A presentation from NRCan (Natural Resources Canada) on the results of the first 'Path to Net Zero' builder focus group study in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA)
Getting value from your energy metering data, with samples for three types of real-world situations.
Presented at 2016 EnergyExchange conference, Providence, RI.
Getting value from your energy metering data, with samples for three types of real-world situations.
Presented at 2016 EnergyExchange conference, Providence, RI.
Energy Efficiency in Steel Rolling Mills of Nepaleecfncci
This presentation provides detailed information about energy saving opportunties in Steel and Metal industries in Nepal. It focusses on energy management issues in Steel Rolling Mills. Case studies are presentated to show how energy audit can lead to enormous cost savings. The findings are based on a GIZ baseline study conducted in 200 industries in 2012.
During this webinar we are introducing the CHP Bureau, a dashboard for understanding CHP (Combined Heat and Power or Cogeneration) performance data including accumulated savings and ROI.
During the webinar we will be sharing:
- The market potential for CHP
- The barriers to adoption of CHP
- How to plan and operate your CHP in the best way possible
- Our vision for the CHP Bureau
Indian experiences on Energye Efficiency in Steel Rolling Millseecfncci
Since the establishement of Bureau of Energy Efficiency in 2001 India has been implementing a lot of activities in energy-intensive sector. In Steel Rolling Mills with low-end and high-end technolgies considerable energy and cost sanvings can be achieved. The presentation was prepared in the Context of GIZ NEEP programm in Nepal in 2012.
Nepal relies heavily on traditional energy resources, as no significant deposits of fossil fuel are available. Nepalese use the lowest commercial energy of around 119 kWh per capita per year. The total energy consumption in Nepal for the year 2014/15 was 11,232 thousand tonnes of oil equivalent. Based on the fuel type, traditional fuel provide 80% of the total energy consumption, petroleum and coal 11% and 3% respectively, which is mainly consumed by urban areas, electricity only 3% and renewable 3% of the total energy consumption.
REMOURBAN Information package n2 - Low Temperature District Heating (LTDH)REMOURBAN
The Nottingham City Council aims to create a citywide heat network that will further enable Nottingham to cope with climate change and build resilience to external energy price pressures.
Small Council, Big Vision, Bigger Savings - AIRAH Pre-loved Buildings 2014Yale Carden
Presentation showing the incredible energy savings potential of geoexchange / ground source heat pumps for heating and cooling commercial buildings. This presentation was delivered at the AIRAH Pre-loved Buildings Conference in Brisbane, Australia in October 2014.
Titled Small Council, Big Vision, Bigger Savings, it takes the audience on the journey of this project from initial concept through to completion. It discussed both the incredible energy and dollar savings while also addresses the importance of the project team and their importance in delivering what was a truly great project.
Semester Project 4: Projection of Expansion: Assens to EjbySøren Aagaard
This project is a projection of a possible expansion of the district heating infrastructure from Assens to Ejby.
It revolves around both the dimensioning of the pipeline itself and the production plan for the two cities to go with it.
Linear optimization are being used to calculate the optimal production of the two cities, with the transmission line as a decision variable subject to the production and demand in the cities.
The applicable legislation will be provided and explained to help grasping the legal aspect of expanding a district heating infrastructure.
Different scenarios will be investigated to determine the resilience of the model and to figure out if this expansion is a viable option should the subsidies change.
In urban area, sitting renewable energy (RE) can be a challenging issue because only few spacious land is available but the demand of the energy is high. Hence the proper selection of RE technology is important to ensure plenty of energy are delivered from limited site area. This paper present how does the local climate condition in typical urban area, Auckland Central Business District, affect annual electricity production and energy production of PV or Wind Power system. The analysis is then extended to find the energy density for respective RE system.The result are strategic to advise which renewable energy system can actually optimize energy production in the small land area.
Using the Ground for Thermal Energy Storage: The Experience of the Riverina H...Yale Carden
All buildings interact with the ground for its ability to support their foundations. However, very few buildings interact with the ground for its ability to provide thermal energy storage. We have all experienced the moderate temperatures within a cave at depths of just a few metres. These temperatures are a function of average annual air temperature and are the result of the ground absorbing and storing solar energy. The use of this indirect and renewable solar energy can provide significant energy savings for heating and cooling systems.
A Ground Heat Exchanger (GHX) provides the ability to utilise the ground for thermal energy storage, essentially transforming the ground into a thermal battery. It enables us to extract heat from it in winter (heat source) and return that heat in summer (heat sink). It is a dynamic thermal battery that operates both simultaneously and over the annual heating / cooling cycle.
This presentation will provide an overview of how the ground is being utilised for its thermal energy storage capabilities around the world, with focus on a local installation at the Tumut Council owned Riverina Highlands Building, located in Tumut NSW. The installation has provided Council with energy savings on heating and cooling of 80 %, reduced peak energy loads by 40%, reduced maintenance costs and, importantly, provided significantly higher levels of occupant comfort. This has also increased the capacity and effectiveness of the concurrently installed solar PV array and will ensure that future solar energy storage will have greater impact.
SAV Systems supplies clusters of CHP Units called LoadTracker: up to 5 Combined Heat & Power units, representing a range of 15-75 kW(e) and 30-150 kW(th). Read more on http://www.sav-systems.com/loadtracker-combined-heat-and-power-(chp
Energy Efficiency in Steel Rolling Mills of Nepaleecfncci
This presentation provides detailed information about energy saving opportunties in Steel and Metal industries in Nepal. It focusses on energy management issues in Steel Rolling Mills. Case studies are presentated to show how energy audit can lead to enormous cost savings. The findings are based on a GIZ baseline study conducted in 200 industries in 2012.
During this webinar we are introducing the CHP Bureau, a dashboard for understanding CHP (Combined Heat and Power or Cogeneration) performance data including accumulated savings and ROI.
During the webinar we will be sharing:
- The market potential for CHP
- The barriers to adoption of CHP
- How to plan and operate your CHP in the best way possible
- Our vision for the CHP Bureau
Indian experiences on Energye Efficiency in Steel Rolling Millseecfncci
Since the establishement of Bureau of Energy Efficiency in 2001 India has been implementing a lot of activities in energy-intensive sector. In Steel Rolling Mills with low-end and high-end technolgies considerable energy and cost sanvings can be achieved. The presentation was prepared in the Context of GIZ NEEP programm in Nepal in 2012.
Nepal relies heavily on traditional energy resources, as no significant deposits of fossil fuel are available. Nepalese use the lowest commercial energy of around 119 kWh per capita per year. The total energy consumption in Nepal for the year 2014/15 was 11,232 thousand tonnes of oil equivalent. Based on the fuel type, traditional fuel provide 80% of the total energy consumption, petroleum and coal 11% and 3% respectively, which is mainly consumed by urban areas, electricity only 3% and renewable 3% of the total energy consumption.
REMOURBAN Information package n2 - Low Temperature District Heating (LTDH)REMOURBAN
The Nottingham City Council aims to create a citywide heat network that will further enable Nottingham to cope with climate change and build resilience to external energy price pressures.
Small Council, Big Vision, Bigger Savings - AIRAH Pre-loved Buildings 2014Yale Carden
Presentation showing the incredible energy savings potential of geoexchange / ground source heat pumps for heating and cooling commercial buildings. This presentation was delivered at the AIRAH Pre-loved Buildings Conference in Brisbane, Australia in October 2014.
Titled Small Council, Big Vision, Bigger Savings, it takes the audience on the journey of this project from initial concept through to completion. It discussed both the incredible energy and dollar savings while also addresses the importance of the project team and their importance in delivering what was a truly great project.
Semester Project 4: Projection of Expansion: Assens to EjbySøren Aagaard
This project is a projection of a possible expansion of the district heating infrastructure from Assens to Ejby.
It revolves around both the dimensioning of the pipeline itself and the production plan for the two cities to go with it.
Linear optimization are being used to calculate the optimal production of the two cities, with the transmission line as a decision variable subject to the production and demand in the cities.
The applicable legislation will be provided and explained to help grasping the legal aspect of expanding a district heating infrastructure.
Different scenarios will be investigated to determine the resilience of the model and to figure out if this expansion is a viable option should the subsidies change.
In urban area, sitting renewable energy (RE) can be a challenging issue because only few spacious land is available but the demand of the energy is high. Hence the proper selection of RE technology is important to ensure plenty of energy are delivered from limited site area. This paper present how does the local climate condition in typical urban area, Auckland Central Business District, affect annual electricity production and energy production of PV or Wind Power system. The analysis is then extended to find the energy density for respective RE system.The result are strategic to advise which renewable energy system can actually optimize energy production in the small land area.
Using the Ground for Thermal Energy Storage: The Experience of the Riverina H...Yale Carden
All buildings interact with the ground for its ability to support their foundations. However, very few buildings interact with the ground for its ability to provide thermal energy storage. We have all experienced the moderate temperatures within a cave at depths of just a few metres. These temperatures are a function of average annual air temperature and are the result of the ground absorbing and storing solar energy. The use of this indirect and renewable solar energy can provide significant energy savings for heating and cooling systems.
A Ground Heat Exchanger (GHX) provides the ability to utilise the ground for thermal energy storage, essentially transforming the ground into a thermal battery. It enables us to extract heat from it in winter (heat source) and return that heat in summer (heat sink). It is a dynamic thermal battery that operates both simultaneously and over the annual heating / cooling cycle.
This presentation will provide an overview of how the ground is being utilised for its thermal energy storage capabilities around the world, with focus on a local installation at the Tumut Council owned Riverina Highlands Building, located in Tumut NSW. The installation has provided Council with energy savings on heating and cooling of 80 %, reduced peak energy loads by 40%, reduced maintenance costs and, importantly, provided significantly higher levels of occupant comfort. This has also increased the capacity and effectiveness of the concurrently installed solar PV array and will ensure that future solar energy storage will have greater impact.
SAV Systems supplies clusters of CHP Units called LoadTracker: up to 5 Combined Heat & Power units, representing a range of 15-75 kW(e) and 30-150 kW(th). Read more on http://www.sav-systems.com/loadtracker-combined-heat-and-power-(chp
A look at solar thermal applications for houses, the systems, the criteria for good performance and how to plan for a future system installation. A good basic introduction for homeowners, builders and renovators who are not familiar with solar thermal. Presented at the national Affordable Comfort Institute conference, April 2008.
A presentation on Cold-Climate Deep Energy Retrofits made to the Technical Research Committee of the Nova Scotia Home Builders' Association, October 2010. Includes a case study and some highlighted construction details that could be stumbling blocks to a successful Deep Energy Retrofit.
BFH The Path to Net Zero Energy Houses in Cold ClimatesShawna Henderson
The basis of a presentation built by Bfreehomes as a teaching tool for builders interested in understanding how to become a builder of Net Zero Energy Houses. Includes three case studies.
A presentation of the results of a study for CMHC (Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation), The Path to Net Zero: Deep Energy Retrofits. Presentation was made at the CMHC Affordable Retrofits Conference in October 2009.
Eco Friendly Homes - Going green means saving green – and a green Barry Andrews home means savings each month, an investment that will keep your family happy for a lifetime.
The annual rainfall of Iran is about 13% as compared to rainfall in India. Despite of it, due to employing Rainwater Harvesting techniques and better water management , the government of Iran has been able to match up the water demands of the citizens of Iran.The presentations gives an overview of torography,technology, various rainwater harvesting structures employed in Iran.
REMOURBAN Information package n2 - Optimisation of existing District Heating...REMOURBAN
The aim of this info-package is to gather different possibilities for the optimisation of a DH&C in an overall approach, not only with the purpose of improving its performance, but also to obtain environmental benefits, due to the arising awareness in nowadays society towards energy and greenhouse gases emissions reduction.
Professor Brian Vad Mathiesen, Aalborg University
Workshop: Integrating low-temperature renewable energy sources in District Energy Systems: Focus on Belarus
IRENA - The International Renewable Energy Agency, February 3rd, 2021
- Background – Energy Use in Multi-Unit Residential Buildings
- Deep Energy Retrofit Case Study
- Measurement & Verification of Energy Savings
- Other Monitoring Results
Utilizing solar+storage to obviate natural gas peaker plants Clean Coalition
The Clean Coalition was a partner organization for the Grid-Scale Storage Conference, which took place on June 6-7, 2018 in San Francisco, CA. Executive Director Craig Lewis presented at the event.
1. Sub-Title
Regional Cost-Optimization Study of
Progressively Improving Energy Efficiency
Towards Net Zero Houses
Phase One of a four-year project lead by
Natural Resources Canada
2. Project Goal
• The Regional Cost-Optimization Study of Progressively
Improving Energy Efficiency Towards Net Zero Houses, is
part of a (NRCan) four year initiative.
• The project aim is to:
• Develop a framework and methodology to carry out regionallysensitive recommendations to reach certain milestone reductions
(ERS 80, ERS 85, ERS 80 – 50%, ERS 80 – 75%, and 100%
reduction)
• Specify a series of recommendations for builders in the 35 Model
National Energy Code of Canada for Houses (MNECH) zones.
3. Archetype Houses
• Four archetype houses were used from plans
commissioned by NRCan
Archetype Descriptions For GTA Region Study
Descrip(on
Liveable
Area
m²
(s.f.)
Archetype
1
One
storey
with
full
basement
177
(1900)
Archetype
2
Two
storey
with
full
basement
and
>
15%
window
area
325
(3500)
Archetype
3
Two
storey
slab
on
grade
195
(2500)
Archetype
4
Two
storey
end
row
house
with
full
basement
139
(1500)
4. Baseline and Progressive Reductions
• Each archetype is modelled for: Baseline (ERS 75 – OBC 2006);
ERS 80; ERS 85; ERS 80 – 50%; ERS 80 – 75%; 100%
reduction
• The following information is presented for each progressive level
of reductions for each archetype:
•
•
•
•
Summary of energy reduction measures
Reductions on fuel consumption
Impact of increased insulation levels
Impact of Alternate Energy Technologies (AET) and Renewable Energy
Technologies (RET)
• Impact of load management
• Cost optimization (10 and 20 years) - Projected Operating Costs with
Estimated Premium for Energy Reduction Measures
• Net Present Value
5. Fuel Rates
• An average of current fuel rates was determined via an online survey of fuel and power providers in the GTA region,
carried out in March 2009.
• For illustrative planning purposes, the current rate was
used to estimate fuel costs for years 1-5. For years 6-10
the initial rate was multiplied by 150% and for years 11-20,
the years 6-10 rates were multiplied by 150%.
Projected Fuel Rates
Electricity
kWh
Years
1-‐5
0.085
Years
6-‐10
0.128
Years
11-‐20
0.191
Natural
gas
m³
0.385
0.578
0.866
6. Assemblies and Mechanicals
• A variety of possible superinsulated and advanced wall
assemblies are created and costed.
• Current installed costs associated with various mechanical
systems are also compiled.
7. Energy Modelling Tools
• Hot 2000 (v.10.31) is used to model the reductions in energy
use.
• Drainwater heat recovery reductions is measured using the online calculator developed by Natural Resources Canada and
hosted at www.ceati.com/calculator/.
• To get to Net Zero (100 on the Energy Resource Station [ERS]
scale), the modified ERS rating developed for the EQuilibrium
Housing Initiative is used.
• The performance and sizing parameters for the 6m2 collector
solar hot water system and the PV systems associated with
each house in various scenarios are based on RETScreen
results for such a system in Toronto as modelled in the CMHC
study Approaching Net Zero in Existing Houses.
8. Financial Valuation Methods
• Accepted methods of analyzing return on investment (Net
Present Value in this instance) assess the attractiveness of
an investment against the baseline ERS 80.
• Planning assumptions for cost of capital are included in the
calculation of ROI (Net Present Value).
• A high hurdle rate of 7% is used in order to generate
conservative results.
10. Energy Reduction Measures
• The space heating scenarios for this archetype changes
delivery systems:
• The ERS 85 reduction scenario shows a 7 kW, COP 3 air-to-air heat
pump, increasing the electrical load, but, in conjunction with further
envelope improvements, reduces the space heating energy use by
13%.
• In the 75% and 100% reduction scenarios, a combination solar
thermal system with a high-efficiency instantaneous water heater is
modelled to handle both space and water heating.
11. Reductions in Fuel Consumption
• Envelope improvements from ERS 80 to ERS 85 drop
natural gas consumption for space heating by 70%.
• The ERS 85 shows the change in electrical use where an
air-to-air heat pump is modelled.
• Where the heating system changes to a lower-efficiency air
handler (75% reduction), there is a less impressive drop in
the space heating fuel use. The electrical load increases
due to ventilation and the lower efficiency air handler.
12. Reductions in Fuel Consumption
Reductions in Fuel Consumption
Code
2006
ERS
80
ERS
85
ERS
80
-‐50%
ERS
80
-‐75%
ERS
80-‐100%
Natural
gas
space
hea(ng
m³
2,843
1,795
473
745
372
372
Natural
gas
DHW
hea(ng
m³
711
406
406
406
83
83
1,392
893
6,005
1,074
1,049
0
233
545
776
914
914
0
8,761
8,761
8,761
8,761
8,761
0
Electric
space
hea(ng
kWh
Electric
ven(la(on
Electric
baseloads
kWh
13. Impact of Increased Insulation Levels
• Most significant is the reduction in space heating requirements
over the first four scenarios (Code 2006, ERS 80, ERS 85, ERS 80
– 50%) as these relate directly to the envelope improvements.
• Where solar thermal is brought into play (75% reduction
scenario, column 5 next page), the DHW and space heating
loads are so low as to allow for a cost-effective system to supply
up to 50% of the space heating requirements and 90% of the
DHW needs.
• Where ventilation (red bar) is a fairly constant, small portion of
overall energy use, the more space heating can be integrated
into a ventilation scheme (as opposed to ventilation being
integrated into a space-heating system), the less electrical
energy will be required.
14. Impact of Increased Insulation Levels
140,000
120,000
100,000
80,000
DHW
60,000
Ventilation
Space Heating
40,000
20,000
0
2006
Code
ERS
80%
ERS
85%
ERS
80-50%
ERS
80-75%
ERS
80-100%
Aggregate Reductions in Space Conditioning Energy
Use, MJ
15. Impact of Alternate Energy Technologies (AET)
and Renewable Energy Technologies (RET)
• The drainwater heat recovery unit can save up to 73 m3 of
natural gas annually (equivalent to 2774 MJ, assuming 1 m3 =
38MJ), even more when the load is dropped by 150L/day.
• AET and RET measures are carried out only in the 75% and
100% reductions after all envelope improvements are carried
out.
• The 6.8 kWp PV system introduced in the 100% reduction
scenario produces enough power annually to compensate for
the energy used by the natural gas fired water heater that
provides back up to the solar thermal combination space and
water heating system.
16. Energy Reductions Through AET and
RET
ERS
80
-‐50%
ERS
80
-‐75%
ERS
80
-‐100%
Design
heat
loss
Btu/hr
37,000
No
change
No
change
Design
heat
loss
W
10,838
No
change
No
change
Space
hea(ng
MJ
Ven(la(on
MJ
DHW
MJ
Baseload
MJ
Total
MJ
Total
MJ
PV
produc(on
28,286
3,293
15,064
31,536
78,179
7,240
1,411
14,928
31,536
55,115
7,240
1,411
14,928
13,140
36,719
36,000
Target
reduc(on
from
ERS
80
59,186
29,593
0
17. Impact of Load Management
• A 7kW air-to-air heat pump is modelled in the ERS 85
reduction scenario to see how much electricity use
increases when the envelope is reasonably improved.
• The amount of electricity required for space heating and
ventilation increases to just over 6,000 kWh annually
(about 16 kWh/day).
• If the baseloads are dropped from 24 kWh/day to 10 kWh/
day, this combination of envelope improvements and space
heating system would only increase the electrical
consumption by 2 kWh/day (730 kWh/year) over “typical”
electrical consumption in a Canadian household of four.
18. Cost Optimization (10, 20 years)
Projected Operating Costs with Estimated Premium for Energy Reduction Measures
2006
Code
ERS
80
Difference
in
cost
from
ERS
80
ERS
85
ERS
80
–
50%
ERS
80
–
ERS
80
-‐100%
75%
$7,750
$17,170
$30,857
$83,757
Current
annual
gas
&
electric
cost
Year
6:
fuel
cost
increase
1
$2,133
$1,638
$1,477
$1,070
$944
-‐$5,246
$3,199
$2,458
$2,216
$1,605
$1,415
-‐$5,230
Year
11:
fuel
cost
increase
2
$4,799
$3,686
$3,324
$2,407
$2,123
-‐$5,206
Total
projected
opera(ng
costs
over
10
yrs
$26,660
$20,480
$18,465
$13,375
$11,794
-‐$52,380
Total
projected
opera(ng
costs
over
20
yrs
$74,650
$57,340
$51,705
$37,445
$33,022
-‐$104,440
19. Net Present Value
ERS
85
50%
75%
100%
Year
0
from
baseline
NPV
Year
20
Year
0
from
baseline
NPV
Year
20
Year
0
from
baseline
NPV
Year
20
Year
0
from
baseline
NPV
Year
20
1
Storey
-‐10,359.94
-‐6,473.23
-‐15,893.09
-‐7,662.99
-‐29,683.69
-‐18,533.49
-‐71,383.69
-‐4,818.43
2
Storey
-‐7,749.69
-‐4,756.94
-‐17,170.49
9,389.59
-‐30,857.49
-‐18,110.85
-‐83,757.49
-‐1,216.93
2
Storey
SOG
-‐6,692.43
-‐5,853.76
-‐13,424.99
2,845.35
-‐25,259.75
-‐19,215.57
-‐74,059.75
-‐4,371.04
Row
end
-‐7,411.94
-‐2,861.27
-‐9,703.08
1,968.37
-‐22,335.56
-‐16,713.64
-‐63,935.56
12,457.08
The best investment for 2 Storey is 50%. This
illustrates the importance of archetype in
accessing best investment.
Assumptions
Cost of capital 7% (a high hurdle rate in order to generate conservative results)
Initial investment in energy savings measures made at once at the beginning of Year 0
Consistent annual cash flows for Years 1…n
21. Improve Typical Assemblies First
• The Ontario new home market is price/location driven first,
and specification driven second (by consumers).
• The production housing market in Ontario tends to deal
poorly with dramatic changes.
• Therefore…
• The most effective starting point is to improve typical assemblies
before looking at the use of different materials.
• Modifying typical wall assemblies allows production builders to
quickly and easily compare cost differences, as the original
assembly is familiar and a revised assembly would be easy to
benchmark within current costing databases.
22. Market and Labour Constraints
• One way of reaching better air tightness goals is to use
closed cell insulation in the stud cavities with a few inches
sprayed on the attic side of the ceiling prior to loose fill
being added.
• ICF foundations would also likely need to be implemented to achieve
NZE performance
• However, in Southern Ontario, there are significant hurdles
to overcome in order for production builders to bring down
air leakage levels to achieve substantial reductions past
ERS 80, including:
• Extreme price sensitivity of the market (housing as a commodity)
• Scheduling concerns
• Labour and union resistance to new construction methods
23. Major Shift in Focus Away from Space
Heating
• As the envelope improvements reduce the heating load, the
relationships between the various end uses change in the
house. Appliances and other internal gains, such as occupants
and available passive solar gain begin to play a stronger role in
the space heating regime.
26. Preparation for Solar & PV Makes Sense
•
Solar ready features (preplumbing, prewiring) are
achievable in cost-effective manners and also provide
marketing opportunities.
• Current costs for renewables, such as PV, are not in line
with production builder pricing at this point, but preparation
for these items makes sense as building envelope
improvements are made.
27. ROI Analysis
• The ROI analysis calculated Net Present Value (NPV) for
all archetypes for all scenarios compared to the ERS 80
baseline.
• The findings indicate the importance of the house type in
determining the best investment in energy savings.
• For example, current costs for materials, labour and fuel (as well as
Ontario’s premium on green power production) show that the 50%
reduction scenario is the best option for both Archetypes 2 and 3 (2
storey with basement and 2 storey slab on grade, respectively)
• While the 100% reduction scenario is the best option for Archetypes
1 and 4.
28. Constraints Posed by Common Building
Practices
• The parameters required by the GTA builders who
participated in the study required that, out of several
proposed options, the most expensive wall assembly be
used – a 2x6 assembly with 25mm (1”) rigid foam to the
exterior and the stud cavity filled with a high-density closed
cell foam (RSI 0.041/R-6 per unit thickness).
• With better market penetration, the cost of the closed cell
foams (or other, lower cost materials with equivalent high
insulation and good air sealing qualities) could drop,
making this type of wall assembly more cost effective.
• Where material costs can be reduced, the ROI analysis
would change dramatically.
29. Future Directions
• Additional analysis carried out in other zones as part of The
Regional Cost-Optimization Study of Progressively
Improving Energy Efficiency Towards Net Zero Houses will
assess the impact of zone on cost optimization and return
on investment.
• Future research may include sensitivity analysis and
stochastic modelling for variables such as cost of capital
and fuel costs to provide a more robust analysis of ROI.