The eukaryotic cell cycle consists of four main phases - G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase, and M phase. G1, S, and G2 phases make up interphase where the cell grows and duplicates its DNA. M phase is when the cell undergoes mitosis and cytokinesis, dividing into two daughter cells. The cell cycle is carefully regulated to ensure proper conditions for growth and division. Cells can delay in G1 phase or enter a non-dividing G0 phase if conditions are unfavorable before resuming proliferation.
Austin Journal of Molecular and Cellular Biology research is an international scholarly peer reviewed Open Access journal, aims to promote the research in Journal of Molecular and Cellular Biology, which is closely related to molecular biology, developmental biology, immunology, biochemistry, genetics, biological sciences, cancer research, cellular microbiology etc.,
Austin Journal of Molecular and Cellular Biology is a comprehensive Open Access peer reviewed scientific Journal that covers multidisciplinary fields. We provide limitless access towards accessing our literature hub with colossal range of articles. The journal aims to publish high quality varied article types such as Research, Review, Short Communications, Case Reports, Perspectives (Editorials), Clinical Images.
Austin Journal of Molecular and Cellular Biology supports the scientific modernization and enrichment in Journal of Molecular and Cellular Biology research community by magnifying access to peer reviewed scientific literary works. Austin also brings universally peer reviewed member journals under one roof thereby promoting knowledge sharing, collaborative and promotion of multidisciplinary science.
PART I INTRODUCTION TO THE CELL 1
Chapter 1 Cells and Genomes 1
Chapter 2 Cell Chemistry and Bioenergetics 43
Chapter 3 Proteins 109
PART II BASIC GENETIC MECHANISMS 173
Chapter 4 DNA, Chromosomes, and Genomes 173
Chapter 5 DNA Replication, Repair, and Recombination 237
Chapter 6 How Cells Read the Genome: From DNA to Protein 299
Chapter 7 Control of Gene Expression 369
PART III WAYS OF WORKING WITH CELLS 439
Chapter 8 Analyzing Cells, Molecules, and Systems 439
Chapter 9 Visualizing Cells 529
PART IV INTERNAL ORGANIZATION OF THE CELL 565
Chapter 10 Membrane Structure 565
Chapter 11 Membrane Transport of Small Molecules and the Electrical
Properties of Membranes 597
Chapter 12 Intracellular Compartments and Protein Sorting 641
Chapter 13 Intracellular Membrane Traffic 695
Chapter 14 Energy Conversion: Mitochondria and Chloroplasts 753
Chapter 15 Cell Signaling 813
Chapter 16 The Cytoskeleton 889
Chapter 17 The Cell Cycle 963
Chapter 18 Cell Death 1021
PART V CELLS IN THEIR SOCIAL CONTEXT 1035
Chapter 19 Cell Junctions and the Extracellular Matrix 1035
Chapter 20 Cancer 1091
Chapter 21 Development of Multicellular Organisms 1145
Chapter 22 Stem Cells and Tissue Renewal 1217
Chapter 23 Pathogens and Infection 1263
Chapter 24 The Innate and Adaptive Immune Systems 1297
Glossary G: 1
Index I: 1
Tables The Genetic Code, Amino Acids T: 1
It has long been assumed that the individual cisternal stacks that comprise the plant Golgi apparatus multiply
by some kind of fission process. However, more recently, it has been demonstrated that the Golgi apparatus
can be experimentally disassembled and the reformation process from the ER (endoplasmic reticulum)
monitored sequentially using confocal fluorescence and electron microscopy. Some other evidence suggests
that Golgi stacks may arise de novo in cells. In the present paper, we review some of the more recent
findings on plant Golgi stack biogenesis and propose a new model for their growth de novo from ER exit
sites.
describe cell cycle and cell cycle control system for downloading the presentation , more presentations , infographics and blogs visit :
studyscienceblog.wordpress.com
Austin Journal of Molecular and Cellular Biology research is an international scholarly peer reviewed Open Access journal, aims to promote the research in Journal of Molecular and Cellular Biology, which is closely related to molecular biology, developmental biology, immunology, biochemistry, genetics, biological sciences, cancer research, cellular microbiology etc.,
Austin Journal of Molecular and Cellular Biology is a comprehensive Open Access peer reviewed scientific Journal that covers multidisciplinary fields. We provide limitless access towards accessing our literature hub with colossal range of articles. The journal aims to publish high quality varied article types such as Research, Review, Short Communications, Case Reports, Perspectives (Editorials), Clinical Images.
Austin Journal of Molecular and Cellular Biology supports the scientific modernization and enrichment in Journal of Molecular and Cellular Biology research community by magnifying access to peer reviewed scientific literary works. Austin also brings universally peer reviewed member journals under one roof thereby promoting knowledge sharing, collaborative and promotion of multidisciplinary science.
PART I INTRODUCTION TO THE CELL 1
Chapter 1 Cells and Genomes 1
Chapter 2 Cell Chemistry and Bioenergetics 43
Chapter 3 Proteins 109
PART II BASIC GENETIC MECHANISMS 173
Chapter 4 DNA, Chromosomes, and Genomes 173
Chapter 5 DNA Replication, Repair, and Recombination 237
Chapter 6 How Cells Read the Genome: From DNA to Protein 299
Chapter 7 Control of Gene Expression 369
PART III WAYS OF WORKING WITH CELLS 439
Chapter 8 Analyzing Cells, Molecules, and Systems 439
Chapter 9 Visualizing Cells 529
PART IV INTERNAL ORGANIZATION OF THE CELL 565
Chapter 10 Membrane Structure 565
Chapter 11 Membrane Transport of Small Molecules and the Electrical
Properties of Membranes 597
Chapter 12 Intracellular Compartments and Protein Sorting 641
Chapter 13 Intracellular Membrane Traffic 695
Chapter 14 Energy Conversion: Mitochondria and Chloroplasts 753
Chapter 15 Cell Signaling 813
Chapter 16 The Cytoskeleton 889
Chapter 17 The Cell Cycle 963
Chapter 18 Cell Death 1021
PART V CELLS IN THEIR SOCIAL CONTEXT 1035
Chapter 19 Cell Junctions and the Extracellular Matrix 1035
Chapter 20 Cancer 1091
Chapter 21 Development of Multicellular Organisms 1145
Chapter 22 Stem Cells and Tissue Renewal 1217
Chapter 23 Pathogens and Infection 1263
Chapter 24 The Innate and Adaptive Immune Systems 1297
Glossary G: 1
Index I: 1
Tables The Genetic Code, Amino Acids T: 1
It has long been assumed that the individual cisternal stacks that comprise the plant Golgi apparatus multiply
by some kind of fission process. However, more recently, it has been demonstrated that the Golgi apparatus
can be experimentally disassembled and the reformation process from the ER (endoplasmic reticulum)
monitored sequentially using confocal fluorescence and electron microscopy. Some other evidence suggests
that Golgi stacks may arise de novo in cells. In the present paper, we review some of the more recent
findings on plant Golgi stack biogenesis and propose a new model for their growth de novo from ER exit
sites.
describe cell cycle and cell cycle control system for downloading the presentation , more presentations , infographics and blogs visit :
studyscienceblog.wordpress.com
Cell cycle and cell division are fundamental processes governing the growth, development, and reproduction of all living organisms. Understanding these processes is crucial in the field of biology as they play a pivotal role in shaping life at both the cellular and organismal levels.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
cell cycle
The cell cycle is the process a cell undertakes to replicate all of its genetic material and divide into two identical cells. There is different stages of the cell cycle and what happens in each stage. We will also consider the regulation of the cell cycle, and look at some examples of its dysregulation.
Snakes develop about 10x the number of somites as a chicken or mouse.pdfsales98
Snakes develop about 10x the number of somites as a chicken or mouse. Use the clock-
wavefront model to explain the molecular basis of this evolutionary difference. First describe the
model, citing experimental support as needed, and then explain how it is modified to produce
additional somites in snakes.
Solution
The clock and wavefront model is a model used to describe the process of somitogenesis in
vertebrates. Somitogenesis is the process by which somites, blocks of mesoderm that give rise to
a variety of connective tissues, are formed.
The model describes the splitting off of somites from the paraxial mesoderm as the result of
oscillating expression of particular proteins and their gradients.
Once the cells of the pre-somitic mesoderm are in place following by cell migration during
gastrulation, oscillatory expression of many genes begins in these cells as if regulated by a
developmental \"clock.\" This has led many to conclude that somitogenesis is coordinated by a
\"clock and wave\" mechanism.
More technically, this means that somitogenesis occurs due to the largely cell-autonomous
oscillations of a network of genes and gene products which causes cells to oscillate between a
permissive and a non-permissive state in a consistently timed-fashion, like a clock. These genes
include members of the FGF family, Wnt and Notch pathway, as well as targets of these
pathways. The wavefront progresses slowly in an anterior-to-posterior direction. As the
wavefront of signaling comes in contact with cells in the permissive state, they undergo an
epithelial-mesenchymal transition and pinch off from the more posterior pre-somitic mesoderm,
forming a somite boundary and resetting the process for the next somite.
In particular, the cyclic activation of the Notch pathway appears to be of great importance in the
wavefront-clock model. It has been suggested that the activation of Notch cyclically activates a
cascade of genes necessary for the somites to separate from the main paraxial body. This is
controlled by different means in different species, such as through a simple negative feedback
loop in zebrafish or in a complicated process in which FGF and Wnt clocks affect the Notch
clock, as in chicks and mice.Generally speaking, however, the segmentation clock model is
highly evolutionarily conserved.
Intrinsic expression of “clock genes” must oscillate with a periodicity equal to the time necessary
for one somite to form, for example 30 minutes in zebrafish, 90 minutes in chicks, and 100
minutes in snakes.
somites form from the paraxial (somitic) mesoderm, a particular region of mesoderm in the
neurulating embryo. This tissue undergoes convergent extension as the primitive streak
regresses, or as the embryo gastrulates. The notochord extends from the base of the head to the
tail; with it extend thick bands of paraxial mesoderm.As the primitive streak continues to regress,
somites form from the paraxial mesoderm by \"budding off\" rostrally as somitomeres,.
Morphofunctional Changes in the Thymus Gland under the Influence of Psychogen...YogeshIJTSRD
In the thymus of animals subjected to acute stress, a decrease in lymphoid tissue was found, accompanied by the death of lymphocytes in the cortex and medulla. Acute stress leads to the appearance in the thymus of a large number of degranulating mast cells and actively functioning epithelial tubules.Psychological stress has great impacts on the immune system, particularly the leukocytes distribution. Although the impacts of acute stress on blood leukocytes distribution are well studied, however, it remains unclear how chronic stress affects leukocytes distribution in peripheral circulation. Furthermore, there is no report about the role of spleen in the blood leukocytes distribution induced by stress. Here we show that spleen contributes to the alteration of restraint stress induced blood leukocytes distribution. Our data confirmed that restraint stress induced anxiety like behavior in mice. Furthermore, we found that restraint stress decreased the CD4 CD8 ratio and elevated the percentages of natural killer cells, monocytes and polymorphonuclear myeloid derived suppressor cell. We demonstrated that activation of hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis HPA and sympathetic nervous system SNS contributes to restraint stress induced alteration of blood leukocyte distribution. Interestingly, we found that splenectomy could reverse the change of CD4 CD8 ratio induced by restraint stress. Together, our findings suggest that activation of HPA axis and SNS was responsible for the blood leukocyte subsets changes induced by restraint stress. Spleen, at least in part, contributed to the alteration in peripheral circulation induced by restraint stress. Asadova Nigora Khamroevna "Morphofunctional Changes in the Thymus Gland under the Influence of Psychogenic Factors" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Special Issue | International Research Development and Scientific Excellence in Academic Life , March 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd38735.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/medicine/other/38735/morphofunctional-changes-in-the-thymus-gland-under-the-influence-of-psychogenic-factors/asadova-nigora-khamroevna
Toxic effects of heavy metals : Lead and Arsenicsanjana502982
Heavy metals are naturally occuring metallic chemical elements that have relatively high density, and are toxic at even low concentrations. All toxic metals are termed as heavy metals irrespective of their atomic mass and density, eg. arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, thallium, chromium, etc.
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Similar to Molecular biology of the cell, 5th ed .pdf 001
Cell cycle and cell division are fundamental processes governing the growth, development, and reproduction of all living organisms. Understanding these processes is crucial in the field of biology as they play a pivotal role in shaping life at both the cellular and organismal levels.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
cell cycle
The cell cycle is the process a cell undertakes to replicate all of its genetic material and divide into two identical cells. There is different stages of the cell cycle and what happens in each stage. We will also consider the regulation of the cell cycle, and look at some examples of its dysregulation.
Snakes develop about 10x the number of somites as a chicken or mouse.pdfsales98
Snakes develop about 10x the number of somites as a chicken or mouse. Use the clock-
wavefront model to explain the molecular basis of this evolutionary difference. First describe the
model, citing experimental support as needed, and then explain how it is modified to produce
additional somites in snakes.
Solution
The clock and wavefront model is a model used to describe the process of somitogenesis in
vertebrates. Somitogenesis is the process by which somites, blocks of mesoderm that give rise to
a variety of connective tissues, are formed.
The model describes the splitting off of somites from the paraxial mesoderm as the result of
oscillating expression of particular proteins and their gradients.
Once the cells of the pre-somitic mesoderm are in place following by cell migration during
gastrulation, oscillatory expression of many genes begins in these cells as if regulated by a
developmental \"clock.\" This has led many to conclude that somitogenesis is coordinated by a
\"clock and wave\" mechanism.
More technically, this means that somitogenesis occurs due to the largely cell-autonomous
oscillations of a network of genes and gene products which causes cells to oscillate between a
permissive and a non-permissive state in a consistently timed-fashion, like a clock. These genes
include members of the FGF family, Wnt and Notch pathway, as well as targets of these
pathways. The wavefront progresses slowly in an anterior-to-posterior direction. As the
wavefront of signaling comes in contact with cells in the permissive state, they undergo an
epithelial-mesenchymal transition and pinch off from the more posterior pre-somitic mesoderm,
forming a somite boundary and resetting the process for the next somite.
In particular, the cyclic activation of the Notch pathway appears to be of great importance in the
wavefront-clock model. It has been suggested that the activation of Notch cyclically activates a
cascade of genes necessary for the somites to separate from the main paraxial body. This is
controlled by different means in different species, such as through a simple negative feedback
loop in zebrafish or in a complicated process in which FGF and Wnt clocks affect the Notch
clock, as in chicks and mice.Generally speaking, however, the segmentation clock model is
highly evolutionarily conserved.
Intrinsic expression of “clock genes” must oscillate with a periodicity equal to the time necessary
for one somite to form, for example 30 minutes in zebrafish, 90 minutes in chicks, and 100
minutes in snakes.
somites form from the paraxial (somitic) mesoderm, a particular region of mesoderm in the
neurulating embryo. This tissue undergoes convergent extension as the primitive streak
regresses, or as the embryo gastrulates. The notochord extends from the base of the head to the
tail; with it extend thick bands of paraxial mesoderm.As the primitive streak continues to regress,
somites form from the paraxial mesoderm by \"budding off\" rostrally as somitomeres,.
Morphofunctional Changes in the Thymus Gland under the Influence of Psychogen...YogeshIJTSRD
In the thymus of animals subjected to acute stress, a decrease in lymphoid tissue was found, accompanied by the death of lymphocytes in the cortex and medulla. Acute stress leads to the appearance in the thymus of a large number of degranulating mast cells and actively functioning epithelial tubules.Psychological stress has great impacts on the immune system, particularly the leukocytes distribution. Although the impacts of acute stress on blood leukocytes distribution are well studied, however, it remains unclear how chronic stress affects leukocytes distribution in peripheral circulation. Furthermore, there is no report about the role of spleen in the blood leukocytes distribution induced by stress. Here we show that spleen contributes to the alteration of restraint stress induced blood leukocytes distribution. Our data confirmed that restraint stress induced anxiety like behavior in mice. Furthermore, we found that restraint stress decreased the CD4 CD8 ratio and elevated the percentages of natural killer cells, monocytes and polymorphonuclear myeloid derived suppressor cell. We demonstrated that activation of hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis HPA and sympathetic nervous system SNS contributes to restraint stress induced alteration of blood leukocyte distribution. Interestingly, we found that splenectomy could reverse the change of CD4 CD8 ratio induced by restraint stress. Together, our findings suggest that activation of HPA axis and SNS was responsible for the blood leukocyte subsets changes induced by restraint stress. Spleen, at least in part, contributed to the alteration in peripheral circulation induced by restraint stress. Asadova Nigora Khamroevna "Morphofunctional Changes in the Thymus Gland under the Influence of Psychogenic Factors" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Special Issue | International Research Development and Scientific Excellence in Academic Life , March 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd38735.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/medicine/other/38735/morphofunctional-changes-in-the-thymus-gland-under-the-influence-of-psychogenic-factors/asadova-nigora-khamroevna
Toxic effects of heavy metals : Lead and Arsenicsanjana502982
Heavy metals are naturally occuring metallic chemical elements that have relatively high density, and are toxic at even low concentrations. All toxic metals are termed as heavy metals irrespective of their atomic mass and density, eg. arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, thallium, chromium, etc.
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Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intellige...University of Maribor
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Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation
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Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
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Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
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This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
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3. OVERVIEWOFTHECELLCYCLE 1055
cytokinesis
mitosis
metaphase-to-anaphasetransition
INTERPHASE
DNAreplic
chromosomes are packaged into separate nuclei at telophase.Cltokinesis then
cleaves the cell in two, so that each daughter cell inherits one of the two nuclei
(Figure l7-3). <TACT><TCAA>
Most cells require much more time to grow and double their mass of pro-
teins and organelles than they require to duplicate their chromosomes and
divide. Partly to allow more time for growth, most cell cycles have exrra gap
phases-a G1phase between M phase and S phase and a Gz phase between S
phase and mitosis. Thus, the eucaryotic cell cycle is traditionally divided into
four sequential phases:Gr, S,G2,and M. Gr, S,and G2together are called inter-
phase (Figure l7-4, and seeFigure 17-3).In a typical human cell proliferating in
culture, interphase might occupy 23 hours of a 24-hour cycle,with I hour for M
phase.Cell growth occurs throughout the cell cycle,exceptduring mitosis.
The two gap phases are more than simple time delays to allow cell growth.
They also provide time for the cell to monitor the internal and external environ-
ment to ensure that conditions are suitable and preparations are complete
before the cell commits itself to the major upheavalsof Sphaseand mitosis.The
G1 phase is especially important in this respect. Its length can vary greatly
depending on external conditions and extracellular signalsfrom other cells. If
extracellular conditions are unfavorable, for example, cells delay progress
through G1and may even enter a specializedresting stateknown as Go(Gzero),
in which they can remain for days,weeks,or even yearsbefore resuming prolif-
eration. Indeed, many cellsremain permanently in Geuntil they or the organism
dies. If extracellular conditions are favorable and signals to grow and divide are
present, cells in early G1or G0progressthrough a commitment point near the
end of G1 knorvn as Start (in yeasts) or the restriction point (in mammalian
cells).We will use the term Start for both yeast and animal cells.After passing
this point, cells are committed to DNA replication, even if the extracellular sig-
nals that stimulate cell growth and division are removed.
M PHASE
mitosis
(nuclear
division)
G2PHASE
5 PHASE
Figure17-3 Theeventsofeucaryotic
celldivisionasseenundera
microscope,Theeasilyvisibleprocesses
of nucleardivision(mitosis)andcell
division(cytokinesis),collectivelycalled
M phase,typicallyoccupyonlya small
fractionof the cellcycle.Theother,much
longer,part of the cycleisknownas
interphase,whichincludesSphaseand
the gap phases(discussedin text).The
fivestagesof mitosisareshown:an
abruptchangein the biochemicalstate
of the celloccursat the transitionfrom
metaphaseto anaphase.A cellcanpause
in metaphasebeforethistransitionpoint,
but onceit passesthispoint,the cell
carrieson to the endof mitosisand
throughcytokinesisinto interphase.
Figure17-4 Thefour phasesof the cell
cycle.In mostcells,gap phasesseparate
the majoreventsof 5 phaseand M phase'
Gristhe gapbetweenM Phaseand
5 phase,while G2isthe gaPbetween
SphaseandM phase.
cytokinesis
(cytoplasmic
(DNAreplication)
G1PHASE
4. 1056 Chapter17:TheCellCycle
Cell-CycleControllsSimilarinAllEucaryotes
Some features of the cell cycle, including the time required to complete certain
events, vary greatly from one cell type to another, even in the same organism.
The basic organization of the cycle, however, is essentially the same in all
eucaryotic cells, and all eucaryotes appear to use similar machinery and control
mechanisms to drive and regulate cell-cycle events. The proteins of the cell-
cycle control system, for example, first appeared over a billion years ago.
Remarkably, they have been so well conserved over the course of evolution that
many of them function perfectly when transferred from a human cell to a yeast
cell. we can therefore study the cell cycle and its regulation in a variety of organ-
isms and use the findings from all of them to assemblea unified picture of how
eucaryotic cells divide. In the rest of this section, we briefly review the three
eucaryotic systemsmost commonly used to study cell-cycle organization and
control: yeasts,animal embryos, and cultured mammalian cells.
Cell-CycleControlCanBeDissectedGeneticallybyAnalysisof
YeastMutants
Yeastsare tiny, single-celled fungi, with a cell-cycle control system remarkably
similar to our own. TWospeciesare generally used in studies of the cell cycle.The
fission yeast schizosaccharomycespombe is named after the African beer it is
used to produce. It is a rod-shaped cell that growsby elongation at its ends.Divi-
sion occurs when a septum, or cell plate, forms midway along the rod (Figure
r7-5A). The budding yeast Saccharomycescereuisiaeis used by both brewers
and bakers. It is an oval cell that divides by forming a bud, which first appears
during G1and grows steadily until it separatesfrom the mother cell aftei mito-
sis (Figure l7-58).
gene,becausewe avoid the complication of having a second copy of the genein
the cell.
Many important discoveriesabout cell-cycle control have come from sys-
tematic searchesfor mutations in yeaststhat inactivate genesencoding essen-
tial components of the cell-cycle control system.The genesaffectedby iome of
YEAST(Schhosaccharomycespom be)
Gr
ISTART
YEAST(5accharomycescerevisiae)
Figure17-5 A comparisonof the cell
cyclesof fissionyeastsand budding
yeasts.(A)Thefissionyeasthasa typical
eucaryoticcellcyclewith Gr,5,G2,and
M phases.Thenuclearenvelopeof the
yeastcell,unlikethatof a higher
eucaryoticcell,doesnot breakdown
duringM phase.Themicrotubulesof the
mitoticspindle(lightgreen)forminside
the nucleusandareattachedto spindle
polebodies(darkgreen)at its periphery.
Thecelldividesbyforminga partition
(knownasthecellplate)andsplittingin
two.(B)ThebuddingyeasthasnormalG1
andSphasesbut doesnot havea normal
G2phase.Instead,a microtubule-based
spindlebeginsto form latein Sphase;as
in fissionyeasts,the nuclearenvelope
remainsintactduringmitosis,andthe
spindleformswithinthe nucleus.ln
contrastwith a fissionyeastcell,the cell
dividesby budding.
G r
@
9. THECELL-CYCLECONTROLSYSTEM
lsall DNAreplicated?
lsenvironmentfavorable?
G2lMCHECKPOINT
Are all chromosomes
attachedto the spindle?
METAPHASE-TO-ANAPHASE
TRANSITION
1061
Figure'17-14Thecontrolof the cell
cycle.A cell-cyclecontrolsystemtriggers
the essentialprocessesof thecellcycle-
suchasDNAreplication,mitosis,and
cytokinesis.Thecontrolsystemis
representedhereasa centralarm-the
controller-that rotatesclockwise,
triggeringessentialprocesseswhenit
reachesspecificcheckpointson theouter
dial.Informationaboutthecompletionof
cell-cycleevents,aswellassignalsfrom
theenvironment,cancausethe control
systemto arrestthe cycleat these
checkpoints.ThemostProminent
checkDointsoccurat locationsmarked
with vellowboxes.
STARTCHECKPOINT
lsenvironmentfavorable?
in these cells is independent of the eventsit controls, so that its timing mecha-
nisms continue to operate even if those eventsfail. In most cells,however,the
control systemdoesrespond to information receivedback from the processesit
controls. Sensors,for example, detect the completion of DNA synthesis,and if
some malfunction prevents the successfulcompletion of this process,signals
are sent to the control systemto delayprogressionto M phase.Suchdelayspro-
vide time for the machinery to be repaired and also prevent the disaster that
might result if the cycle progressedprematurely to the next stage-and segre-
gated incompletely replicated chromosomes,for example.
The cell-cyclecontrol systemis based on a connected seriesof biochemical
switches, each of which initiates a specific cell-cycle event. This system of
switchespossessesmany important engineeringfeaturesthat increasethe accu-
racy and reliability of cell-cycle progression. First, the switches are generally
binary (on/off) and launch eventsin a complete, irreversible fashion. It would
clearly be disastrous,for example, if events like chromosome condensation or
nuclear envelope breakdor.trnwere only partially initiated or started but not
completed. Second,the cell-cycle control system is remarkably robust and reli-
able,partly becausebackup mechanisms and other featuresallow the systemto
operate effectivelyunder a variety of conditions and even if some components
fail. Finally, the control system is highly adaptable and can be modified to suit
specific cell types or to respond to specific intracellular or extracellularsignals.
In most eucaryotic cells,the cell-cyclecontrol systemtriggerscell-cyclepro-
gression at three major regulatory transitions, or checkpoints (see Figure
I7-I4).The first checkpoint is Start (or the restriction point) in late Gr,where the
cell commits to cell-cycle entry and chromosome duplication, as mentioned
earlier.The second is the GzlM checkpoint, where the control system triggers
the early mitotic events that lead to chromosome alignment on the spindle in
metaphase.The third is the metaphase-to-anaphase transition, where the con-
trol systemstimulates sister-chromatid separation,leading to the completion of
mitosis and cytokinesis.The control systemblocks progressionthrough each of
these checkpoints if it detectsproblems inside or outside the cell. If the control
system sensesproblems in the completion of DNA replication, for example, it
will hold the cell at the G2iM checkpoint until those problems are solved.Simi-
larly, if extracellular conditions are not appropriate for cell proliferation, the
control system blocks progression through Start, thereby preventing cell divi-
sion until conditions become favorable.
TRIGGERANAPHASEAND
PROCEEDTO CYTOKINESIS
ENTERCELLCYCLEAND PROCEEDTO S PHASE
10. 1062 Chapter17:TheCellCycle
TheCell-CycleControlSystemDependson CyclicallyActivated
Cyclin-DependentProteinKinases(Cdks)
Central components of the cell-cyclecontrol systemare members of a family of
protein kinases knor,rmas cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks). The activities of
these kinases rise and fall as the cell progressesthrough the cycle, leading to
cyclical changesin the phosphorylation of intracellular proteins that initiate or
regulate the major events of the cell cycle. An increase in Cdk activity at the
G2lM checkpoint, for example, increasesthe phosphorylation of proteins that
control chromosome condensation, nuclear envelope breakdown, spindle
assembly,and other eventsthat occur at the onset of mitosis.
Cyclical changes in Cdk activity are controlled by a complex array of
enzymes and other proteins that regulatethese kinases.The most important of
theseCdk regulatorsareproteins known ascyclins. Cdks,astheir name implies,
are dependent on cyclins for their activity: unless they are tightly bound to a
cyclin, they have no protein kinase activity (Figure f7-f 5). Cyclins were origi-
nally named becausethey undergo a cycle of syrthesis and degradation in each
cell cycle.The levelsof the cdk proteins, by contrast, are constant, at leastin the
simplest cell cycles.Cyclical changesin cyclin protein levelsresult in the cyclic
assembly and activation of the cyclin-cdk complexes; this activation in turn
triggerscell-cycle events.
There are four classesofcyclins, each defined by the stageofthe cell cycleat
which they bind cdks and function. All eucaryotic cells require three of these
classes(Figure l7-f 6):
l. G1/S-cyclinsactivate Cdks in late Gr and thereby help trigger progression
through Start, resulting in a commitment to cell-cycle entry. Their levels
fall in Sphase.
2. S-cyclins bind Cdks soon after progressionthrough Start and help stimu-
late chromosome duplication. S-cyclin levels remain elevateduntil mito-
sis, and these cyclins also contribute to the control of some early mitotic
events.
3. M-cyclins activate Cdks that stimulate entry into mitosis at the G2lM
checkpoint. Mechanisms that we discusslater destroy M-cyclins in mid-
mitosis.
In most cells,a fourth classof cyclins,the Gl-cyclins, helps govern the activities
of the Gr/S cyclins,which control progressionthrough Start in late G1.
In yeastcells,a singlecdk protein binds all classesof cyclinsand triggersdif-
ferent cell-cycle events by changing cyclin partners at different stages of the
cycle.In vertebrate cells,by contrast, there are four cdks. TWointeract with Gr-
cyclins,one with G1/S-and S-cyclins,and onewith M-cyclins. In this chapter,we
simply refer to the different cyclin-Cdk complexesasG1-Cdk,Gr/S-Cdk, S-Cdk,
and M-Cdk. Thble l7-l lists the names of the individual Cdks and cyclins.
How do different cyclin-cdk complexes trigger different cell-cycle events?
The answer,at least in part, seemsto be that the cyclin protein does not simply
activateits cdk partner but also directs it to specific target proteins. As a result,
' , , G r t M
i_-metaphase-anaphase
i M G 1
APC/C
cyclin-dependent
kinase(Cdk)
Figure17-15Twokeycomponentsof
the cell-cyclecontrolsystem.When
cyclinformsa complexwith Cdk,the
proteinkinaseisactivatedto trigger
specificcell-cycleevents.Withoutcyclin,
Cdkisinactive.
Figure17-16 Cyclin-Cdkcomplexesof
the cell-cyclecontrol system.The
concentrationsof the threemajorcyclin
typesoscillateduringthecellcycle,while
the concentrationsof Cdks(not shown)
do not changeandexceedtheamounts
of cyclins.In lateG1,risingG1lS-cyclin
levelsleadto the formationof G1lS-Cdk
complexesthattriggerprogression
throughthe Startcheckpoint.S-Cdk
complexesform at the startof Sphase
andtriggerDNAreplication,aswellas
someearlymitoticevents.M-Cdk
complexesformduringG2but areheldin
an inactivestateby mechanismswe
describelater.Thesecomplexesare
activatedat theendof G2andtriggerthe
earlyeventsof mitosis.A separate
regulatoryprotein,the APC/C,whichwe
discusslater,initiatesthe metaphase-to-
anaphasetransition.
G,iS-cyclin
Gr/s-Cdk S-Cdk
11. THECELL.CYCLECONTROLSYSTEM
Table17-1TheMajorCyclinsandCdksofVertebratesandBuddingYeast
G1-Cdk
GrlS-Cdk
5-Cdk
M-Cdk
cyclinD* Cdk4Cdk6
cyclinE Cdkz
cyclinA Cdk2,Cdkl**
cyclinB Cdkl
Cln3
Cln1,2
clbs,6
clb1,2,3,4
cdkl"*
cdkl
cdkl
cdkl
" TherearethreeD cyclinsin mammals(cyclinsD1,D2,andD3)
**Theoriginalnameof CdklwasCdc2in bothvertebratesandflssionyeast,andCdc2Bin
buddingyeast
each cyclin-Cdk complex phosphorylates a different set of substrate proteins.
The same cyclin-Cdk complex can also induce different effects at different times
in the cycle,probably becausethe accessibilityof some Cdk substrateschanges
during the cell cycle.Certain proteins that function in mitosis, for example,may
become availablefor phosphorylation only in G2.
Studiesof the three-dimensional structuresof Cdk and cyclin proteins have
revealed that, in the absence of cyclin, the active site in the Cdk protein is partly
obscured by a slab of protein, like a stone blocking the entrance to a cave (Figure
l7-L7A). Cyclin binding causesthe slab to move away from the active site,result-
ing in partial activation of the Cdk enz)ryne(Figure l7-l7B). Full activation of the
cyclin-Cdk complex then occurs when a separate kinase, the Cdk-activating
kinase (CAK), phosphorylates an amino acid near the entrance of the Cdk active
site. This causesa small conformational change that further increasesthe activ-
ity of the Cdk, allowing the kinase to phosphorylate its target proteins effectively
and thereby induce specific cell-cycle events (Figure I7-I7C). <TAGA>
InhibitoryPhosphorylationandCdkInhibitoryProteins(CKls)Can
SuppressCdkActivity
The rise and fall of cyclin levels is the primary determinant of Cdk activity dur-
ing the cell cycle. Severaladditional mechanisms, however, fine-tune Cdk activ-
ity at specific stagesofthe cycle.
Phosphorylation at a pair of amino acidsin the roof of the kinase active site
inhibits the activity of a cyclin-Cdk complex. Phosphorylation of thesesitesby a
protein kinase knor,vnasWeel inhibits Cdk activity, while dephosphorylation of
these sites by a phosphatase knor,rmas Cdc25 increases Cdk activity (Figure
17-18). We will seelater that this regulatory mechanism is particularly impor-
tant in the control of M-Cdk activity at the onset of mitosis.
Binding of Cdk inhibitor proteins (CKIs) also regulates cyclin-Cdk com-
plexes.The three-dimensional structure of a cyclin-Cdk-CKl complex reveals
activatingphosphate
(c)
Cdk-activatingkinase(CAK)cyclin
1063
Figure17-17Thestructuralbasisof Cdk
activation.Thesedrawingsarebasedon
three-dimensionalstructuresof human
Cdk2,asdeterminedby x-ray
crystallography.Thelocationof the bound
ATPisindicated.Theenzymeisshownin
threestates.(A)Inthe inactivestate,without
cyclinbound,the activesiteisblockedby a
regionof the proteincalledtheT-loop(red).
(B)Thebindingof cyclincausestheT-loopto
moveout of the activesite,resultingin
partialactivationof the Cdk2.(C)
Phosphorylationof Cdk2(byCAK)at a
threonineresiduein theT-loopfurther
activatesthe enzymebychangingtheshape
of theT-loop,improvingthe abilityof the
enzymeto bind itsproteinsubstrates.
activesite
(A) TNACTTVE (B) PARTLYACTIVE
12. 1064 Chapter17:TheCellCycle
that CKI binding stimulates a large rearrangement in the structure of the Cdk
active site,rendering it inactive (Figure f 7-fg). Cellsuse CKIs primarily to help
govern the activities of Gr/S- and S-Cdksearly in the cell cycle.
TheCell-CycleControlSystemDependson CyclicalProteolysis
fhereas activation of specificcyclin-Cdk complexesdrives progressionthrough
the Start and G2lM checkpoints (see Figure 17-16), progression through the
metaphase-to-anaphasetransition is triggered not by protein phosphorylation
but by protein destruction, leading to the final stagesof cell division.
The key regulator of the metaphase-to-anaphasetransition is the anaphase-
promoting complex, or cyclosome (APC/C),a member of the ubiquitin ligase
family of enzymes.As discussedin Chapter 3, many of these enzyrnesare used
in numerous cell processesto stimulate the proteolytic destruction of specific
regulatory proteins.They transfer multiple copiesof the small protein ubiquitin
to specific target proteins, resulting in their proteolytic destruction by the pro-
teasomes. Other ubiquitin ligases mark proteins for purposes other than
destruction.
The APC/C catalyzesthe ubiquitylation and destruction of two major pro-
teins.The first is securln,which normally protects the protein linkagesthat hold
sister chromatid pairs together in early mitosis. Destruction of securin at the
metaphase-to-anaphasetransition activatesa proteasethat separatesthe sisters
and unleashesanaphase.The S- and M-cyclins are the second major targetsof
the APCic. Destroying thesecyclins inactivatesmost cdks in the cell (seeFigure
17-16).As a result, the many proteins phosphorylated by Cdks from S phase to
early mitosis are dephosphorylated by various phosphatasesthat are present in
the anaphase cell. This dephosphorylation of Cdk targets is required for the
completion of M phase,including the final steps in mitosis and the processof
cytokinesis.Following its activation in mid-mitosis, the APC/c remains activein
G1,thereby providing a stableperiod of Cdk inactivity.MhenG1/S-Cdksare acti-
vated in late Gr, the APC/G is turned off, thereby allowing cyclin accumulation
to start the next cell cycle.
The cell-cycle control system also uses another ubiquitin ligase called SCF
(after the names of its three subunits). It ubiquitylates certain cKI proteins in
late G1and thereby helps control the activation of S-cdks and DNA replication.
The APC/C and SCF are both large, multisubunit complexes with some
related components, but they are regulated differently. APC/C activity changes
during the cell cycle,primarily as a result of changesin its associationwith an
activating subunit-either cdc20 during anaphase or cdhl from late mitosis
through early G1.These subunits help the APC/G recognize its target proteins
(Figure l7-2oL). SCFactivity also depends on subunits called F-box proteins,
which help the complex recognize its target proteins. unlike Apc/c activity,
however, scF activity is constant during the cell cycle. ubiquitylation by scF is
controlled instead by changesin the phosphorylation stateof its target proteins,
as F-box subunits recognize only specifically phosphorylated proteins (Figure
I7-20H.
actrve
cyclin-Cdk
complex
inactive
p27-cyclin-Cdk
comprex
Cdk activating
phosphate
INACTIVE
Figure17-18Theregulationof Cdk
activity by inhibitory phosphorylation.
Theactivecyclin-Cdkcomplexisturned
off when the kinaseWeel phosphorylates
two closelyspacedsitesabovethe active
site.Removalof thesephosphatesby the
phosphataseCdc25activatesthe
cyclin-Cdkcomplex.Forsimplicity,only
oneinhibitoryphosphateisshown.CAK
addstheactivatingphosphate,asshown
in Figure17-17.
Figure17-19Theinhibitionof a
cyclin-Cdkcomplexby a CKl.This
drawingisbasedon thethree-
dimensionalstructureof the human
cyclinA-Cdk2complexboundto the
CKIp27,asdeterminedby x-ray
crystallography.Thep27bindsto both
thecyclinandCdkin the complex,
distortingthe activesiteof the Cdk.lt
alsoinsertsintotheATP-bindingsite,
furtherinhibitingtheenzymeactivity.
15. 5 PHASE
Summary
Thecell-cyclecontrol systemtriggersthe euentsof the cell cycleand ensuresthat these
euentsare properly timed and occur in the correctorder Thecontrol systemresponds
to uarious intracellular and extracellular signalsand arreststhe cyclewhen the cell
eitherfails to completean essentialcell-cycleprocessor encountersunfauorableenui-
ronmentalor intracellularconditions.
Central componentsof the cell-cyclecontrol systemare cyclin-dependentprotein
kinases(Cdks),which dependon cyclin subunitsfor their actiuity. Oscillationsin the
actiuitiesof uariouscyclin-Cdk complexescontrol uariouscell-cycleeuents.Thus,acti-
uation of S-phasecyclin-Cdk complexes(S-Cdk)initiates Sphase,while actiuation of
M-phase cyclin-Cdk complexes(M-Cdk) triggersmitosis. Themechanismsthat con-
trol the actiuities of cyclin-Cdk complexesinclude phosphorylation of the Cdk sub-
unit, binding of Cdk inhibitor proteins(CIQs),proteolysisof cyclins,and changesin the
transcription of genesencoding Cdk regulators. The cell-cyclecontrol systemalso
dependscrucially on two additional enzymecomplexes,theAPC|Cand SCFubiquitin
ligases,which catalyzethe ubiquitylation and consequentdestructionof specificregu-
latory proteins that control critical euentsin thecVcle.
SPHASE
The linear chromosomes of eucaryotic cells arevast and dyramic assembliesof
DNA and protein, and their duplication is a complex process that takes up a
major fraction of the cell cycle. Not only must the long DNA molecule of each
chromosome be duplicated accurately-a remarkablefeat in itself-but the pro-
tein packaging surrounding each region of that DNA must also be reproduced,
ensuring that the daughter cellsinherit all featuresof chromosome structure.
The central event of chromosome duplication is replication of the DNA. A
cell must solvetwo problems when initiating and completing DNA replication.
First, replication must occur with extreme accuracy to minimize the risk of
mutations in the next cell generation. Second,every nucleotide in the genome
must be copied once, and only once, to prevent the damaging effects of gene
amplification. In Chapter 5,we discussthe sophisticatedprotein machinery that
performs DNA replication with astonishing speedand accuracy.In this section,
we consider the elegantmechanisms by which the cell-cyclecontrol systemini-
tiates the replication processand, at the sametime, prevents it from happening
more than once per cycle.
S-CdkInitiatesDNAReplicationOncePerCycle
DNA replication begins at origins of replication, which are scattered at numer-
ous locations in everychromosome. During Sphase,the initiation of DNA repli-
cation occurs at these origins when specializedprotein machines (sometimes
called initiator proteins) unwind the double helix at the origin and load DNA
replication enzymes onto the two single-stranded templates. This leads to the
elongationphase of replication, when the replication machinery movesoutward
from the origin at tuvoreplicationforks (discussedin Chapter 5).
To ensure that chromosome duplication occurs only once per cell cycle,
the initiation phase of DNA replication is divided into two distinct steps that
occur at different times in the cell cycle. The first step occurs in late mitosis
and early Gr, when a large complex of initiator proteins, called the prereplica-
tive complex, or pre-RC, assemblesat origins of replication. This step is some-
times called licensingof replication origins because initiation of DNA synthe-
sis is permitted only at origins containing a pre-RC.The second step occurs at
the onset of S phase,when components of the pre-RC nucleate the formation
of a larger protein complex called the preinitiation complex. This complex
then unwinds the DNA helix and loads DNA polymerasesand other replication
enzymes onto the DNA strands,thereby initiating DNA synthesis,asdescribed
in Chapter 5. Once the replication origin has been activated in this way, the
1067