This document discusses network models and the OSI and TCP/IP network layers. It begins by describing client/server networks and peer-to-peer networks. It then explains the seven layers of the OSI model and the functions of each layer. Finally, it maps the TCP/IP protocol suite to the OSI model, noting that TCP/IP has physical, data link, network, transport and application layers similar to OSI.
This document discusses peer-to-peer networking and was prepared by four students under the supervision of Mr. Ababakr Ibarhim. It defines peer-to-peer networking as a network with no dedicated servers where all workstations are considered equal and can act as clients or servers. The key differences between peer-to-peer and client-server networks are described. Peer-to-peer networks have no centralized data storage and nodes can request and provide services. Examples of applications include file sharing, messaging, and collaboration. Advantages include low cost and efficient use of resources while disadvantages include lack of administration and security issues.
Grid and Cloud Computing Lecture-2a.pptxDrAdeelAkram2
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The document provides an introduction to cloud computing. It defines cloud computing as the delivery of computing services over the internet. These services include servers, storage, databases, networking, software and more. Some key characteristics of cloud computing discussed are that resources are hosted remotely and available ubiquitously, and services are commodified in a utility model where users pay for what they use. The cloud environment provides an online portal for easy management of compute, storage, network and application resources. The document also discusses different types of cloud deployment models including public, private and hybrid clouds.
This document discusses cloud computing and identifies top technical and non-technical obstacles and opportunities. It begins with definitions of cloud computing, software as a service (SaaS), platform as a service (PaaS), infrastructure as a service (IaaS), public clouds, and private clouds. It then examines 10 major obstacles for cloud computing, including issues with business continuity, data lock-in, data security, performance unpredictability, and software licensing. Each obstacle is accompanied by potential opportunities to address the challenge through approaches like standardization, virtualization, reputation services, and flexible licensing models.
The document discusses how future networking is being impacted by cloud/hybrid IT, software-defined networking, and network functions virtualization. Specifically:
1) The emergence of public cloud and hybrid IT models is driving more traffic to data centers and changing expectations around network flexibility and costs.
2) Software-defined WAN (SD-WAN) solutions allow businesses more control over their networks by using overlays to connect sites over multiple networks like broadband internet and MPLS.
3) Network functions virtualization (NFV) enables network functions to be deployed as software, increasing flexibility and reducing costs compared to hardware appliances.
The document discusses three main types of distributed systems: cloud computing, grid computing, and cluster computing. Cloud computing uses distributed resources over the internet to provide scalable and cost-effective computing. Grid computing creates a virtual supercomputer by connecting computers to tackle computationally intensive problems. Cluster computing connects computers through a local network so they function as a single high-performance machine for mission-critical applications.
This document discusses peer-to-peer networking and was prepared by four students under the supervision of Mr. Ababakr Ibarhim. It defines peer-to-peer networking as a network with no dedicated servers where all workstations are considered equal and can act as clients or servers. The key differences between peer-to-peer and client-server networks are described. Peer-to-peer networks have no centralized data storage and nodes can request and provide services. Examples of applications include file sharing, messaging, and collaboration. Advantages include low cost and efficient use of resources while disadvantages include lack of administration and security issues.
Grid and Cloud Computing Lecture-2a.pptxDrAdeelAkram2
The document discusses grid architecture and tools. It covers the hourglass model of grid architecture, which focuses on core services to enable diverse solutions. It also discusses the layered grid architecture with four layers - fabric, connectivity, collective, and application. Simulation tools for modeling grid environments like GridSim are presented. The document then discusses clouds and defines cloud computing. Key aspects of clouds like scalability, virtualization, and on-demand services are covered. It compares clouds to grids and other paradigms. Finally, it introduces service-oriented architecture and defines the characteristics of services.
The document provides an introduction to cloud computing. It defines cloud computing as the delivery of computing services over the internet. These services include servers, storage, databases, networking, software and more. Some key characteristics of cloud computing discussed are that resources are hosted remotely and available ubiquitously, and services are commodified in a utility model where users pay for what they use. The cloud environment provides an online portal for easy management of compute, storage, network and application resources. The document also discusses different types of cloud deployment models including public, private and hybrid clouds.
This document discusses cloud computing and identifies top technical and non-technical obstacles and opportunities. It begins with definitions of cloud computing, software as a service (SaaS), platform as a service (PaaS), infrastructure as a service (IaaS), public clouds, and private clouds. It then examines 10 major obstacles for cloud computing, including issues with business continuity, data lock-in, data security, performance unpredictability, and software licensing. Each obstacle is accompanied by potential opportunities to address the challenge through approaches like standardization, virtualization, reputation services, and flexible licensing models.
The document discusses how future networking is being impacted by cloud/hybrid IT, software-defined networking, and network functions virtualization. Specifically:
1) The emergence of public cloud and hybrid IT models is driving more traffic to data centers and changing expectations around network flexibility and costs.
2) Software-defined WAN (SD-WAN) solutions allow businesses more control over their networks by using overlays to connect sites over multiple networks like broadband internet and MPLS.
3) Network functions virtualization (NFV) enables network functions to be deployed as software, increasing flexibility and reducing costs compared to hardware appliances.
The document discusses three main types of distributed systems: cloud computing, grid computing, and cluster computing. Cloud computing uses distributed resources over the internet to provide scalable and cost-effective computing. Grid computing creates a virtual supercomputer by connecting computers to tackle computationally intensive problems. Cluster computing connects computers through a local network so they function as a single high-performance machine for mission-critical applications.
The Top Outages of 2022: Analysis and TakeawaysThousandEyes
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Latest development of cloud computing technology, characteristics, challenge,...sushil Choudhary
Cloud computing is a network-based environment that focuses on sharing computations, Cloud computing networks access to a shared pool of configurable networks, servers, storage, service, applications & other important Computing resources. In modern era of Information Technology, the accesses to all information about the important activities of the related fields. In this paper discuss the advantages, disadvantages, characteristics, challenge, deployment model, cloud service model, cloud service provider & various applications areas of cloud computing such as small & large scale (manufacturing, automation, television, broadcast, constructions industries), Geographical Information system (GIS), Military intelligence fusion (MIS), business management, banking, Education, healthcare, Agriculture sector, E-Governance, project planning, cloud computing in family etc. Keywords: Cloud computing, community model, hybrid model, Public model, private model
www.iosrjournals.org 57 | Page Latest development of cloud computing technolo...Sushil kumar Choudhary
This document discusses the latest developments in cloud computing technology. It begins with definitions of cloud computing and describes its evolution over time from mainframes to current cloud models. The key characteristics of cloud computing are described, including on-demand self-service, broad network access, resource pooling, rapid elasticity, and measured service. Challenges of cloud computing are also outlined. The document then examines the different deployment models including private clouds, public clouds, hybrid clouds, and community clouds. It also explores the various cloud service models of Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS). Major cloud computing providers like Amazon, Google, and Microsoft are mentioned
The document is a project report submitted by Akash Rajguru to Bharati Vidyapeeth University on Software Defined Networking. It discusses the limitations of current network technologies and architectures in meeting today's dynamic computing needs, and introduces Software Defined Networking as a new network paradigm that decouples the control plane from the data plane for increased flexibility, programmability, and automation of network management. The report is comprised of multiple chapters covering SDN concepts and technologies including OpenFlow, SDN controllers, Open vSwitch, Floodlight, and hands-on exercises using the Mininet virtual network tool.
The document describes a computer networks course taught by Dr. Shivashankar. The course aims to help students understand networking concepts and protocols at different layers. It will cover topics like network architectures, protocols, configurations, and analyzing simple networks. The module on the data link layer is discussed in detail, including framing, flow control, error control, and protocols like stop-and-wait.
The Top Outages of 2022: Analysis and TakeawaysThousandEyes
The document summarizes a presentation given by ThousandEyes on notable internet outages that occurred in 2022. It discusses the digital service building blocks of DNS, BGP, CDNs and cloud services. It then provides a top 10 countdown of major outages for services like Twitter, AWS, Zoom and WhatsApp. Each outage highlights lessons learned around the importance of monitoring applications and dependencies, avoiding single points of failure, and having visibility to understand complex network issues. The presentation concludes with general lessons around planning for BGP threats, cloud monitoring, and ensuring resiliency through architecture.
This document describes a proposed peer-to-peer file transfer application. It discusses how a P2P network allows files to be shared directly between users without a centralized server. The proposed app aims to create an easy-to-use interface for users to view, download, and share files over a P2P network. It outlines the architecture, including peer and connection modules, and proposes features like monitoring shared files and personalized recommendations. The conclusion states that P2P file sharing provides privacy compared to other methods by transferring files directly between users without involving third parties.
This is the 2nd defense of my Ph.D. double degree.
More details - https://kkpradeeban.blogspot.com/2019/08/my-phd-defense-software-defined-systems.html
This document summarizes mobile cloud computing. It defines mobile cloud computing as combining cloud computing, mobile computing, and wireless networks to provide rich computational resources to mobile users. It describes the advantages of mobile cloud computing in providing data storage, processing, and access from anywhere. It outlines the basic architecture and discusses hierarchical architectures using "cloudlets" to improve performance. It also discusses issues like limited mobile devices and connection quality, and proposes solutions like optimizing application distribution and developing network infrastructure around cloudlets.
This document provides an overview of the evolution of the internet and key technologies enabling it, including internet of things (IoT), 5G, cloud computing, data centers, and network virtualization. It discusses how IoT and cloud computing produce big data stored in data centers, and how 5G, data centers, and network virtualization technologies will act as the backbone for cloud services and IoT applications. It also outlines some of the applications, requirements, and trends related to these technologies.
Comprehensive Study on Deployment Models and Service Models in Cloud Computing.IRJET Journal
This document provides a comprehensive study of deployment models and service models in cloud computing. It discusses the key cloud computing models including infrastructure as a service (IaaS), platform as a service (PaaS), and software as a service (SaaS). It also examines the major cloud deployment models such as public cloud, private cloud, hybrid cloud, and community cloud. The document analyzes the characteristics, benefits, and limitations of each service and deployment model. It provides comparisons of the different models and concludes that cloud computing delivers scalable services but also faces challenges regarding data security, network security, and lack of user control that need to be addressed.
The document provides details about a cloud computing course being taught by Mr. Saurabh Gupta. It begins with an introduction to cloud computing and the traditional approach of running IT applications. It then discusses key concepts like distributed computing, client-server computing, parallel computing, and utility computing that led to the development of cloud computing. The rest of the document discusses cloud characteristics, service providers, advantages, and differences between concepts like elasticity vs scalability.
The presentation slides of my Ph.D. thesis. For more information - https://kkpradeeban.blogspot.com/2019/07/my-phd-defense-software-defined-systems.html
Abstract:-
This paper is based on the study of grid computing and cloud computing technology. These two technologies are related with geographically defined network standards. The main aspect of this paper is deep learning of latest technology and trends in the field of networking.
Keywords:-Technology,Cloud Computing,Grid Computing
This document discusses applications of cloud computing for power systems. It begins with an introduction to cloud computing and its potential benefits for power systems. It then describes different types of cloud computing models including public, private, and hybrid clouds. It also discusses the three main cloud service models: Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS). The document provides examples of cloud-based power system applications such as energy monitoring systems, SCADA configurations, and comparisons of smart grids with and without cloud integration. It concludes that cloud computing can help power systems by providing scalable computing resources and facilitating data processing and system monitoring.
This document provides an introduction to grid architecture. It discusses key components of a grid architecture including the layered model and standard protocols. The document outlines requirements for grid architecture including heterogeneous and distributed resources. It also compares web services and grid services, describing standards like OGSA, OGSI, and WSRF. Finally, it provides examples of creating stateful web services.
Efficient architectural framework of cloud computing Souvik Pal
This document discusses an efficient architectural framework for cloud computing. It begins by providing background on cloud computing and discusses challenges such as security, privacy, and reliability. It then proposes a new architectural framework that separates infrastructure as a service (IaaS) into three sub-modules: IaaS itself, a hypervisor monitoring environment (HME), and resources as a service (RaaS). The HME acts as middleware between IaaS and physical resources, using a hypervisor to allocate resources from a pool managed by RaaS. This proposed framework is intended to improve performance and access speed for cloud computing.
This document provides an introduction to computer networks. It discusses that a network allows computing devices to share resources and information. Networks become powerful when multiple computers can communicate and share resources across different networks. The document then covers the need for networks by describing standalone computers and "sneakernet" data transfer. It also discusses how networks enhance communication through email and sharing information efficiently. Networks allow sharing of data, applications, and peripheral devices located in a central location. They facilitate centralized management and maintenance of operations. The document classifies networks based on geography into LANs, MANs, and WANs. It also categorizes networks based on roles into peer-to-peer, server-based, and client-based.
The Power of Visual Regression Testing_ Why It Is Critical for Enterprise App...kalichargn70th171
Visual testing plays a vital role in ensuring that software products meet the aesthetic requirements specified by clients in functional and non-functional specifications. In today's highly competitive digital landscape, users expect a seamless and visually appealing online experience. Visual testing, also known as automated UI testing or visual regression testing, verifies the accuracy of the visual elements that users interact with.
The Top Outages of 2022: Analysis and TakeawaysThousandEyes
The document summarizes a presentation given by Mike Hicks on notable internet outages in 2022. It begins with an agenda for the presentation, which includes an overview of ThousandEyes, key 2022 outages, digital service building blocks, and a top 10 outage countdown. It then provides details on major outages affecting companies like Twitter, AWS, Zoom, British Airways, and others. Finally, it outlines lessons learned, such as the importance of monitoring all aspects of networks and cloud infrastructure to avoid issues.
Latest development of cloud computing technology, characteristics, challenge,...sushil Choudhary
Cloud computing is a network-based environment that focuses on sharing computations, Cloud computing networks access to a shared pool of configurable networks, servers, storage, service, applications & other important Computing resources. In modern era of Information Technology, the accesses to all information about the important activities of the related fields. In this paper discuss the advantages, disadvantages, characteristics, challenge, deployment model, cloud service model, cloud service provider & various applications areas of cloud computing such as small & large scale (manufacturing, automation, television, broadcast, constructions industries), Geographical Information system (GIS), Military intelligence fusion (MIS), business management, banking, Education, healthcare, Agriculture sector, E-Governance, project planning, cloud computing in family etc. Keywords: Cloud computing, community model, hybrid model, Public model, private model
www.iosrjournals.org 57 | Page Latest development of cloud computing technolo...Sushil kumar Choudhary
This document discusses the latest developments in cloud computing technology. It begins with definitions of cloud computing and describes its evolution over time from mainframes to current cloud models. The key characteristics of cloud computing are described, including on-demand self-service, broad network access, resource pooling, rapid elasticity, and measured service. Challenges of cloud computing are also outlined. The document then examines the different deployment models including private clouds, public clouds, hybrid clouds, and community clouds. It also explores the various cloud service models of Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS). Major cloud computing providers like Amazon, Google, and Microsoft are mentioned
The document is a project report submitted by Akash Rajguru to Bharati Vidyapeeth University on Software Defined Networking. It discusses the limitations of current network technologies and architectures in meeting today's dynamic computing needs, and introduces Software Defined Networking as a new network paradigm that decouples the control plane from the data plane for increased flexibility, programmability, and automation of network management. The report is comprised of multiple chapters covering SDN concepts and technologies including OpenFlow, SDN controllers, Open vSwitch, Floodlight, and hands-on exercises using the Mininet virtual network tool.
The document describes a computer networks course taught by Dr. Shivashankar. The course aims to help students understand networking concepts and protocols at different layers. It will cover topics like network architectures, protocols, configurations, and analyzing simple networks. The module on the data link layer is discussed in detail, including framing, flow control, error control, and protocols like stop-and-wait.
The Top Outages of 2022: Analysis and TakeawaysThousandEyes
The document summarizes a presentation given by ThousandEyes on notable internet outages that occurred in 2022. It discusses the digital service building blocks of DNS, BGP, CDNs and cloud services. It then provides a top 10 countdown of major outages for services like Twitter, AWS, Zoom and WhatsApp. Each outage highlights lessons learned around the importance of monitoring applications and dependencies, avoiding single points of failure, and having visibility to understand complex network issues. The presentation concludes with general lessons around planning for BGP threats, cloud monitoring, and ensuring resiliency through architecture.
This document describes a proposed peer-to-peer file transfer application. It discusses how a P2P network allows files to be shared directly between users without a centralized server. The proposed app aims to create an easy-to-use interface for users to view, download, and share files over a P2P network. It outlines the architecture, including peer and connection modules, and proposes features like monitoring shared files and personalized recommendations. The conclusion states that P2P file sharing provides privacy compared to other methods by transferring files directly between users without involving third parties.
This is the 2nd defense of my Ph.D. double degree.
More details - https://kkpradeeban.blogspot.com/2019/08/my-phd-defense-software-defined-systems.html
This document summarizes mobile cloud computing. It defines mobile cloud computing as combining cloud computing, mobile computing, and wireless networks to provide rich computational resources to mobile users. It describes the advantages of mobile cloud computing in providing data storage, processing, and access from anywhere. It outlines the basic architecture and discusses hierarchical architectures using "cloudlets" to improve performance. It also discusses issues like limited mobile devices and connection quality, and proposes solutions like optimizing application distribution and developing network infrastructure around cloudlets.
This document provides an overview of the evolution of the internet and key technologies enabling it, including internet of things (IoT), 5G, cloud computing, data centers, and network virtualization. It discusses how IoT and cloud computing produce big data stored in data centers, and how 5G, data centers, and network virtualization technologies will act as the backbone for cloud services and IoT applications. It also outlines some of the applications, requirements, and trends related to these technologies.
Comprehensive Study on Deployment Models and Service Models in Cloud Computing.IRJET Journal
This document provides a comprehensive study of deployment models and service models in cloud computing. It discusses the key cloud computing models including infrastructure as a service (IaaS), platform as a service (PaaS), and software as a service (SaaS). It also examines the major cloud deployment models such as public cloud, private cloud, hybrid cloud, and community cloud. The document analyzes the characteristics, benefits, and limitations of each service and deployment model. It provides comparisons of the different models and concludes that cloud computing delivers scalable services but also faces challenges regarding data security, network security, and lack of user control that need to be addressed.
The document provides details about a cloud computing course being taught by Mr. Saurabh Gupta. It begins with an introduction to cloud computing and the traditional approach of running IT applications. It then discusses key concepts like distributed computing, client-server computing, parallel computing, and utility computing that led to the development of cloud computing. The rest of the document discusses cloud characteristics, service providers, advantages, and differences between concepts like elasticity vs scalability.
The presentation slides of my Ph.D. thesis. For more information - https://kkpradeeban.blogspot.com/2019/07/my-phd-defense-software-defined-systems.html
Abstract:-
This paper is based on the study of grid computing and cloud computing technology. These two technologies are related with geographically defined network standards. The main aspect of this paper is deep learning of latest technology and trends in the field of networking.
Keywords:-Technology,Cloud Computing,Grid Computing
This document discusses applications of cloud computing for power systems. It begins with an introduction to cloud computing and its potential benefits for power systems. It then describes different types of cloud computing models including public, private, and hybrid clouds. It also discusses the three main cloud service models: Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS). The document provides examples of cloud-based power system applications such as energy monitoring systems, SCADA configurations, and comparisons of smart grids with and without cloud integration. It concludes that cloud computing can help power systems by providing scalable computing resources and facilitating data processing and system monitoring.
This document provides an introduction to grid architecture. It discusses key components of a grid architecture including the layered model and standard protocols. The document outlines requirements for grid architecture including heterogeneous and distributed resources. It also compares web services and grid services, describing standards like OGSA, OGSI, and WSRF. Finally, it provides examples of creating stateful web services.
Efficient architectural framework of cloud computing Souvik Pal
This document discusses an efficient architectural framework for cloud computing. It begins by providing background on cloud computing and discusses challenges such as security, privacy, and reliability. It then proposes a new architectural framework that separates infrastructure as a service (IaaS) into three sub-modules: IaaS itself, a hypervisor monitoring environment (HME), and resources as a service (RaaS). The HME acts as middleware between IaaS and physical resources, using a hypervisor to allocate resources from a pool managed by RaaS. This proposed framework is intended to improve performance and access speed for cloud computing.
This document provides an introduction to computer networks. It discusses that a network allows computing devices to share resources and information. Networks become powerful when multiple computers can communicate and share resources across different networks. The document then covers the need for networks by describing standalone computers and "sneakernet" data transfer. It also discusses how networks enhance communication through email and sharing information efficiently. Networks allow sharing of data, applications, and peripheral devices located in a central location. They facilitate centralized management and maintenance of operations. The document classifies networks based on geography into LANs, MANs, and WANs. It also categorizes networks based on roles into peer-to-peer, server-based, and client-based.
The Power of Visual Regression Testing_ Why It Is Critical for Enterprise App...kalichargn70th171
Visual testing plays a vital role in ensuring that software products meet the aesthetic requirements specified by clients in functional and non-functional specifications. In today's highly competitive digital landscape, users expect a seamless and visually appealing online experience. Visual testing, also known as automated UI testing or visual regression testing, verifies the accuracy of the visual elements that users interact with.
Baha Majid WCA4Z IBM Z Customer Council Boston June 2024.pdfBaha Majid
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The Rising Future of CPaaS in the Middle East 2024Yara Milbes
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Transforming Product Development using OnePlan To Boost Efficiency and Innova...OnePlan Solutions
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Many Apache Kafka use cases take advantage of Kafka’s ability to integrate multiple heterogeneous systems for stream processing and real-time machine learning scenarios. But Kafka also exists in a rich ecosystem of related but complementary stream processing technologies and tools, particularly from the open-source community. In this talk, we’ll take you on a tour of a selection of complementary tools that can make Kafka even more powerful. We’ll focus on tools for stream processing and querying, streaming machine learning, stream visibility and observation, stream meta-data, stream visualisation, stream development including testing and the use of Generative AI and LLMs, and stream performance and scalability. By the end you will have a good idea of the types of Kafka “superhero” tools that exist, which are my favourites (and what superpowers they have), and how they combine to save your Kafka applications development universe from swamploads of data stagnation monsters!
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1. Computer Networks (CSGE301)
K K S Gautam
Assistant Professor
Department of Computer Science
Shivaji College, Raja Garden New Delhi
kksgautam@Shivaji.du.ac.in
9/25/2023 kksgautam@Shivaji.du.ac.in 1
2. UNIT II
•Network Models: Client/ server network and
Peer-to-peer network,
•OSI, TCP/IP, layers and functionalities.
9/25/2023 kksgautam@Shivaji.du.ac.in 2
3. 3
Client/Server Networks
• Server-based network
• Clients and servers
• Data flows efficiently
• Servers respond to
requests from clients
• Servers perform specific
tasks
• Scalable network
• Centralized
9/25/2023 kksgautam@Shivaji.du.ac.in
5. 5
Classifications of
Client/Server Networks
• WAN
• Wide area network
• Computers linked
over large
geographic locations
• MAN
• Metropolitan area
network
• Computers linked
together within a
city or county
9/25/2023 kksgautam@Shivaji.du.ac.in
6. 6
Classifications of
Client/Server Networks
• PAN
• Personal area network
• Wireless devices connected in close proximity to each other
• Intranet
• Private corporate network
• Protected by a firewall
9/25/2023 kksgautam@Shivaji.du.ac.in
8. 8
Servers
• Number and type of servers
depend on network size and
workload
• Dedicated server
• Performs one specific function
• Authentication server
• Keeps track of network logins
and services available
• File server
• Stores and manages files
9/25/2023 kksgautam@Shivaji.du.ac.in
9. 9
Dedicated Servers
• Print server
• Manages client-requested printing jobs
• Creates print queue (prioritizes print jobs)
• Applications server
• Acts as a storage area for application software
• Database server
• Provides clients with access to database information
• E-mail server
• Processes and delivers in-coming and outgoing
e-mail
9/25/2023 kksgautam@Shivaji.du.ac.in
10. 10
Dedicated Servers
• Communications server
• Handles communications between networks including the Internet
• Often the only device on the network directly connected to the Internet
• Web server
• Hosts a Web site available through
the Internet
9/25/2023 kksgautam@Shivaji.du.ac.in
11. P2P Networking/Computing
• P2P computing is the sharing of computer resources
and services by direct exchange between systems.
• These resources and services include the exchange
of information, processing cycles, cache storage, and
disk storage for files.
• P2P computing takes advantage of existing
computing power, computer storage and
networking connectivity, allowing users to leverage
their collective power to the “benefit” of all.
9/25/2023 kksgautam@Shivaji.du.ac.in 11
12. P2P Architecture
• All nodes are both
clients and servers
• Provide and consume data
• Any node can initiate a
connection
• No centralized data
source
• “The ultimate form of
democracy on the Internet”
• “The ultimate threat to copy-
right protection on the
Internet
9/25/2023 kksgautam@Shivaji.du.ac.in 12
13. What is P2P?
• A distributed system
architecture
• No centralized control
• Typically many nodes, but
unreliable and heterogeneous
• Nodes are symmetric in
function
• Take advantage of distributed,
shared resources (bandwidth,
CPU, storage) on peer-nodes
• Fault-tolerant, self-organizing
• Operate in dynamic
environment, frequent join and
leave is the norm
Internet
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14. P2P Network Characteristics
• Clients are also servers and routers
• Nodes contribute content, storage, memory, CPU
• Nodes are autonomous (no administrative
• authority)
• Network is dynamic: nodes enter and leave the network
“frequently”
• Nodes collaborate directly with each other (not through well-
known servers)
• Nodes have widely varying capabilities
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15. P2P vs. Client/Server
• Pure P2P:
• No central server
• For certain requests any peer can function as a client,
as a router, or as a server
• The information is not located in a central location but
is distributed among all peers
• A peer may need to communicate with multiple peers
to locate a piece of information
As more peers are added, both demand
and capacity of the network increases !
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16. P2P Benefits
• Efficient use of resources
• Unused bandwidth, storage, processing power at the edge of the network
• Scalability
• Consumers of resources also donate resources
• Aggregate resources grow naturally with utilization
• Reliability
• Replicas
• Geographic distribution
• No single point of failure
• Ease of administration
• Nodes self organize
• No need to deploy servers to satisfy demand (c.f. scalability)
• Built-in fault tolerance, replication, and load balancing
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17. Difference between Client-Server and Peer-to-
Peer Network:
S.NO CLIENT-SERVER NETWORK PEER-TO-PEER NETWORK
1.
In Client-Server Network, Clients and server
are differentiated, Specific server and clients
are present.
In Peer-to-Peer Network, Clients and server are not
differentiated.
2.
Client-Server Network focuses on
information sharing.
While Peer-to-Peer Network focuses on connectivity.
3.
In Client-Server Network, Centralized server
is used to store the data.
While in Peer-to-Peer Network, Each peer has its own
data.
4.
In Client-Server Network, Server respond the
services which is request by Client.
While in Peer-to-Peer Network, Each and every node
can do both request and respond for the services.
5.
Client-Server Network are costlier than Peer-
to-Peer Network.
While Peer-to-Peer Network are less costlier than
Client-Server Network.
6.
Client-Server Network are more stable than
Peer-to-Peer Network.
While Peer-to-Peer Network are less stable if number
of peer is increase.
7.
Client-Server Network is used for both small While Peer-to-Peer Network is generally suited for
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18. 2.18
2-1 LAYERED TASKS
We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an
example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.
Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy
Topics discussed in this section:
9/25/2023 kksgautam@Shivaji.du.ac.in
19. 2.19
Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter
9/25/2023 kksgautam@Shivaji.du.ac.in
20. 2.20
2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
Topics discussed in this section:
9/25/2023 kksgautam@Shivaji.du.ac.in
21. 2.21
ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.
Note
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23. 2.23
Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model
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24. 2.24
Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model
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25. 2.25
2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
In this section we briefly describe the functions of each
layer in the OSI model.
Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
Topics discussed in this section:
9/25/2023 kksgautam@Shivaji.du.ac.in
32. 2.32
The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Note
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44. 2.44
2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly
match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol
suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network,
internet, transport, and application. However, when
TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP
protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link,
network, transport, and application.
Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
Topics discussed in this section:
9/25/2023 kksgautam@Shivaji.du.ac.in
46. 2.46
2-5 ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing
the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.
Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses
Topics discussed in this section:
9/25/2023 kksgautam@Shivaji.du.ac.in
49. 2.49
In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a
frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure
shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the
sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is the
receiver.
Example 2.1
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51. 2.51
Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical
address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:
Example 2.2
07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.
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52. 2.52
Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers
connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or router)
has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each
connection. In this case, each computer is connected to
only one link and therefore has only one pair of
addresses. Each router, however, is connected to three
networks (only two are shown in the figure). So each
router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.
Example 2.3
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54. 2.54
Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the
Internet. The sending computer is running three processes
at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The receiving
computer is running two processes at this time with port
addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer
needs to communicate with process j in the receiving
computer. Note that although physical addresses change
from hop to hop, logical and port addresses remain the
same from the source to destination.
Example 2.4
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56. 2.56
The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,
but the logical addresses usually remain the same.
Note
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57. 2.57
Example 2.5
A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one
decimal number as shown.
753
A 16-bit port address represented
as one single number.
9/25/2023 kksgautam@Shivaji.du.ac.in
58. 2.58
2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
Topics discussed in this section:
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59. 7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
1 Physical
2 Data Link
3 Network
INTRODUCTION
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3 Network
NETWORK GOALS
The two main benefits of networking computers are…
Communications
Information can be distributed very quickly, such as
email and video conferencing.
Saving Money
Resources such as information, software, and
hardware can be shared.
CPUs and hard disks can be pooled together to
create a more powerful machine.
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APPLICATIONS
A lot of things we take for granted are the result of
computer networks.
• Email
• Chat
• Web sites
• Sharing of documents and pictures
• Accessing a centralized database of information
• Mobile workers
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NETWORK STRUCTURE
The subnet interconnects hosts.
Subnet
Carries messages from host to host. It is made up
of telecommunication lines (i.e. circuits, channels,
trunks) and switching elements (i.e. IMPs, routers).
Hosts
End user machines or computers.
Q: Is the host part of the subnet?
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NETWORK ARCHITECTURES
A set of layers and protocols is called the network
architecture.
1. Protocol Hierarchies
Networks are organized as layers to reduce design
complexity. Each layer offers services to the higher
layers. Between adjacent layers is an interface.
Services – connection oriented and
connectionless.
Interface – defines which primitives and services
the lower layer will offer to the upper layer.
Primitives – operations such as request, indicate,
response, confirm.
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NETWORK ARCHITECTURES
2. Design Issues for the Layers
• Mechanism for connection establishment
• Rules for data transfer
• Error control
• Fast sender swamping a slow receiver
• Inability of processes to accept long messages
• Routing in the case of multiple paths
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OSI REFERENCE MODEL
The Open Systems Interconnection is the model
developed by the International Standards Organization.
Benefits
• Interconnection of different systems (open)
• Not limited to a single vendor solution
Negative Aspect
• Systems might be less secure
• Systems might be less stable
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OSI REFERENCE MODEL
1. Physical Layer
a) Convert the logical 1’s and 0’s coming from
layer 2 into electrical signals.
b) Transmission of the electrical signals over a
communication channel.
Main topics:
• Transmission mediums
• Encoding
• Modulation
• RS232 and RS422 standards
• Repeaters
• Hubs (multi-port repeater)
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OSI REFERENCE MODEL
2. Data Link Layer
a) Error control to compensate for the
imperfections of the physical layer.
b) Flow control to keep a fast sender from
swamping a slow receiver.
Main topics:
• Framing methods
• Error detection and correction methods
• Flow control
• Frame format
• IEEE LAN standards
• Bridges
• Switches (multi-port bridges)
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OSI REFERENCE MODEL
3. Network Layer
a) Controls the operation of the subnet.
b) Routing packets from source to destination.
c) Logical addressing.
Main topics:
• Internetworking
• Routing algorithms
• Internet Protocol (IP) addressing
• Routers
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OSI REFERENCE MODEL
4. Transport Layer
a) Provides additional Quality of Service.
b) Heart of the OSI model.
Main topics:
• Connection-oriented and connectionless services
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
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OSI REFERENCE MODEL
5. Session Layer
a) Allows users on different machines to establish
sessions between them.
b) One of the services is managing dialogue
control.
c) Token management.
d) Synchronization.
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OSI REFERENCE MODEL
6. Presentation Layer
a) Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information.
b) Preserves the meaning of the information.
c) Data compression.
d) Data encryption.
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OSI REFERENCE MODEL
7. Application Layer
a) Provides protocols that are commonly needed.
Main topics:
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
• HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
• Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
• Network File System (NFS)
• Telnet
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SERVICES
Each layer provides services to the layer above it.
1. Terminologies
Entities – active elements in each layer (e.g.
process, intelligent I/O chip).
Peer Entities – entities in the same layer on
different machines.
Service Provider – Layer N.
Service User – Layer N + 1.
Service Access Points – places where layer N + 1
can access services offered by layer N.
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SERVICES
2. Connection-Oriented and Connectionless
Connection-Oriented – before data is sent, the
service from the sending computer must establish
a connection with the receiving computer.
Connectionless – data can be sent at any time by
the service from the sending computer.
Q: Is downloading a music file from the Internet
connection-oriented or connectionless?
Q: Is email connection-oriented or connectionless?
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SERVICES
3. Service Primitives
Request – entity wants the service to do some
work
Indicate – entity is to be informed about an event
Response – entity responds to an event
Confirm – entity is to be informed about its request
Sending Computer Receiving Computer
3 Network
1. request
3 Network
2. indicate 3. response
4. confirm
4 Transport 4 Transport
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BANDWIDTH
The capacity of the medium to transmit data.
Analog Bandwidth
• Measurement is in Hertz (Hz) or cycles/sec.
Digital Bandwidth
• Measurement is in bits per second (bps).
Q: Is 100MHz = 100Mbps?
Q: Is 100Mbps = 100MBps?
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TRANSMISSION MEDIA
1. Guided
Data is sent via a wire or optical cable.
Twisted Pair
Two copper wires are twisted together to reduce
the effect of crosstalk noise. (e.g. Cat5, UTP, STP)
Baseband Coaxial Cable
A 50-ohm cable used for digital transmission. Used
in 10Base2 and 10Base5.
Broadband Coaxial Cable
A 75-ohm cable used for analog transmission such
as Cable TV.
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TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Fiber Optic Cables
Two general types are multimode and single mode.
In multimode, light is reflected internally. Light
source is an LED.
In single mode, the light propagates in a straight
line. Light source come from expensive laser
diodes. Faster and longer distances as compared
to multimode.
* Fiber optic cables are difficult to tap (higher security)
and are normally used for backbone cabling.
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TRANSMISSION MEDIA
2. Unguided
Data is sent through the air.
Line-of-sight
Transmitter and receiver must “see” each other,
such as a terrestrial microwave system.
Communication Satellites
A big microwave repeater in the sky. Data is
broadcasted, and can be “pirated.”
Radio
Term used to include all frequency bands, such as
FM, UHF, and VHF television.
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ANALOG TRANSMISSION
1. Modulation
Modulating a sine wave carrier to convey data.
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Amplitude is increased/decreased while frequency
remains constant.
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Frequency is increased/decreased while amplitude
remains constant.
Phase Modulation
Wave is shifted, while amplitude and frequency
remains constant.
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ANALOG TRANSMISSION
2. Modems
A device that accepts digital signals and outputs a
modulated carrier wave, and vice versa.
It is used to interconnect the digital computer to the
analog telephone network.
* Modems for PC’s can be external or internal.
* Nokia makes modems for leased line connections.
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ANALOG TRANSMISSION
3. RS-232 and RS-449
Two well known physical layer standards.
RS-232
• 20 kbps
• Cables up to 15 meters
• Unbalanced transmission (common ground)
RS-422
• 2 Mbps at 60 meters
• 1 Mbps at 100 meters
• Balanced transmission (a pair of wires for Tx, Rx)
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DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
1. Encoding Schemes
Converting logical data into electrical signals
suitable for transmission.
Manchester
• Mid bit transition for clock synchronization and
data
• Logic 0 = high to low transition
• Logic 1 = low to high transition
Differential Manchester
• Mid bit transition for clock synchronization only
• Logic 0 = transition at the beginning of each bit
period
• Logic 1 = no transition at the beginning of each
bit period
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DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
2. Repeaters and Hubs
These are physical layer devices.
Repeaters
• Restores the strength of an attenuated signal.
• Used to increase the transmission distance.
• Does not filter data traffic.
Hubs
• Multi-port repeater.
• Interconnects several computers.
• Does not filter data traffic.
* Picture from 3com.com
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NETWORK LAYER
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OVERVIEW
1. Routing Algorithms
• Shortest Path
• Flooding
• Flow-based
• Distance Vector
• Link State
• Hierarchical
• Broadcast
• Multicast
• Routing for Mobile Hosts
2. Congestion control
3. IP Addressing
4. Routers
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ROUTING ALGORITHMS
1. Shortest Path
A
C
D
B
E
F
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
3
3 2
B(A,2)
A(-,-)
E(A,2)
C(B,3)
D(E,3)
F(E,4)
A – E – D – F
A – E – F is the answer.
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ROUTING ALGORITHMS
2. Flooding
IMP
B
Packet
Packet to IMP C
Packet to IMP D
Packet to IMP E
To prevent packets from circulating indefinitely, a
packet has a hop counter. Every time a packet arrives
at an IMP, the hop counter is decrease by 1. Once the
hop counter of a packet reaches 0, the packet is
discarded.
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IP ADDRESSING
Format
x x x x x x x x . x x x x x x x x . x x x x x x x x . x x x x x x x x
where x is either 0 or 1
Example 1:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
255.255.0.0
Example 2:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
255.255.192.0
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IP ADDRESSING
Network Address
Example 1:
IP address of computer 180.100.7.1
Mask 255.255.0.0
Network address 180.100.0.0
Example 2:
IP address of computer 180.100.7.1
Mask 255.255.255.0
Network address 180.100.7.0
Example 3:
IP address of computer 180.100.7.2
Mask 255.255.192.0
Network address 180.100.0.0
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IP ADDRESSING
Mask
Valid mask are contiguous 1’s from left to right.
Examples:
Valid
255.0.0.0
255.255.0.0
255.255.255.0
Invalid
255.1.0.0
255.0.255.0
255.255.64.0
200.255.0.0
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IP ADDRESSING
Subnets
The Internet is running out of IP address. One solution
is to subnet a network address.
This is done by borrowing host bits to be used as
network bits.
Example:
Class B mask 255.255.0.0
Borrowing 1 bit gives a subnet mask of 255.255.128.0
Borrowing 2 bits gives a subnet mask of 255.255.192.0
Borrowing 3 bits gives a subnet mask of 255.255.224.0
Borrowing 4 bits gives a subnet mask of 255.255.240.0
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IP ADDRESSING
Example:
Given an IP address of 180.200.0.0, subnet by
borrowing 4 bits.
Subnet mask = 255.255.240.0
The 4 bits borrowed are value 128, 64, 32, 16. This will
create 16 sub networks, where the first and last will be
unusable.
Sub network address:
180.200.0.0
180.200.16.0
180.200.32.0
180.200.48.0
180.200.64.0
etc…
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IP ADDRESSING
The first 3 usable sub networks are:
180.200.16.0
180.200.32.0
180.200.48.0
For sub network 180.200.16.0, the valid IP address
are:
180.200.16.1 to 180.200.31.254
Directed broadcast address is:
180.200.31.255
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ROUTERS
A layer 3 device that is used to interconnect 2 or more
logical networks.
Can filter broadcast traffic, preventing broadcast traffic
from one network from reaching another network.
180.200.0.0 202.5.3.0
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