This document summarizes a research article that studied the relationship between obesity, diabetes, and immune responses against gut bacteria. The key findings were:
1) Obese patients with diabetes had higher levels of IgG antibodies against pathogenic E. coli compared to lean controls, while IgG levels against other bacteria were unchanged.
2) Circulating tumor necrosis factor (TNF) levels were elevated in obese diabetic patients and correlated with IgG levels against E. coli.
3) Mice fed a high-fat diet developed glucose intolerance, inflammation, and higher IgG levels against pathogenic E. coli, mirroring the human findings.
The results suggest that specific gut bacteria may contribute to metabolic inflammation and diabetes associated with
Animal modelsof diabetes and obesity
by: Suinil Kumar
M.pharm (pharmacology )
University Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Panjab university
Chandigarh
Animal modelsof diabetes and obesity
by: Suinil Kumar
M.pharm (pharmacology )
University Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Panjab university
Chandigarh
BIO CHEMICAL EFFECT OF 1, 5-BIS (3, 5-DIMETHYLPYRAZOL-1-YL)-3- OXAPENTANE-DIA...IJSIT Editor
The present study provides evidence that 1,5-Bis (3,5-Dimethylpyrazol-1-yl)-3-oxapentane-diacetatocopper has an antidiabetic effect, as hypoglycemic agent and as antilipolytic agent, but with many abnormalities. It affected blood and liver biochemistry in rats. Sera of animals treated with 1,5-Bis(3,5-Dimethylpyrazol-1-yl)-3-oxapentane-diacetatocopper in the present study revealed a significant decrease in serum glucose and albumin, while reported a significant increase in ALT and AST. Moreover, significant decrease in body weight.
Safety and efficacy of IgM-enriched intravenous immunoglobulins as adjunctive...Sanja Sakan
Safety and efficacy of IgM-enriched intravenous immunoglobulins as adjunctive therapy in patients with sepsis-review of literature
Sanja Sakan1, Jasminka Persec1,2, Dinko Milavec1, Daniela Bandic Pavlovic3,4
1Clinical department of anesthesia and intensive medicine, University Hospital Dubrava, Zagreb, Croatia
2 School of dental medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
3Clinical department of anesthesia and intensive care, Clinical Hospital Center Zagreb, Zagreb,Croatia
4School of medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
Correspondence to: Sanja Sakan, PhD, Clinical department of anesthesiology and intensive medicine, University hospital Dubrava ,Zagreb, Croatia
e-mail: sanja.sakan@hotmail.com
Abstract
Treatment of sepsis still represents a big medical challenge and a great burden for the cost of healthcare system. Immunomodulatory therapy with IgM-enriched intravenous immunoglobulis could be a novel effective adjunctive therapy to 24-hrs surviving sepsis bundels. However there are not so many large homogenous clinical studies to justify cost-benefit of the IgM-enriched immunoglobulins use and the right timing for their application. For now the results of the present clinical studies are controversial.
Keywords: IgM-enriched IVIG, pentaglobin, sepsis, septic shock
Zidovudine (AZT) is a nucleoside analog, a reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) and a type of antiretroviral drug used for the treatment of HIV/AIDS. The administration of zidovudine to the wistar albino rats showed an increase in erythrocyte fragility as can be seen from figure 1. There were significant (p<0.05)>0.05) decrease in serum ALP activity, significant (p<0.05) decrease in Fe2+/Fe3+ ratio and NADH methaemoglobin reductase activity. Findings from this study have revealed that zidovudine is hepatotoxic, increases the concentraton of ferric iron in the body thus imparing oxygen transport and also affects the erythrocyte membrane proteins adversely.
The role of surface charge of ISCOMATRIX nanoparticles on the type of immune ...Nanomedicine Journal (NMJ)
Abstract
Objective(s):
ISCOMATRIX vaccines have now been shown to induce strong antigen-specific cellular or humoral immune responses to a broad range of antigens of viral, bacterial, parasite or tumor. In the present study, we investigated the role of ISCOMATRIX charge in induction of a Th1 type of immune response and protection against Leishmania major infection in BALB/c mice.
Materials and Methods:
Positively and negatively charged ISCOMATRIX were prepared. BALB/C mice were immunized subcutaneously, three times with 2-week intervals, with different ISCOMATRIX formulations. Soluble Leishmania antigens (SLA) were mixed with ISCOMATRIX right before injection. The extent of protection and type of immune response were studied in different groups of mice.
Results:
The group of mice immunized with negatively charged ISCOMATRIX showed smaller footpad swelling upon challenge with L. major and the highest IgG2a production compared with positively charged one. The mice immunized with positively charged ISCOMATRIX showed the lowest splenic parasite burden compared to the other groups. Cytokine assay results indicated that the highest level of IFN- γ and IL-4 secretion was observed in the splenocytes of mice immunized with negatively charged ISCOMATRIX as compared to other groups.
Conclusion:
The results indicated that ISCOMATRIX formulations generate an immune response with mixed Th1/Th2 response that was not protective against challenge against L. major.
Src jbbr-21-125 Dr. ihsan edan abdulkareem alsaimary PROFESSOR IN MEDICAL M...dr.Ihsan alsaimary
Dr. ihsan edan abdulkareem alsaimary
PROFESSOR IN MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR IMMUNOLOGY
ihsanalsaimary@gmail.com
mobile : 009647801410838
university of basrah - college of medicine - basrah -IRAQ
BIO CHEMICAL EFFECT OF 1, 5-BIS (3, 5-DIMETHYLPYRAZOL-1-YL)-3- OXAPENTANE-DIA...IJSIT Editor
The present study provides evidence that 1,5-Bis (3,5-Dimethylpyrazol-1-yl)-3-oxapentane-diacetatocopper has an antidiabetic effect, as hypoglycemic agent and as antilipolytic agent, but with many abnormalities. It affected blood and liver biochemistry in rats. Sera of animals treated with 1,5-Bis(3,5-Dimethylpyrazol-1-yl)-3-oxapentane-diacetatocopper in the present study revealed a significant decrease in serum glucose and albumin, while reported a significant increase in ALT and AST. Moreover, significant decrease in body weight.
Safety and efficacy of IgM-enriched intravenous immunoglobulins as adjunctive...Sanja Sakan
Safety and efficacy of IgM-enriched intravenous immunoglobulins as adjunctive therapy in patients with sepsis-review of literature
Sanja Sakan1, Jasminka Persec1,2, Dinko Milavec1, Daniela Bandic Pavlovic3,4
1Clinical department of anesthesia and intensive medicine, University Hospital Dubrava, Zagreb, Croatia
2 School of dental medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
3Clinical department of anesthesia and intensive care, Clinical Hospital Center Zagreb, Zagreb,Croatia
4School of medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
Correspondence to: Sanja Sakan, PhD, Clinical department of anesthesiology and intensive medicine, University hospital Dubrava ,Zagreb, Croatia
e-mail: sanja.sakan@hotmail.com
Abstract
Treatment of sepsis still represents a big medical challenge and a great burden for the cost of healthcare system. Immunomodulatory therapy with IgM-enriched intravenous immunoglobulis could be a novel effective adjunctive therapy to 24-hrs surviving sepsis bundels. However there are not so many large homogenous clinical studies to justify cost-benefit of the IgM-enriched immunoglobulins use and the right timing for their application. For now the results of the present clinical studies are controversial.
Keywords: IgM-enriched IVIG, pentaglobin, sepsis, septic shock
Zidovudine (AZT) is a nucleoside analog, a reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) and a type of antiretroviral drug used for the treatment of HIV/AIDS. The administration of zidovudine to the wistar albino rats showed an increase in erythrocyte fragility as can be seen from figure 1. There were significant (p<0.05)>0.05) decrease in serum ALP activity, significant (p<0.05) decrease in Fe2+/Fe3+ ratio and NADH methaemoglobin reductase activity. Findings from this study have revealed that zidovudine is hepatotoxic, increases the concentraton of ferric iron in the body thus imparing oxygen transport and also affects the erythrocyte membrane proteins adversely.
The role of surface charge of ISCOMATRIX nanoparticles on the type of immune ...Nanomedicine Journal (NMJ)
Abstract
Objective(s):
ISCOMATRIX vaccines have now been shown to induce strong antigen-specific cellular or humoral immune responses to a broad range of antigens of viral, bacterial, parasite or tumor. In the present study, we investigated the role of ISCOMATRIX charge in induction of a Th1 type of immune response and protection against Leishmania major infection in BALB/c mice.
Materials and Methods:
Positively and negatively charged ISCOMATRIX were prepared. BALB/C mice were immunized subcutaneously, three times with 2-week intervals, with different ISCOMATRIX formulations. Soluble Leishmania antigens (SLA) were mixed with ISCOMATRIX right before injection. The extent of protection and type of immune response were studied in different groups of mice.
Results:
The group of mice immunized with negatively charged ISCOMATRIX showed smaller footpad swelling upon challenge with L. major and the highest IgG2a production compared with positively charged one. The mice immunized with positively charged ISCOMATRIX showed the lowest splenic parasite burden compared to the other groups. Cytokine assay results indicated that the highest level of IFN- γ and IL-4 secretion was observed in the splenocytes of mice immunized with negatively charged ISCOMATRIX as compared to other groups.
Conclusion:
The results indicated that ISCOMATRIX formulations generate an immune response with mixed Th1/Th2 response that was not protective against challenge against L. major.
Src jbbr-21-125 Dr. ihsan edan abdulkareem alsaimary PROFESSOR IN MEDICAL M...dr.Ihsan alsaimary
Dr. ihsan edan abdulkareem alsaimary
PROFESSOR IN MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR IMMUNOLOGY
ihsanalsaimary@gmail.com
mobile : 009647801410838
university of basrah - college of medicine - basrah -IRAQ
PSAN is a virtual community (hosted through a LinkedIn Group) encompassing past and present members of Pearson Students programs.
In December 2015, a team was assembled to manage the network, and together we:
• Increased LinkedIn group membership by 166%, achieving the expected goal 50% faster than the anticipated deadline.
• Increased group’s activity (including all interactions such as new posts, likes, and comments) by 126% (80 before Dec vs. 181 after Dec.)
• Provided Pearson with a database on 103 alumni from Pearson Students programs between 2009 and 2016.
"Los ojos de mi princesa"
Autor: Carlos Cuauhtémoc Sánchez
UNIVERSIDAD TÉCNICA DE MACHALA
Unidad Académica de Ciencias Químicas
Carrera de Bioquímica y Farmacia
Food allergy has been long recognized and well documented. Other adverse reactions to foods first referred to as “toxic idiopathies” by John Freeman, co inventor of immunotherapy, at the early part of the 1900s can be mediated by and have their impact on the nervous and endocrine systems. It can also be mediated by pharmacologic mechanisms and can also affect any part of the body. There’s a great clinical need to accurately identify triggers of adverse reactivity as they have now been linked with even the most serious of modern maladies and diseases. In fact, inflammation is the hallmark of metabolic syndrome. Given the multitude of pathogenic mechanisms underlying adverse reactions to foods and other environmental exposures it is necessary that a utilizable and cost effective technology be understood so that its application be utilized under the appropriate circumstances.
KEY LEARNING POINTS
• The natural ability of certain foods to initiate an inflammatory response and induce metabolic disruptions and counterbalancing mechanisms to prevent that
• How foods can trigger “danger signals” for the immune system
Pharmacologic vs. immunologic reactions to foods
• Is there a common final pathway of all these mechanisms that can reliably indicate triggers of clinical pathology?
• Cellular testing vs. serologic testing: The advantages of cellular testing
Edible Bird’s Nest Attenuates Procoagulation Effects of High-Fat Diet in RatsElabscience
Edible bird’s nest (EBN) is used traditionally in many parts of Asia to improve wellbeing, but there are limited studies on its
efficacy. We explored the potential use of EBN for prevention of high fat diet- (HFD-) induced insulin resistance in rats.
Low beneficial effects of short term antidiabetic diet treatment in streptozo...iosrphr_editor
Oxidative stress is currently suggested to play a role in the pathogenesis of Diabetes mellitus. The role of dietary management in diabetes mellitus is to provide a proper balance of total nutrients while meeting the special dietary needs of the patient. The present study was designated to evaluate the effect of special antidiabetic diet treatment upon oxidative stress parameters in the initial stages of the development of diabetes. Male Wistar strain rats were used as an experimental model, divided into five groups. A significant decrease in superoxide dismutase and total glutathione activities were observed in the liver of diabetic rats when compared with control animals. The plasma level of aminotransferases, creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase and urea were significantly increased after induction of diabetes, in all groups under treatment. In contrast, rats fed special diet food, have shown slight different, but not significant changes. The findings of the present study suggest that special diet formula useful for prevention of progressive hyperglycaemia in age induced diabetes in dogs, could not restore the imbalance of cellular defence mechanism provoked by streptozotocin.
Antihyperlipidemic Activity of Torbangun Extract (Coleus amboinicus Lour) on ...iosrphr_editor
The IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR) is an open access online & offline peer reviewed international journal, which publishes innovative research papers, reviews, mini-reviews, short communications and notes dealing with Pharmaceutical Sciences( Pharmaceutical Technology, Pharmaceutics, Biopharmaceutics, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Computational Chemistry and Molecular Drug Design, Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Pharmaceutical Analysis, Pharmacy Practice, Clinical and Hospital Pharmacy, Cell Biology, Genomics and Proteomics, Pharmacogenomics, Bioinformatics and Biotechnology of Pharmaceutical Interest........more details on Aim & Scope).
The Role of Food Sensitivity and Food Intolerance TestsAlcat Test
Every person has different food intolerance symptoms for different kind of food. That is because the body reacts biological different to different substances present in their regular food. This can be determined by food intolerance testing. Once you know what troubles you, then its prevention becomes easier. Intolerance testing is simple and an easy process to conduct.
We are what we eat - The role of diets in the gut-microbiota-health interactionNorwich Research Park
Lecture at Summer School Nutrigenomics in Camerino Italy Sept. 2016.
The (small) intestine has increasingly been recognized to play a key role in the early phase of pro-inflammatory disturbances e.g. by enhanced overflow of dietary components to the distal intestine (ileum, colon) and affecting the gut microbiota & their metabolites (e.g. bile acids, short chain fatty acids). Transcription factors e.g. PPARγ, FXR, AHR or NRF2 are involved in host sensing mechanisms of microbial metabolites. Strong impact of dietary composition on small and large intestinal microbiota and their metabolic functions.
Targeting the (small) intestine and its microbiota with (plant) foods, bioactives, probiotics and drugs will improve gut and liver functions with strong implications for human health during life.
The IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR) is an open access online & offline peer reviewed international journal, which publishes innovative research papers, reviews, mini-reviews, short communications and notes dealing with Pharmaceutical Sciences( Pharmaceutical Technology, Pharmaceutics, Biopharmaceutics, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Computational Chemistry and Molecular Drug Design, Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Pharmaceutical Analysis, Pharmacy Practice, Clinical and Hospital Pharmacy, Cell Biology, Genomics and Proteomics, Pharmacogenomics, Bioinformatics and Biotechnology of Pharmaceutical Interest........more details on Aim & Scope).
All manuscripts are subject to rapid peer review. Those of high quality (not previously published and not under consideration for publication in another journal) will be published without delay.
In this study, we focused on the effect of β-glucan supplementation of children with chronic respiratory problems. We measured the levels of cortisol, salivary IgE and cotinine in 56 children and evaluated the effect of 30 day supplementation with 100 mg/day oral dose of yeast-derived β-glucan. Our results showed strong decrease of cotinine and cortisol levels in saliva of β-glucan-supplemented children. The increase of total salivary IgE levels in both groups was not statistically significant. The positive effects of complex curative treatment using β-glucan were accompanied by increased physical endurance and by significant reduction of negative clinical problems of affected children.
3. adipose tissue inflammation and insulin resistance [2,3], and
also promote translocation of bacteria into visceral adipose
tissue [14]. Alternatively, inflammation due to high-fat diet/
bacteria interactions may originate in the intestine and
subsequently cascade to surrounding visceral fat [9].
While there is mounting evidence for a direct role of the gut
microbiome in diet-induced insulin resistance, this has not
been conclusively demonstrated in obesity-associated diabe-
tes. To shed more light onto this issue we tested whether
diabetes in obesity is associated with inflammatory immune
responses against specific gut bacteria.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Test subjects
Plasma was obtained from 32 obese individuals participating
in a Health Management Resources (HMR®) weight loss clinic
and from 10 healthy lean volunteers at Biospecialty (Colmar,
PA, USA). Donor parameters are listed in Table 1. Half of the
obese donors had diabetes and were being treated with
insulin, insulinotropes, metformin, glyburide, PPARγagonists,
or combinations thereof. Nine obese subjects with diabetes
and 5 obese controls were on statins, none were smokers. All
samples were obtained with approval from relevant Institu-
tional Review Boards and with informed written consent.
Samples were stored at −86 °C until use.
2.2. Anti-bacterial IgG and TNFα measurements
Total (free and soluble-receptor bound) TNFα was measured in
2× diluted human plasma with an ELISA from eBioscience
(BMS223HS; sensitivity 0.13 pg/mL) and in mouse plasma with
a multiplex ELISA (Millipore). To detect anti-bacterial IgG, we
developed an ELISA as follows: Extracts of overnight cultures
of Escherichia coli strains LF-82 (a pathogenic strain isolated
from a patient with Crohn's disease [15]) and Nissle (a non-
pathogenic strain), Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, or Lactobacillus
acidophilus grown in Lysogeny Broth, were prepared using a
detergent-based bacterial protein extraction kit (“B-Per”;
Pierce Biotechnology). The extracts likely contained a mix of
lipid, protein, and sugar antigens from cytoplasm, mem-
branes and cell walls. Extracts (10 μg protein/well) were coated
onto 96 well flat-bottom ELISA plates (BD-Falcon) in carbonate
buffer (pH 9.6). After blocking (“NAP” buffer; G-Biosciences),
400× dilutions of human or 100× dilutions of mouse plasma
were added in triplicate, and bound IgG was detected with
alkaline phosphatase-conjugated anti-human or mouse IgG
(Fc specific) antibodies (Sigma-Aldrich). A chromogenic sub-
strate (p-nitrophenyl phosphate; Sigma-Aldrich) was added,
and the color reaction was stopped with 3 M sodium
hydroxide. Absorbance at 450 nm (A450) was measured in a
Bio-Rad microplate reader.
2.3. Mouse studies
Male C57Bl/6 mice, ordered at 5 weeks of age (Jackson
Laboratories), were housed three per cage in a specific
pathogen-free animal facility with a 12 h light/dark cycle,
Table 1 – Relevant parameters of plasma donors.
Lean
(n=10)
Obese
(n=16)
Obese, diabetes
(n=16)
Body-mass index 24.8±3.0 41.1±10.4 40.6±7.1
Gender 1F, 9M 7F, 9M 7F, 9M
Age 42.3±11.2 50.8±17.0 59.2±7.2
P < .01
P < .05
P = .0181
A
B
C
Fig. 1 – IgG against extracts of E. coli (strains LF-82 and Nissle),
B. thetaiotaomicron, and L. acidophilus in plasma from lean
and obese controls and obese patients with diabetes (A).
Shown are A450 (average±S.E.M.) obtained with plasma
from lean controls (“L”; n=10), obese controls (“O”; n=16) and
obese patients with diabetes (“OD”; n=16). Values are
normalized for those of lean controls. (B) TNFα in the blood of
obese controls and obese diabetic patients. (C) A positive
correlation between IgG against extracts of E. coli LF-82 and
TNFα. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences
between groups (t test, P<.05).
1212 M E T A B O L I S M C L I N I C A L A N D E X P E R I M E N T A L 6 1 ( 2 0 1 2 ) 1 2 1 1 – 1 2 1 4
4. and were used at 6 weeks of age. One group was fed a diet with
60% of kcal from fat (diet D12492 from Research Diets), the
other a diet with 10% of kcal from fat (D12450B). The animals
were euthanatized after 10 weeks, after a fasting (4 h) blood
glucose measurement (TrueTrack glucose meter; Home Di-
agnostics). Plasma anti-bacterial IgG and TNFα were mea-
sured as described above; blood neutrophils were measured
with a Hemavet 950 Hematology System (Drew Scientific Inc.).
All animals were handled in accordance with good animal
practice as defined by the relevant national and local animal
welfare bodies, and experiments were approved by the
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
2.4. Statistics
Results are expressed as mean±S.E.M and were analyzed with
GraphPad Prism v5.04. Groups were compared with unpaired
Student's t tests or ANOVA and Bonferroni's post-hoc
analysis. Statistical significance was assumed when P<.05.
3. Results
Increased IgG against extracts of E. coli LF82 in plasma of obese
patients with diabetes correlates with TNFα.
IgG against E. coli LF-82 extracts was lowest in lean subjects
and highest in obese subjects with diabetes, with significant
difference between obese diabetics and lean controls (Fig. 1A;
P<.05). IgG against the other bacterial extracts (E. coli Nissle, B.
thetaiotaomicron and L. acidophilus) was not different between
groups. TNFαlevels in obese diabetic patients were signifi-
cantly higher than in obese controls (Fig. 1B; P<.05), and TNFα
correlated with IgG against the LF-82 extract (Fig. 1C; P<.05).
3.1. Increased IgG against extracts of E. coli LF-82 in
plasma from mice fed high-fat diets
As expected, mice on the high fat diet gained more weight (Fig.
2A; P<.005) and had higher fasting glucose levels (Fig. 2B;
P<.001), suggesting impaired glucose homeostasis. Mice on
the high fat diet also had elevated neutrophil counts (Fig. 2C;
P<.001) and circulating TNFα (Fig. 2D; P<.05), indicating
systemic inflammation. They also had significantly higher
IgG against the LF-82 extract (Fig. 2E; P<.05), but IgG against
the other extracts was not significantly different.
4. Discussion
Our study made two novel observations. First, diet-induced
obesity and glucose intolerance in mice was associated with
increased IgG against antigens of pathogenic E. coli. Second,
IgG against such extracts was significantly elevated in obese
individuals with diabetes, but not in those without diabetes,
and IgG correlated with TNFα. This would suggest that specific
components of the intestinal microbiome can contribute to
diet-induced metabolic inflammation and that profiling of IgG
against bacterial antigens could help predict diabetes in obese
A B C
D E
P
Fig. 2 – Body weight (A), fasting glucose (B), % neutrophils in the white-blood cell fraction (C), total TNFα (D), and anti-bacterial
IgG (E) in blood and plasma from C57Bl/6 mice (n=6 per group) on low- or high-fat diets for 10 weeks. Shown are average±S.E.M.
Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences between groups (P<.05).
1213M E T A B O L I S M C L I N I C A L A N D E X P E R I M E N T A L 6 1 ( 2 0 1 2 ) 1 2 1 1 – 1 2 1 4
5. subjects. However, it is unclear whether IgG responses are
cause or consequence, and the identity of relevant bacteria
and bacterial antigens remains unknown.
Recent studies have established a role for the gut micro-
biome in diet-induced metabolic inflammation of adipose
tissue [9,14]. However, while the composition of the gut
microbiome changes during diet-induced obesity and insulin
resistance [12,16], it is unclear which species are responsible.
We hypothesized that such species could be identified by
analyzing cognate immunoglobulin G. Indeed, IgG against
extracts of E. coli LF-82 was increased in obese individuals
whereas IgG against non-pathogenic E. coli or other bacteria
was not elevated. However, it is not possible to conclude that
it is the LF-82 strain against which IgG was directed. LF-82 was
isolated from the intestine from one particular patient with
Crohn's Disease [15] and it is unlikely that this particular
strain is present in all humans, let alone in C57Bl/6 mice. Our
extract likely contained several antigens that could be shared
among various potentially pro-inflammatory strains or spe-
cies and cross-react with IgG. We are currently attempting to
determine the nature of these antigens.
Importantly, one could argue that increased anti-bacterial
IgG simply reflects translocation, and there are indications for
increased gut leakiness in obesity [17,18]. However, each
engagement of translocated bacteria with cognate IgG has the
potential to induce an inflammatory response through
activation of FcγRIIa and other IgG receptors. Over time,
such repeat inflammatory insults could set the stage for
chronic inflammation and insulin resistance.
Author contributions
LT and NM equally contributed to this manuscript and per-
formed the experiments. AJ provided blood samples. EE and
WdV wrote the manuscript.
Funding
This work was supported by NIH grants 5P20RR021954,
5R21AI088605 and UL1RR033173.
Acknowledgment
We wish to thank Dr Charlotte Kaetzel from the Immunol-
ogy Department for donating the bacterial strains and for
helpful discussions.
Conflict of Interest
The authors have nothing to disclose.
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