estrogen
2. Increased Progesterone
3. Increased melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
8. Pathological Ocular Changes
• Unilateral Ptosis
• Cause:-
• Fluid and hormonal effects on the levator aponeurosis.
• Course:- It resolves post-partum.
• Check the pupils and extra-ocular movements to differentiate it from
3rd nerve palsy.
Sanke RF. Blepharoptosis as a complication of pregnancy.
Ann Ophthalmol. 1984;16:720-722.
9. Tear Film alterations
1. Increased immune reaction in lacrimal duct cells
2.The destruction of acinar cells by prolactin, transforming growth
factor beta-1 and epidermal growth factor.
• Dry eye Is further enhanced by dehydration caused by
1. Nausea and vomiting
2. Anti-emetic drugs
10. Corneal changes
• Corneal changes:-
1.Increased Thickness (14%)
• Due to corneal edema
2. Decreased Sensations
• Due to increased corneal thickness & Hormonal changes
3. Alteration in refractive power
4. Krukenberg’s Spindles- appear in first two trimesters.
• In last trimester- Increased aqueous outflow leads to spindle
shrinkage.
11. Corneal changes
5. Altered corneal curvature
6. Altered refractive index
• Clinical Importance:-
1. Contact lens intolerance due to corneal changes.
2. Avoid new spectacles prescription
3. Avoid new contact lens prescription
4. Refractive surgery is contra-indicated
12. Intra-Ocular Pressure (IOP)
Intra-Ocular Pressure (IOP)
• 19.6 % reduction – In person with normal IOP
• 24.4% reduction – Ocular hypertension pt.
Various proposed mechanisms:-
1. IncreasedAqueous outflow
2.Lower epi-scleral venous pressure due to decreased systemic
vascular resistance
3. Lower scleral rigidity due to increased tissue elasticity
4. General acidosis in pregnancy
1. Horven I, Gjonnaess H. Corneal indentation pulseand intraocular pressure in pregnancy.
Arch Ophthalmol.1974;91:92-98.
2. Cantor LB, Harris A, Harris M. Glaucoma medications in pregnancy. Rev Ophthalmol. 2000:91-99.
3. Johnson SM, Martinez M, Freedman S. Management of glaucoma in pregnancy and lactation.
Surv Ophthalmol. 2001;45:449-454.
13. Changes in Lens and Accomodation
• 1. Increased lens curvature – causes Myopic Shift.
• 2. TemporaryAccomodation insufficiency or loss.
14. Retinal Changes
• Diabetic Retinopathy
• Quick progression of Diabetic Retinopathy
• Cause:-
1. Haematological, hormonal, metabolic, cardio-vascular and
immunologic factors.
2. Increased retinal capillary blood flow – Increased endothelial cell
damage.
3. Progesterone elevates the production of VEGF and other angiogenic
factors
• Dependant on several factors:-
• 1. Degree of retinopathy at beginning of pregnancy
• 2. Time duration since diabetes
• 3. Glycemic contol
• 4. Associated hypertension.
15. Retinal Changes
• Gestational Diabetes – Low risk of developing retinopathy.
• 10% patients without DR at Beginning of pregnancy develop Non
proliferative changes.
• NPDR patients – 50% progression
• PDR patients – 45 % progression
• 5-20% NPDR patients – progress to PDR
• Clinical Importance :-
• Pre-pregnancy laser therapy – Recommended for pt. with PDR or
severe NPDR.
• Pre- pregnancy laser treatment – Risk of progression is decreased by
50%.
16. Retinal Changes
• Diabetic Macular edema:-
• Develop or worsen during pregnancy.
• Observed in pt. with proteinuria or associated hypertension.
• Treatment:-
• Observation.
• Spontaneous resolution postpartum.
• Laser treatment can be done in postpartum period.
17. Retinal Changes
• Pre-eclampsia related retinopathy:-
• Pre-eclampsia – BP> 140/90 mm hg, edema and proteinuria.
• Retinal findings:-
• Retinal arteriolar narrowing.(most common finding)
• Other findings - retinal haemmorrhages, exudates, RNFL defects,
retinal edema, vitreous haemmorrhage.
• Exudative RD – 1% in pre-eclampsic patients.
10% in eclampsic patients
• Optic nerve findings:- Papillary edema, Ischemic optic neuropathy
and optic atrophy.
Dinn RB, Harris A, Marcus PS. Ocular changes in pregnancy.
Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2003;58:137-144.
18. Hypertensive retinopathy with hemorrhages (solid white arrows), cotton-wool
spots (open arrow), and exudates (solid black arrows) in eclampsia.
19. Retinal Changes
• Central Serous Chorioretinopathy:-
• Most frequently seen in third trimester.
• Cause- High cortisol levels in pregnancy
• Fibrous subretinal exudates present.
• Diagnosis- OCT
• Spontaneous regression postpartum.
• Recurrence present in subsequent pregnancies.
20. Tumors
Pituitary Adenoma:-
• Micro-adenomas may grow during pregnancy.
• Symptoms:-
• Headache
• Visual Field changes ( Bitemporal hemianopia)
• Decreased visual acuity
• Diplopia (rarely)
• After pregnancy – Adenomas shrink and no visual sequelae left.
• Known adenoma – Monthly ophthalmological examination and
visual field monitoring.
21. Tumors
• Meningioma –
• Pre-existing meningioma – vascularise and grow.
• Cause :- Elevated estrogen and progesterone
• Uveal melanoma-
• High incidence and reactivation in pregnancy.
23. Sheehan syndrome
• Ischemic necrosis of the pituitary gland due to severe postpartum
haemorrhage.
• Potentially visually-threatening disorder as a result of sudden increase
in pituitary size from infarction or haemorrhage.
Symptoms:-
1. Sudden onset of headache
2. Visual loss
3. Ophthalmoplegia
• VF defect - 64% of cases
• VA abnormalities - 52% of cases.
24. Sheehan syndrome
makes cranial
• Cause of VF defect:-
• Expansion of the tumor compresses the optic chiasm
• The classic VF defect is a bitemporal superior quadrantic defect.
• Ophthalmoplegia - 78% of cases.
• Cause:- Compression of the cavernous sinus
nerves 3,4 & 6 vulnerable to injury.
• Oculomotor nerve - most commonly involved.
• Resolution of ophthalmoplegia and visual occurs to some extent in
post-partum period.
25. Grave's disease
• Hyperthyroidism occurs in 2/1000 pregnancies
• Most common cause (85%) – Grave’s disease
• Recognition of hyperthyroidism during pregnancy can be elusive
because signs overlap with pregnancy symptoms such as
1. Nausea and vomiting
2. Increased appetite
3. Heat intolerance
4. Fatigue
5. Irritable or anxious mood.
26. Grave's disease
• Symptoms uncommon in normal pregnancy, but found in
hyperthyroidism are:-
1. Weight loss or failed weight gain despite increased dietary intake
2. Resting tachycardia
3. Hypertension
4. Tremor
5. Thyroid enlargement or nodule
6. Ocular manifestations
Graves's disease is known to exacerbate in the first trimester and to
improve in the second and third trimesters of pregnancy.
27. Grave's disease
• Approach to Graves's disease in pregnancy should be
multidisciplinary and involve an obstetrician, an endocrinologist and
an ophthalmologist.
Management
• Observation in asymptomatic cases
• Anti-thyroid medications in symptomatic patients
• Propyl-thiouracil is drug of choice in such cases.
• Surgery for complicated cases.
28. Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension (IIH)
• Unknown etiology
• Common in obese females of child-bearing age
• Three times higher incidence in obese females, 15-44 years old
• Symptoms:-
1. Headache is the most common symptom (92% of patients)
2. Nausea and vomiting
3. Obscuration of vision
4. Scotomata
5. Photopsias
6. Diplopia
7. Retrobulbar pain.
29. Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension (IIH)
• Fundus Finding:- Papilledema
• Papilledema is typically B/L, but may be markedly asymmetric, U/L.
• 20% of IIH patients- Abducens nerve palsy, a false localizing sign
secondary to elevated intracranial pressure.
• Major goals of IIH treatment include:-
• Alleviation of symptoms and preservation of visual function.
• Once diagnosed, the decision to treat depends on VAand VF loss.
• Medical treatment and observation are usually effective.
30. Anti-phospholipid Antibody Syndrome
• Is an autoimmune disorder.
• Characterized by either a history of vascular thrombosis or in
association with the presence of anti-phospholipid antibodies.
• Ocular complications of APS involve both the anterior and posterior
segment of the eye.
Anteriorly there are
1. Conjunctival telangiectasia or conjunctival microaneurysms
2. Episcleritis
3. Filamentary keratitis
4. Iritis
31. Anti-phospholipid Antibody Syndrome
• Posteriorly, there can be
1. Vitritis
2. Retinal detachment
3. Posterior scleritis
4. Branch or central retinal vein occlusion
5. Bilateral choroidal infarction
6. Cilio-retinal artery occlusion
7. Venous tortuosity
8. Retinal haemorrhages
9. Cotton-wool spots
10. Central serous chorio-retinopathy
11. Ischemic optic neuropathy
12. Progressive optic nerve atrophy
32. Disseminated intravascular coagulation
• Is an acquired syndrome characterized by the systemic intravascular
activation of coagulation
• The common obstetric causes of DIC are:- Amniotic fluid embolism;
intrauterine fetal demise; pre-eclampsia / eclampsia; placental
abruption and placenta praevia.
• The choroid is the most common intraocular structure involved.
• Occlusion of the choriocapillaris by a thrombus lead to disruption of
the overlying RPE causing SRD.
33. Conclusion
• Visual disturbances are very common during pregnancy.
• A firm understanding of the various ocular conditions that might
appear during pregnancy or get modified by pregnancy is required.
• Prompt evaluation and management of the rare and serious
conditions that may occur in pregnant women with visual complaints.
