nucleic acids- the dna and rna
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Johannes Friedrich Miescher was a Swiss physician and biologist who discovered nucleic acid in 1869. He isolated a substance that he called "nuclein" from nuclei of pus cells, which was later determined to have acidic properties and was named nucleic acid. Nucleic acids are essential biomolecules found in all living organisms that function to encode genetic information. They are composed of nucleotides which contain a phosphate group, a pentose sugar, and a nitrogenous base. The two main types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), which differ in their sugar component. DNA contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms.
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The nucleic acids
This document discusses nucleic acids, DNA, RNA, their structures and functions. It describes that nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides containing a sugar, phosphate and a base. The bases in DNA are adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine, while in RNA thymine is replaced with uracil. It explains the primary and secondary structures of DNA including the double helix structure. It also summarizes the central dogma of biology regarding DNA replication, transcription and translation of DNA to mRNA to proteins. The document concludes with a discussion of mutations that can occur during DNA replication and an overview of cloning techniques.
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1. Nucleic acids are large biomolecules made of nucleotides as monomers, with two main types being DNA and RNA. Nucleotides contain a 5-carbon sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
2. DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose and thymine bases, while RNA contains ribose and uracil bases. They form base pairs to allow the strands to bind.
3. Nucleotides combine to form nucleic acids, and different types of RNA have important cellular functions like protein synthesis and gene regulation. The double helix structure of DNA
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Chemical composition of dna
DNA contains the genetic information of organisms. It is made up of nucleotides containing deoxyribose, phosphate groups, and nitrogenous bases. DNA replicates itself through complementary base pairing between adenine and thymine, and cytosine and guanine. It carries the genetic code and provides instructions for building proteins through transcription of DNA to mRNA and translation of mRNA to proteins. DNA plays a key role in heredity by determining traits through the genes it contains.
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Structure and Function of Nucleic Acids
DNA is a long, double-stranded molecule composed of nucleotides that functions to store genetic information. It consists of two polynucleotide chains coiled around each other to form a double helix structure. The two chains are held together by complementary base pairing between adenine (A) and thymine (T), and between guanine (G) and cytosine (C). This complementary base pairing involves hydrogen bonding between the nitrogenous bases and forms the rungs of the DNA ladder.
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Genes and DNA molecules carry the genetic code that controls what cells are made of and what they do. DNA is made up of a double helix structure with base pairs that always pair together in the same way - A pairs with T and C pairs with G. DNA can make copies of itself through a process called replication where the DNA helix unzips and each single strand builds a new double strand, allowing genetic information to be passed on to new cells.
Genetic code -
The genetic code is the system by which nucleotide sequences in mRNA determine the amino acid sequences in proteins. The genetic code uses triplets of nucleotides called codons to specify which amino acid will be incorporated into the growing polypeptide chain. There are 64 possible codons but only 20 standard amino acids, so most amino acids have multiple codons. Three codons act as stop signals to end protein synthesis. The genetic code is nearly universal across all life due to its high degree of specificity and redundancy.
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Central dogma
The central dogma describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein. DNA is first replicated to produce two identical DNA molecules. Transcription then produces mRNA from DNA, which differs in that only one DNA strand is used as a template. Translation follows, using the mRNA to direct protein synthesis on ribosomes with the help of tRNA. Mutations can occur in genes and chromosomes, altering DNA sequences and potentially changing protein functions or structures. Common gene mutations include substitutions, insertions, deletions, duplications, and frameshifts, while chromosome mutations involve translocations, deletions, duplications, inversions, and isochromosomes.
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The genetic code is universal and specifies how nucleotides in DNA and mRNA are translated to amino acids in proteins. It uses 64 codons consisting of 3 nucleotides each to encode the 20 standard amino acids. The code is degenerate, with most amino acids specified by multiple codons. It also has start and stop codons to initiate and terminate translation. Wobble base pairing in the third codon position allows fewer tRNAs to recognize all codons.
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Transcription is the process of converting DNA into mRNA. It involves two main steps - formation of pre-mRNA using RNA polymerase and editing of pre-mRNA into mRNA through splicing. During transcription, RNA polymerase binds to DNA and synthesizes pre-mRNA on the template strand. The pre-mRNA then undergoes splicing to remove introns, forming mRNA. The mRNA is transported out of the nucleus where it directs protein synthesis through translation. Translation involves three stages - initiation, elongation, and termination, using ribosomes and tRNA to link amino acids together into a polypeptide chain based on the mRNA codons.
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Protein Synthesis
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DNA Replication in eukaryotes and prokaryotes
1. DNA replication is the process by which daughter DNA molecules are synthesized from a parental DNA template. It ensures the genetic information is transferred to the next generation with high fidelity.
2. Replication occurs semi-conservatively such that each new double helix contains one strand from the original parent DNA and one newly synthesized strand. It also occurs bidirectionally from an origin of replication.
3. DNA polymerases are the key enzymes that catalyze DNA synthesis. Other important enzymes and proteins include primase, helicase, topoisomerase, ligase, and single-stranded DNA binding proteins. Together they facilitate the initiation, elongation and termination of DNA replication.
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Lecture of nucleic_acids_[1] [autosaved]
Nucleic acids DNA and RNA are made up of nucleotides which consist of a 5-carbon sugar (deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. DNA contains the bases adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine and is located in the cell nucleus, while RNA contains adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil and is found throughout the cell. Nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information through their sequence of nucleotides and are essential for all known life.
Nucleic acids
This document is a biochemistry assignment submitted by Nibedita Ayan, an MBBS student at Xiamen Medical College, China under the guidance of Dr. A. K. M. Arif Uddin Ahmed. The assignment discusses nucleic acids, their discovery, structure, roles, and impacts. It covers topics such as nucleic acids carrying hereditary information and acting as carriers of genes, DNA and RNA having different but important roles, the central dogma of biology regarding DNA transcription and protein synthesis, DNA replication enabling species continuation, and various aberrations in nucleic acids like mutations, which can impact evolution, cancer development, and more.
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The document summarizes key aspects of nucleic acids. It describes that nucleic acids consist of sugars, nitrogenous bases, and phosphate groups. The four main nitrogenous bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine in DNA or uracil in RNA. The document then discusses the primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure of nucleic acids. It also compares key differences between DNA and RNA as well as between mRNA and tRNA. Finally, it summarizes factors that contribute to the stability of the DNA double helix structure and differences between A, B, and Z forms of DNA.
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Genetic code -
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The genetic code is universal and specifies how nucleotides in DNA and mRNA are translated to amino acids in proteins. It uses 64 codons consisting of 3 nucleotides each to encode the 20 standard amino acids. The code is degenerate, with most amino acids specified by multiple codons. It also has start and stop codons to initiate and terminate translation. Wobble base pairing in the third codon position allows fewer tRNAs to recognize all codons.
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This document provides an overview of the central dogma of biology and DNA replication. It begins by defining the central dogma as the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to proteins. It then discusses the four requirements for DNA to be the genetic material and explains DNA replication through semi-conservative replication and starting at the origin. The basics of transcription and translation are also summarized, including the components and steps of each process.
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2. Replication occurs semi-conservatively such that each new double helix contains one strand from the original parent DNA and one newly synthesized strand. It also occurs bidirectionally from an origin of replication.
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The State of Global Well-Being
The world is becoming easier to understand through numbers. They can tell us how much an individual makes in a country, how many people are in that country, and how long these people can expect to live on average. But what about the more subjective concepts? How do we measure and understand happiness? Success? Gallup-Healthway's Global Well-Being Index has broken it down to people’s perception of five key elements in their life.
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DNA and RNA are the two main types of nucleic acids found in living organisms. DNA contains the genetic code and is made up of nucleotides containing deoxyribose sugar, phosphate groups, and nitrogenous bases. RNA is similar but contains ribose sugar. The double helix structure of DNA was discovered by Watson and Crick in 1953, with purines pairing with pyrimidines. Griffith's experiment on bacterial transformation in 1928 and later experiments by Avery, Macleod, and McCarty in 1944 and Hershey and Chase in 1952 provided strong evidence that DNA, not proteins, is the genetic material.
Nucleic acid
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DNA is the master blueprint for life and constitutes the genetic material in all free-living organisms and most viruses. DNA is the chemical basis of heredity and may be regarded as the reserve bank of genetic formation. DNA is exclusively responsible for maintaining the identity of different species of organisms over millions of years.
RNA is the genetic material of certain viruses, but it is also found in all living cells. The genes control protein synthesis through the mediation of RNA.
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James Watson and Francis Crick discovered that DNA has a double helix structure in 1953. DNA contains the genetic instructions that are used to direct the development and function of living organisms. It was shown that DNA is the genetic material that is faithfully copied and passed from parents to offspring. The four bases in DNA are adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine, which bond together in DNA in a specific pairing between bases to form the double helix structure.
Nucleic Acid
i. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA store genetic information that cells use to make proteins. DNA contains the blueprint of life and stores instructions for making proteins. RNA plays a role in converting the information from DNA into proteins. ii. DNA and RNA are made up of nucleotides, which consist of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and phosphoric acid. The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose while in RNA it is ribose. DNA contains the bases adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine, while RNA contains uracil instead of thymine. iii. The nucleic acids DNA and RNA play essential roles in storing and using the genetic information that directs the functions of living organisms.
Nucleic acids (dna & rna)
i am HAFIZ M WASEEM from mailsi vehari
BSc in science college Multan Pakistan
MSC university of education Lahore Pakistan
I love Pakistan and my teachers
Genetic material
This document discusses the genetic material in living organisms. It covers:
1. The key properties of genetic material, including that it contains information passed from parents to offspring, replicates accurately, and is capable of change through evolution.
2. Experiments by Griffith, Avery, Hershey and Chase that identified DNA as the genetic material through labeling and tracking its transmission.
3. The history and structure of nucleic acids, including that they are made of nucleotides with a phosphate group, sugar (ribose in RNA, deoxyribose in DNA), and nitrogenous base. The two types are DNA and RNA.
4. DNA is a double-stranded molecule that exists in B-form and
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1. Genes are segments of DNA that provide instructions for making proteins. DNA is packaged into chromosomes, and the complete set of human genes is called the genome.
2. Transcription is the process where DNA is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA), which carries the gene instructions out of the nucleus. The mRNA is then spliced to remove introns.
3. Translation occurs when the mRNA attaches to ribosomes and transfer RNA (tRNA) to produce a chain of amino acids or protein based on the mRNA codons, from start to stop codons. Each codon codes for a specific amino acid.
NUCLEOTIDEs structure and functions.pptx
Nucleotides are the basic building blocks of DNA and RNA. They consist of a nitrogenous base, a 5-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group. There are four nitrogenous bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine or uracil. In DNA, adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine. In RNA, adenine pairs with uracil instead of thymine. The sequence of these nucleotide bases in nucleic acids determines an organism's traits and functions by encoding genetic information. Nucleotides come together to form the polymeric structures of DNA and RNA, which play essential roles in storing and transmitting genetic information.
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Nucleic acid and its chemistry, dna as genetic material
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This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
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Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
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Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
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and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
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9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
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nucleic acids- the dna and rna
- 2. ●JOHANNES FRIEDRICH MIESCHERwasaSwiss physicianandbiologist. ●Discoverednucleicacidin1869. ●Isolatedwhathecalled NUCLEIN fromnucleiofpuscells. ●NUCLEIN wasseentohaveacidicpropertiesandhencewas namednucleicacid.
- 3. Nucleic acids are biopolymers or largebiomolecules found in abundance in allliving organisms. they are essential to all known forms of life and function to create, encode and store information in thenucleus of every life form on earth..
- 4. ● Composed of nucleotides which are made of three components : APENTOSESUGAR APHOSPHATE GROUP ANITROGENEOUSBASE
- 5. ● NUCLEIC ACIDS AREPOLYNUCLEOTIDES ● THEIRBUILDING BLOCKS ARENUCLEOTIDES PHOSPHATE SUGAR RIBOSE OR BEOXYRIBOSE PURINES PYRIMIDINES NUCLEOTIDE ADENINE(A) GUANINE(G) CYTOCINE(C) THYMINE(T) URACIL(U) BASES
- 7. Two kinds of bases Purines: Double ring bases Pyrimidines: Single ring bases
- 8. ● DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) ● RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)
- 9. ● DEFINATION: DNA is a long polymer of deoxyribonucleotides. It is often called the blueprint of life as it contains the instructions for making proteins within the cell.
- 10. ● Discovery of the genetic material: A. FREDERICK GRIFFITH- discovered that a factor in diseased bacteria can transform harmless bacteria into deadly bacteria (1928) B. ROSALIND FRANKLIN- x-ray photo of DNA (1952) C. WATSON and CRICK- described the DNA molecule from FRANKLIN’S x-ray (1953)
- 11. ● A nucleotide is made up of three components: ● A nitrogenous base ● Deoxyribose sugar ● Phosphate group
- 12. ➢A DNA double helix structure of DNA consists of two spiral chains. ➢The shape is similar to that of a spiral staircase ➢The nucleotide bases represent the steps of the staircase and the deoxyribose and phosphate molecule for m the sides of the staircase.
- 13. ● Made up of two polynucleotide chains. ● The two chains have anti parallel polarity. ● The bases in two strands are paired through hydrogen bonds. ● The two chains are coiled in right handed fashion ● The pitch of the helix is 3.4 nm and there are roughly about 10 bp inturn. ● The plane of one bp stacks over the other which in addition to H bonds confer the stability of the structure.
- 14. ● According to ERWIN CHARGAFF, that for a double stranded DNA, the ratios between adenine and thymine and cytocine and guanine are constant and equals to one. ● Adenine must pair with thymine. ● Guanine must pair with cytocine. C T A
- 16. ● Defination: Ribonucleic acid(RNA) is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes. Cellular organisms use messenger RNA (mRNA) to convey genetic information and directs synthesis of specific proteins.
- 17. ● The concept of messenger RNA emmerged during the late 1950’s and is associated with Crick’s description of his “central dogma of molecular biology” which asserted that DNA led to the formation of RNA, which in turn led to the synthesis of proteins.
- 19. THEY ARE OF THREE TYPES: ● 1. Messenger RNA (mRNA): it provides the template, ● 2. Transfer RNA (tRNA): brings amino acid and reads genetic code ● 3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): plays structural and catalytic role during translation
- 20. THE DNA THE RNA •DNA is a long polymer with a phosphate and deoxyribose backbone. It has four different bases: cytocine, thymine, adenine and guanine. •DNA is found in the nucleus of a cell and in mitochondria •The sugar portion is 2 deoxyribose. •It is self replicating. •RNA is polymer with a ribose and phosphate backbone with four different bases: •Adenine, cytocine, uracil and guanine. •It is found in the nucleus, cytoplasm and in the ribosome. •The sugar portion is ribose. •It is synthesized from DNA when needed.
- 21. ● BIOLOGY NCERT (XI AND XII) ● www.thought.co.com ● www.biologyjunction.com ● www.sabuchill.com ● Wikipedia ● Anmol’s dictionary of biology by R.K KAUSHIK AND M.S YADAV ● ARIHANT’S all in one biology