The document discusses the microbiome and microorganisms found at different body sites in humans. It notes that bacteria in the microbiome outnumber human cells 10 to 1 and play an important role in health. Common microbes found on the skin include Staphylococcus epidermidis and S. aureus in the nose. The microbiota of the mouth includes Streptococcus, Corynebacterium, and Neisseria species. The vaginal microbiota typically features Lactobacillus species which inhibit pathogens. Microbes in the gut include Lactobacillus, Bacteroides, Clostridium, and Enterococcus.

2.  We are inhabited by as many as ten thousand bacterial
species , those cells outnumber those which we
consider our own by ten to one ,and weight all told
about three pounds(1360grams) __ the same as our
brain.
 Together, they are referred to as microbiome___ and
play such a crucial role in our lives that scientists have
begun to reconsider what it means to be human.
Michael Specter

3. MICROBIOME : Microbiome refers to the collection
of genomes from all the microorganisms in the
enviroment.
MICROBIOTA: Microbiota refer to all the
microorganisms found in an environment, including
bacteria, viruses,and fungi.

4.  In a healthy human the internal tissues (
brain, blood ,muscles) are normally free
from microorganisms.
 The surface tissues (skin and mucous
membranes ) are constantly in contact with
environmental microorganisms and
become readily colonized by certain
microbial species.

5.  The mixture of microorganisms
regularly found at any anatomical
site is referred to as to as the normal
microbiota , microflora or normal
flora.
 Bacteria make up most of the normal
microbiota , they are emphasised
over the fungi and protozoa.

6.  An understanding of the different
microorganisms at specific locations
provides greater insight into the possible
infections that might result from injury to
these body sites.
 Possible source and significance of
microorganisms isolated from an
infection site.

7.  To understand the causes and
consequences of colonization and growth
by microorganisms normally absent at a
specific body site.
 Normal microflora apply an important
role in stimulating the host immune
response . This awareness is important
because the immune system provides
protection against potential pathogens.

16. Unfavourable habitat for microorganisms :
 Has many areas subject to periodic drying .
 Acidic ph
 High sodium chloride concentration
Most skin microbes are associated with glands
 Eccrine glands: dispersed sweat glands
 Apocrine glands : sweat glands activated during
puberty.
 Sebaceous glands : with each hair follicle.

17. Gland secretions contain water , amino acids,
urea, salts,and fatty acids that can serve as
nutrients.
Staphylococcus epidermidis –found in regions
of high moisture.
Major inhabitant making up more than 90% of
the flora.

18.  S. aureus – nose ,
Occurrence in nasal passages varies with age being
greatest in newborn and less in adults.
 Micrococci, Diptheroids ,Propionibacterium
Eg. P. acnes = children younger than 10 years are rarely
colonized with it.

19. It is a gram positive bacteria, round in shape and appear in the
form grapes cluster.
Disease caused:- it can cause a range of illness, from minor
skin infections to, such as pimples, impetigo, boils, cellulitis,
folliculitis, carbuncles, scalded skin syndrome etc……..
Prevention:- Prevention of diseases caused by S.aureus is by
using peptide RIP (RNAΙΙΙ inhibiting peptide)
Beneficial effects:- It is beneficial to human host as it kills the
pathogenic and by inhibiting and killing non indigenous
microorganisms .

21. ① Staphylococcus spp.
② Corynebacterium spp.
③ Neisseria spp.
④ Haemophilus spp.
⑤ Micrococcus spp.
⑥ Branhamella spp.

22. Corynebacterium spp.
Corynebacterium is a genus of bacteria that are Gram positive and
aerobic , club shaped, which inspired the genus name.
ROLE IN DISEASES
 The most noteable human infection is diphthera, caused by
C.diphtheriae.
 It is an acute and contagious infection characterized by
psedumembranes of dead epithelial cells, red blood cells that form
around the tonsils and back of the throat.
 In developed countries it is an uncommon illness that tend to
occur in unvaccinated indiviuals, especially school aged children
or immunocompromised patients and those with prosthetic
devices such as shunts.

24.  Treatments include antibiotics and an antitoxin that
neutralises the diphtheria toxin.
 Antibiotics such as penicillin or erythromycin.
 Vaccine is also avaliable. DTap ,Tdap DT, etc.

25. • Streptococcus spp.
• Staphylococcus spp.
• Lactobacillus spp.
• Peptostreptococcus spp.

26.  Some lactobacillus species have been associated
with cases of dental caries (cavities). Lactic acid
produced by these corrode teeth.
 Lactobacillus species produce hydrogen peroxide
which inhibit the growth and virulence of the
fungal pathogen Candida albacins in vitro and in
vivo.
Treatment:-
Following antibiotic therapy, certain Candida species
can suppress the regrowth of Lactobacillus species at
body sites where they cohabitate, such as in the
gastrointestinal tract.

27. • Lactobacillus spp.
• Clostridium spp.
• Mycobacterium spp.
• Enterococci
• Enterobacteriaceae
• Streptococcus spp.
• Pseudomonas spp.

28. It belongs to the family of gram negative
bacteria.
Disease:-
Enterobacterial infections are the infections caused by group of
rod shaped bacteria called Enterobacteriaceae.
Symptoms:-
Production of diarrhea, vomiting for more than3days, fever
greater than 102◦C . etc…..
Beneficial effects :-
Some enterobacteria produce endotoxins. Endotoxins reside in
the cell wall and are released when the cell dies and the cell wall
disintegrates.

29. A. Lactobacillus spp.
B. Peptostreptococcus spp.
C. Diphtheroids
D. Streptococcus spp.
E. Clostridium spp.
F. Bacteroids
G. Candida spp.
H. Gardnerella vaginalis

30.  Lactobacilli have been shown to inhibit in vitro growth of
pathogenic microorganisms, e.g. Bacteroides fragilis
 Moreover, lactobacilli normally help to prevent long-
term colonization of the vagina by adhering to vaginal
epithelial cells. This usually reduces pathogens from
infecting to the vaginal epithelium.

31.  A yeast infection can cause itching or soreness in the vagina
and sometimes causes pain or burning when you urinate.
Some women's also have a thick ,clumpy, white discharge
that has no odor.
Cause of vaginal yeast infections
 Most of these infections are caused by Candida albicans.
The most common bacteria ,Lactobacillus acidophilus , help in
keeping other yeast and bacteria under control.
When something happens to change in the balances of these
microorganism ,yeast can grow too much and cause infections.

32. PREVENTION
 Practice good hygiene.
 Avoid scented sprays .
 Keep vagina clean and dry.
 Probiotics are also helpful in fighting yeast
infections .
TREATMENT
 Antifungal creams can be applied . Some
common brands are Monisat, Vagistat.
 Use of tea tree oil is effective property.