This document is an essay analyzing a BBC News article about the Ukraine crisis through a gendered lens. In 3 sentences: The essay argues that understanding inter-state violence through a non-gendered lens is impossible, as the language, depictions of masculinities, and emphasis on military discourse in descriptions of the Ukraine crisis all serve to construct it in a gendered way and reinforce traditional masculine perspectives. Military masculinities, masculine hierarchies between different types of men, and the constraining nature of defensive discourse are discussed as key ways the conflict is inherently gendered.
The Quest for Masculinity_ Representations in LGBT Literature of Gender and S...Hasan Beyaz
This dissertation examines representations of gender and sexuality struggles in LGBT literature. It analyzes James Baldwin's Giovanni's Room, Annie Proulx's short story Brokeback Mountain, Alison Bechdel's graphic memoir Fun Home, and Nick Krieger's autobiographical novel Nina Here Nor There. The introduction discusses concepts of masculinity and how homosexuality challenges traditional views of masculinity. Chapter 1 compares Giovanni's Room and Brokeback Mountain, showing how the gay male protagonists struggle with internalized homophobia and an inability to achieve a traditional masculine identity due to their sexuality. Chapter 2 examines suppression through the lens of Fun Home. Chapter 3 discusses gender and masculinity from a transgender perspective through Nina Here Nor There
1) The document analyzes academic approaches to interpreting masculinity in the film Fight Club. It focuses on how many interpretations fixate on promoting one singular view of masculinity rather than acknowledging the film's polysemy.
2) The author argues that while Fight Club depicts a form of male rage and desire to regain control, it can also be seen as criticizing stereotypical masculinity. The film likely presents multiple suggestions of masculinity rather than just one.
3) By exploring concepts of hegemonic and subordinated masculinity, the author aims to show how earlier critiques often tried too hard to establish the film represents just one form of masculinity, rather than the multiple meanings it may convey.
How do Magazines Portray Traditional Male Gender Roles (Senior Assignemnt Pro...Derek Ruszkowski
This document provides an introduction to a research paper analyzing how magazines portray the male gender. The paper will examine portrayals of men in both fashion and health magazines, and whether these portrayals appeal sexually to the target audience. It will use theories like the male gaze and hegemonic masculinity as a framework. The document outlines the literature review, including research on how magazines label masculinity and sexuality. It discusses how social factors like religion have influenced views of homosexuality. The introduction establishes the topic, theoretical framework, methods of analysis, and relevant literature to provide context for the full research paper.
This document analyzes Donald Trump's successful presidential campaign through the lens of entertainment, gesture, and spectacle. It argues that Trump's unconventional political style, which diverged from norms through depictive gestures that caricatured opponents, brought momentum to his campaign by creating compelling spectacle. His exaggerated bodily portrayals of others accorded him visual capital in a mediatized political environment driven by celebrity. The document examines how Trump's comedic performances, through verbal and gestural strategies that lampooned opponents, crafted characterizations that opposed political correctness while dominating news cycles and attracting viewers.
Stokely Carmichael's 1966 speech on Black Power had a significant rhetorical impact and continues to influence discussions on racial equality today. In the speech, Carmichael argues that Black Power means self-determination for African Americans and critiques the "white savior complex" of liberal whites. He also highlights the non-violent stance of SNCC and uses rhetorical questions to challenge his audience. Modern groups like Black Lives Matter draw from some of Carmichael's philosophies while also distinguishing themselves. Artists like Kendrick Lamar also incorporate Black Power themes, showing Carmichael's continued relevance.
The document discusses gender issues from different perspectives in international relations and security studies. It covers:
1) The distinction between sex and gender, and how masculinity and femininity are socially constructed.
2) Different feminist approaches to analyzing gender issues such as income inequality, patriarchy, and Western portrayals of non-Western women.
3) How gender impacts concepts of security, including the fact that most war casualties are civilians and the use of systematic rape in ethnic cleansing.
This document discusses two opposing paradigms - functionalism and intentionalism - for explaining socially conceived events like the Holocaust. Functionalism focuses on social/structural factors outside individuals, while intentionalism focuses on individual agency and intentions. The document analyzes these perspectives in the debate between Browning and Goldhagen on the motivations of Holocaust perpetrators. It argues that an extended cognition framework can accommodate both views by treating social phenomena as enabling conditions for cognition and action. Social institutions and norms can shape cognition in a distributed, socially extended way. This framework explains what each paradigm alone cannot by linking social structure and individual agency.
The Quest for Masculinity_ Representations in LGBT Literature of Gender and S...Hasan Beyaz
This dissertation examines representations of gender and sexuality struggles in LGBT literature. It analyzes James Baldwin's Giovanni's Room, Annie Proulx's short story Brokeback Mountain, Alison Bechdel's graphic memoir Fun Home, and Nick Krieger's autobiographical novel Nina Here Nor There. The introduction discusses concepts of masculinity and how homosexuality challenges traditional views of masculinity. Chapter 1 compares Giovanni's Room and Brokeback Mountain, showing how the gay male protagonists struggle with internalized homophobia and an inability to achieve a traditional masculine identity due to their sexuality. Chapter 2 examines suppression through the lens of Fun Home. Chapter 3 discusses gender and masculinity from a transgender perspective through Nina Here Nor There
1) The document analyzes academic approaches to interpreting masculinity in the film Fight Club. It focuses on how many interpretations fixate on promoting one singular view of masculinity rather than acknowledging the film's polysemy.
2) The author argues that while Fight Club depicts a form of male rage and desire to regain control, it can also be seen as criticizing stereotypical masculinity. The film likely presents multiple suggestions of masculinity rather than just one.
3) By exploring concepts of hegemonic and subordinated masculinity, the author aims to show how earlier critiques often tried too hard to establish the film represents just one form of masculinity, rather than the multiple meanings it may convey.
How do Magazines Portray Traditional Male Gender Roles (Senior Assignemnt Pro...Derek Ruszkowski
This document provides an introduction to a research paper analyzing how magazines portray the male gender. The paper will examine portrayals of men in both fashion and health magazines, and whether these portrayals appeal sexually to the target audience. It will use theories like the male gaze and hegemonic masculinity as a framework. The document outlines the literature review, including research on how magazines label masculinity and sexuality. It discusses how social factors like religion have influenced views of homosexuality. The introduction establishes the topic, theoretical framework, methods of analysis, and relevant literature to provide context for the full research paper.
This document analyzes Donald Trump's successful presidential campaign through the lens of entertainment, gesture, and spectacle. It argues that Trump's unconventional political style, which diverged from norms through depictive gestures that caricatured opponents, brought momentum to his campaign by creating compelling spectacle. His exaggerated bodily portrayals of others accorded him visual capital in a mediatized political environment driven by celebrity. The document examines how Trump's comedic performances, through verbal and gestural strategies that lampooned opponents, crafted characterizations that opposed political correctness while dominating news cycles and attracting viewers.
Stokely Carmichael's 1966 speech on Black Power had a significant rhetorical impact and continues to influence discussions on racial equality today. In the speech, Carmichael argues that Black Power means self-determination for African Americans and critiques the "white savior complex" of liberal whites. He also highlights the non-violent stance of SNCC and uses rhetorical questions to challenge his audience. Modern groups like Black Lives Matter draw from some of Carmichael's philosophies while also distinguishing themselves. Artists like Kendrick Lamar also incorporate Black Power themes, showing Carmichael's continued relevance.
The document discusses gender issues from different perspectives in international relations and security studies. It covers:
1) The distinction between sex and gender, and how masculinity and femininity are socially constructed.
2) Different feminist approaches to analyzing gender issues such as income inequality, patriarchy, and Western portrayals of non-Western women.
3) How gender impacts concepts of security, including the fact that most war casualties are civilians and the use of systematic rape in ethnic cleansing.
This document discusses two opposing paradigms - functionalism and intentionalism - for explaining socially conceived events like the Holocaust. Functionalism focuses on social/structural factors outside individuals, while intentionalism focuses on individual agency and intentions. The document analyzes these perspectives in the debate between Browning and Goldhagen on the motivations of Holocaust perpetrators. It argues that an extended cognition framework can accommodate both views by treating social phenomena as enabling conditions for cognition and action. Social institutions and norms can shape cognition in a distributed, socially extended way. This framework explains what each paradigm alone cannot by linking social structure and individual agency.
Erik S McDuffie and Komozi Woodard, If you're in a country that is progressiv...Erik McDuffie
This article examines the influence of black women radicals like Vicki Garvin and Queen Mother Audley Moore on the political development and legacy of Malcolm X. It argues that women played a crucial role in shaping Malcolm's ideology but have been marginalized in histories about his life. The article discusses how Garvin first exposed Malcolm to radical politics in the 1940s and how she and Moore helped cultivate his later interests in internationalism, Pan-Africanism, and the importance of women of color in liberation struggles. It seeks to bring greater attention to the roles of these influential women and incorporate feminist perspectives into understandings of Malcolm X.
George Jackson was a revolutionary Black nationalist imprisoned in San Quentin for over a decade. He became politicized in prison and emerged as a powerful voice and author. His growing influence and the trial of the Soledad Brothers threatened the prison system. On August 21, 1971, authorities at San Quentin assassinated George Jackson, claiming he tried to escape with a gun. However, their story was full of inconsistencies, and the gun was later found to have been planted by the FBI as part of the COINTELPRO program, indicating direct involvement in Jackson's murder. George Jackson's assassination was meant to silence his revolutionary voice and ideas.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalistic standards. This has blurred the lines between their political and entertainment roles. While the public wants charismatic leaders, too much exposure leads to backlash. The document also examines perceptions of founders' personal lives and how Americans want to preserve their reverence despite evidence of affairs and other indiscretions. Academics note varying levels of discussion of presidents' private lives depending on the course and individual's prominence.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalism standards. This has made it difficult for presidents to balance being a pop icon with being an effective leader. While Americans want charismatic masculine leaders, they also want to preserve the image of founding fathers as reverential figures and don't want to acknowledge aspects of their private lives like Jefferson's relationship with a slave. The document explores how discussions of presidents' private lives and sexual politics can meet academia but have varying levels of interest depending on the president.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalism standards. This has made it difficult for presidents to balance being a pop icon with being an effective leader. While Americans want charismatic masculine leaders, they also want to preserve the image of founding fathers as reverential figures and don't want to acknowledge aspects of their private lives like Jefferson's relationship with a slave. The document explores how discussions of presidents' private lives and sexual politics can meet academia but have varying levels of interest depending on the president.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalistic standards. This has blurred the lines between their political and entertainment roles. While the public is interested in presidents' personal lives and masculinity, they still view the founding fathers in more reverential, idealized terms and are reluctant to acknowledge aspects like Jefferson's relationship with a slave. Academics debate how and how much a president's private life should factor into analyzing their political legacy and decisions.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalistic standards. This has blurred the lines between their political and entertainment roles. While the public is interested in presidents' personal lives and masculinity, they also want to maintain the founders' purity and reverence. The sexual politics and relationships of past presidents, like Jefferson and his slave, are acknowledged but not widely accepted to discuss. Academics note public and student interest in how presidents' private lives may have influenced their politics and actions in office.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalistic standards. This has blurred the lines between their political and entertainment roles, making it difficult for presidents to straddle both worlds. The document also discusses the public's interest in presidents' personal lives and sexuality throughout history, from Kennedy to the Founding Fathers, and how academics approach discussing these topics.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to factors like the Kennedy family, the proliferation of media, and a lowering of journalistic standards. This has blurred the lines between their political and entertainment roles, making it difficult for presidents to balance exposure and backlash. The document also examines how the public is interested in presidents' personal lives and sexuality throughout history.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalistic standards. This has blurred the lines between their political and entertainment roles. While the public wants charismatic leaders, too much exposure leads to backlash. The document also examines perceptions of past presidents' personal lives and sexuality, noting that figures like Washington are seen as prudes despite evidence of affairs and relationships, while more modern presidents like JFK faced less lasting consequences.
The goal of feminism is self fulfilment for womenAnurag Gangal
- John Stuart Mill and Mary Wollstonecraft were early advocates for women's rights and equality in the 1800s through works like The Subjection of Woman and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.
- However, their views are seen as limited by modern feminists, as Mill took more of a paternalistic view of protecting women, while Wollstonecraft did not fully argue for complete equality.
- Later waves of feminism have been more radical in advocating for women's full autonomy, identity, and freedom without compromise, in contrast to the early liberal feminism of Mill and Wollstonecraft.
This document discusses issues facing African American men and boys in the United States. It notes that mainstream hip-hop culture promotes exaggerated forms of masculinity like aggression and strength. Statistics show high rates of incarceration, unemployment, and shorter lifespans for African American men compared to other groups. Traditional views of masculinity pressure men to suppress emotions and prioritize dominance, which can contribute to violence and harm relationships. The document calls for redefining masculinity in a way that supports nonviolence, education, and healthy families.
A2 Feminism and the Media part 1 (2020)
Stereotypes, Male Gaze, Symbolic annihilation, Bechdel Test, Beauty Myth, Objectfication and Dismemberment, Postfeminism
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalism standards. This has made it difficult for presidents to balance their role as a leader and public figure. There is also interest from the public in the personal lives and sexuality of presidents, both historical and modern. However, some want to preserve the image and privacy of founding fathers like Jefferson and Washington, despite evidence of affairs and relationships in their personal lives.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalism standards. This has blurred the lines between their political and entertainment roles. While the public is interested in presidents' personal lives and masculinity, the founding fathers are still seen as more reverential figures despite evidence of affairs and scandals in their own lives. Academics debate how and how much a president's private life should influence analyses of their political careers and decisions.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalism standards. This has blurred the lines between their political and entertainment roles. While the American public is interested in presidents' personal lives and masculinity, the Founding Fathers are still seen as more reverential figures despite evidence of affairs and scandals in their own lives. Academics note public and student interest in presidents' private lives and sexual politics but approach discussing such topics differently depending on the course and presidency in question.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalism standards. This has blurred the lines between their political and entertainment roles. While the public is interested in presidents' personal lives and masculinity, the founding fathers are still seen as more reverential figures despite evidence of affairs and scandals in their own lives. Academics debate how and how much a president's private life should influence analyses of their political careers and decisions.
The document analyzes the 1985 film The Goonies from a Marxist perspective. It argues that the film represents class struggle through the characters who each symbolize members of the working class trying to achieve social mobility. Through working together and utilizing each of their unique skills, the group known as "The Goonies" is able to overcome adversity posed by the wealthy elite who want to take their homes. The main character Mikey in particular symbolizes a vocal leader who inspires the group despite his physical limitations, representing the power of collective action and unionization from a Marxist view.
This document summarizes the history and key developments in feminist film theory from the 1960s to the present. It discusses the major theorists and texts that shifted the focus from class to examining feminine identity and gender construction. Theories analyzed how women were portrayed in films and the male gaze of the spectator. Psychoanalytic approaches examined concepts like scopophilia and how cinema reinforced patriarchal ideals. Later works addressed issues like bisexual spectatorship and challenged the notion that femininity must be defined in relation to masculinity.
This document provides an introduction to a study of street kids who frequented a converted bus in Rotterdam, Netherlands. It describes how the bus project was started to address problems with local youth loitering in streets. The author describes meeting with a youth worker and following a group of 11 regular street kids on the bus on Wednesday nights over the course of a year, comprised of boys from Moroccan, Surinamese, and Dutch backgrounds. It discusses how the bus project and workers aimed to motivate the boys to display more socially acceptable behavior and transition them to running their own youth club independently with a worker's assistance.
This dissertation analyzes representations of gender, sexualities, and international relations in the Mass Effect video game series through a feminist lens. The author argues that while Mass Effect challenges some stereotypes by including diverse characters, it also reinforces traditional norms. Specifically, the game subverts expectations by featuring in-depth female characters and relationships, but also sexualizes female characters and assimilates them into a masculine culture. The military themes promote realist views of international relations. Overall, Mass Effect illustrates both the potential and limitations of using science fiction to explore complex social and political issues through popular media.
This document is a 3,965 word essay analyzing whether seeing ethnic conflicts as socially constructed makes it easier to avoid, limit, or end them. The essay argues that recognizing the social construction of ethnic conflicts does make it easier to avoid and end conflicts, but does not necessarily make it easier to limit ongoing conflicts. It provides examples and evidence from academic literature to support each point. The key points made are: 1) recognizing social constructions allows civil society and media to delegitimize elites' strategies and avoid escalation; 2) however, ongoing violence hardens identities and discourse, making limitation difficult; and 3) international intervention faces challenges when recognizing social elements could destabilize its own role and identities.
Erik S McDuffie and Komozi Woodard, If you're in a country that is progressiv...Erik McDuffie
This article examines the influence of black women radicals like Vicki Garvin and Queen Mother Audley Moore on the political development and legacy of Malcolm X. It argues that women played a crucial role in shaping Malcolm's ideology but have been marginalized in histories about his life. The article discusses how Garvin first exposed Malcolm to radical politics in the 1940s and how she and Moore helped cultivate his later interests in internationalism, Pan-Africanism, and the importance of women of color in liberation struggles. It seeks to bring greater attention to the roles of these influential women and incorporate feminist perspectives into understandings of Malcolm X.
George Jackson was a revolutionary Black nationalist imprisoned in San Quentin for over a decade. He became politicized in prison and emerged as a powerful voice and author. His growing influence and the trial of the Soledad Brothers threatened the prison system. On August 21, 1971, authorities at San Quentin assassinated George Jackson, claiming he tried to escape with a gun. However, their story was full of inconsistencies, and the gun was later found to have been planted by the FBI as part of the COINTELPRO program, indicating direct involvement in Jackson's murder. George Jackson's assassination was meant to silence his revolutionary voice and ideas.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalistic standards. This has blurred the lines between their political and entertainment roles. While the public wants charismatic leaders, too much exposure leads to backlash. The document also examines perceptions of founders' personal lives and how Americans want to preserve their reverence despite evidence of affairs and other indiscretions. Academics note varying levels of discussion of presidents' private lives depending on the course and individual's prominence.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalism standards. This has made it difficult for presidents to balance being a pop icon with being an effective leader. While Americans want charismatic masculine leaders, they also want to preserve the image of founding fathers as reverential figures and don't want to acknowledge aspects of their private lives like Jefferson's relationship with a slave. The document explores how discussions of presidents' private lives and sexual politics can meet academia but have varying levels of interest depending on the president.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalism standards. This has made it difficult for presidents to balance being a pop icon with being an effective leader. While Americans want charismatic masculine leaders, they also want to preserve the image of founding fathers as reverential figures and don't want to acknowledge aspects of their private lives like Jefferson's relationship with a slave. The document explores how discussions of presidents' private lives and sexual politics can meet academia but have varying levels of interest depending on the president.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalistic standards. This has blurred the lines between their political and entertainment roles. While the public is interested in presidents' personal lives and masculinity, they still view the founding fathers in more reverential, idealized terms and are reluctant to acknowledge aspects like Jefferson's relationship with a slave. Academics debate how and how much a president's private life should factor into analyzing their political legacy and decisions.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalistic standards. This has blurred the lines between their political and entertainment roles. While the public is interested in presidents' personal lives and masculinity, they also want to maintain the founders' purity and reverence. The sexual politics and relationships of past presidents, like Jefferson and his slave, are acknowledged but not widely accepted to discuss. Academics note public and student interest in how presidents' private lives may have influenced their politics and actions in office.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalistic standards. This has blurred the lines between their political and entertainment roles, making it difficult for presidents to straddle both worlds. The document also discusses the public's interest in presidents' personal lives and sexuality throughout history, from Kennedy to the Founding Fathers, and how academics approach discussing these topics.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to factors like the Kennedy family, the proliferation of media, and a lowering of journalistic standards. This has blurred the lines between their political and entertainment roles, making it difficult for presidents to balance exposure and backlash. The document also examines how the public is interested in presidents' personal lives and sexuality throughout history.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalistic standards. This has blurred the lines between their political and entertainment roles. While the public wants charismatic leaders, too much exposure leads to backlash. The document also examines perceptions of past presidents' personal lives and sexuality, noting that figures like Washington are seen as prudes despite evidence of affairs and relationships, while more modern presidents like JFK faced less lasting consequences.
The goal of feminism is self fulfilment for womenAnurag Gangal
- John Stuart Mill and Mary Wollstonecraft were early advocates for women's rights and equality in the 1800s through works like The Subjection of Woman and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.
- However, their views are seen as limited by modern feminists, as Mill took more of a paternalistic view of protecting women, while Wollstonecraft did not fully argue for complete equality.
- Later waves of feminism have been more radical in advocating for women's full autonomy, identity, and freedom without compromise, in contrast to the early liberal feminism of Mill and Wollstonecraft.
This document discusses issues facing African American men and boys in the United States. It notes that mainstream hip-hop culture promotes exaggerated forms of masculinity like aggression and strength. Statistics show high rates of incarceration, unemployment, and shorter lifespans for African American men compared to other groups. Traditional views of masculinity pressure men to suppress emotions and prioritize dominance, which can contribute to violence and harm relationships. The document calls for redefining masculinity in a way that supports nonviolence, education, and healthy families.
A2 Feminism and the Media part 1 (2020)
Stereotypes, Male Gaze, Symbolic annihilation, Bechdel Test, Beauty Myth, Objectfication and Dismemberment, Postfeminism
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalism standards. This has made it difficult for presidents to balance their role as a leader and public figure. There is also interest from the public in the personal lives and sexuality of presidents, both historical and modern. However, some want to preserve the image and privacy of founding fathers like Jefferson and Washington, despite evidence of affairs and relationships in their personal lives.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalism standards. This has blurred the lines between their political and entertainment roles. While the public is interested in presidents' personal lives and masculinity, the founding fathers are still seen as more reverential figures despite evidence of affairs and scandals in their own lives. Academics debate how and how much a president's private life should influence analyses of their political careers and decisions.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalism standards. This has blurred the lines between their political and entertainment roles. While the American public is interested in presidents' personal lives and masculinity, the Founding Fathers are still seen as more reverential figures despite evidence of affairs and scandals in their own lives. Academics note public and student interest in presidents' private lives and sexual politics but approach discussing such topics differently depending on the course and presidency in question.
The document discusses how presidents have increasingly become pop culture icons and celebrities due to proliferation of media and a lowering of journalism standards. This has blurred the lines between their political and entertainment roles. While the public is interested in presidents' personal lives and masculinity, the founding fathers are still seen as more reverential figures despite evidence of affairs and scandals in their own lives. Academics debate how and how much a president's private life should influence analyses of their political careers and decisions.
The document analyzes the 1985 film The Goonies from a Marxist perspective. It argues that the film represents class struggle through the characters who each symbolize members of the working class trying to achieve social mobility. Through working together and utilizing each of their unique skills, the group known as "The Goonies" is able to overcome adversity posed by the wealthy elite who want to take their homes. The main character Mikey in particular symbolizes a vocal leader who inspires the group despite his physical limitations, representing the power of collective action and unionization from a Marxist view.
This document summarizes the history and key developments in feminist film theory from the 1960s to the present. It discusses the major theorists and texts that shifted the focus from class to examining feminine identity and gender construction. Theories analyzed how women were portrayed in films and the male gaze of the spectator. Psychoanalytic approaches examined concepts like scopophilia and how cinema reinforced patriarchal ideals. Later works addressed issues like bisexual spectatorship and challenged the notion that femininity must be defined in relation to masculinity.
This document provides an introduction to a study of street kids who frequented a converted bus in Rotterdam, Netherlands. It describes how the bus project was started to address problems with local youth loitering in streets. The author describes meeting with a youth worker and following a group of 11 regular street kids on the bus on Wednesday nights over the course of a year, comprised of boys from Moroccan, Surinamese, and Dutch backgrounds. It discusses how the bus project and workers aimed to motivate the boys to display more socially acceptable behavior and transition them to running their own youth club independently with a worker's assistance.
This dissertation analyzes representations of gender, sexualities, and international relations in the Mass Effect video game series through a feminist lens. The author argues that while Mass Effect challenges some stereotypes by including diverse characters, it also reinforces traditional norms. Specifically, the game subverts expectations by featuring in-depth female characters and relationships, but also sexualizes female characters and assimilates them into a masculine culture. The military themes promote realist views of international relations. Overall, Mass Effect illustrates both the potential and limitations of using science fiction to explore complex social and political issues through popular media.
This document is a 3,965 word essay analyzing whether seeing ethnic conflicts as socially constructed makes it easier to avoid, limit, or end them. The essay argues that recognizing the social construction of ethnic conflicts does make it easier to avoid and end conflicts, but does not necessarily make it easier to limit ongoing conflicts. It provides examples and evidence from academic literature to support each point. The key points made are: 1) recognizing social constructions allows civil society and media to delegitimize elites' strategies and avoid escalation; 2) however, ongoing violence hardens identities and discourse, making limitation difficult; and 3) international intervention faces challenges when recognizing social elements could destabilize its own role and identities.
Los rodamientos son elementos mecánicos críticos que permiten el movimiento entre piezas y consisten en dos anillos de acero y elementos rodantes como bolas o rodillos. Requieren lubricación adecuada, mantenimiento y reemplazo periódico para funcionar de manera confiable y distribuir cargas entre piezas móviles, alargando la vida útil de las máquinas. Pueden fallar por fatiga, contaminación o manejo y lubricación incorrectos.
El documento resume los conceptos clave relacionados con el capital contable de una empresa. Explica que el capital contable es la diferencia entre el activo total y el pasivo total y está compuesto por el capital social, capital autorizado, capital suscrito y capital exhibido. También describe los principios de verificación del capital contable, el proceso de auditoría e incluye enlaces a recursos adicionales.
Glass is made from silica and other additives like soda ash and lime. Modern glass uses sand, soda ash, and limestone. Different colors are achieved by adding metal compounds like cobalt for blue. The float glass process involves floating molten glass on liquid tin to create flat sheets. Float glass makes up most flat glass products and is made in thicknesses from 2-25mm. Non-sheet glass includes cast glass blocks and profiled sections. Sheet glass undergoes further processing like annealing, toughening, laminating, etching, and adding coatings. Structural glass elements use toughened glass in columns, fins, and load-bearing walls fixed with clamps or adhesive.
1. The document is an analysis of bodily modification in the novel "Snow Flower and the Secret Fan" by Lisa See. It compares foot binding in 19th century China to modern cosmetic surgery and female circumcision.
2. It discusses how processes like media promotion, approval from authorities, and emphasis on virtue normalize painful practices. Both foot binding and cosmetic surgery were normalized in their cultures through such means.
3. The analysis examines how all three practices (foot binding, cosmetic surgery, female circumcision) involve costs like health risks, view of the body as a commodity, and impact on women's identities and status. The novel illustrates these costs experienced through foot binding.
4. While the novel provides
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Running Head PRESENCE OF MASCULINITY IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS1.docxcharisellington63520
Running Head: PRESENCE OF MASCULINITY IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 1
Presence of Masculinity in International Relations 2
Presence of Masculinity in International Relations
INTS 2235 Gender in International Relations
University of Denver
Introduction
In recent years, there has been an increased focus on gender in international relations. The introduction of feminism has led to attention on the marginalization of feminist and gender concerns. The lack of recognition of women in international politics provides evidence of men being the central concern in global relations by default. Various feminist scholars have looked at the gendered nature of international studies, each arguing that masculinity plays various levels of importance in the study. This literature review addresses various works involving masculinity in international relations, arguing that masculinity has become an inherent default in global politics, and this needs to be understood in order to properly bring women and feminine concerns to the forefront. The presence of masculinity in international relations is first addressed, followed by the legitimization of it and the presence of privilege in understanding masculinity. Finally, proposed changes to the current structure of IR in order to make women more important will be analyzed.
Places of masculinity in international relations
The presence of masculinity in international relations can be seen in both the masculine characteristics of theories, as well as the focus on mainly masculine actors. According to Kimberly Hutchings (2008), a key reason for the ongoing invisibility of women and gender in the theoretical frames through which post-cold war international politics is looked at is that masculinity operates as a resource for thought in theorizing international politics. Characteristics that are considered masculine are being aggressive, dominant, and power driven, which can be seen in theories of international relations. For example, realism looks at states as actors and argues that states focus on power. This characterizes states as masculine. Liberalism also embodies certain masculine traits, as it looks at democracy and cooperation, which are Western ideals. Western ideals fall under ‘hegemonic masculinity,’ as it is generally the Western perception of ‘what it means to be a man’ that is generally accepted.
Masculinity can be seen in international relations due to a lack of recognition of women, which is largely why the feminist theory began to unfold in the first place. As a contemporary field of study, international relations looks at stereotypically masculine subjects, such as conflicts, wars, and diplomacy, and thus the actors studied are overpoweringly male (Carver, 2014). The most popular theory of international relations is realism, which focuses on the state as an actor, looking at issues of power in terms of military. By looking at global relations through military, the theories are placing importance .
Running Head PRESENCE OF MASCULINITY IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS1.docx
Mascs Essay 3rd draft
1. MSC/DIPLOMA TITLE: Gender and International Relations
CANDIDATE NUMBER: 65824
UNIT NUMBER: POLIM3106
UNIT TITLE: Gender, Masculinity/ies and International Relations
UNIT TUTOR: Terrel Carver
ESSAY TITLE:
Is there a non-gendered way to understand inter-state violence?
WORD COUNT: 3890
2. 1
Is there a non-gendered way to understand inter-state violence?
Introduction
In this essay I shall analyse the BBC News article, “Ukraine Crisis: The Little Green Men”
(Rosenberg 2014a), with references to a few other articles linked to the same topic. I find that
there is not a non-gendered way to understand inter-state violence. This is due to a number of
reasons. Firstly, the terminology in the question points to inherently gendered constructs. As I
shall argue in the next section, violence is gendered as it creates power hierarchies, and inter-
state relations are often seen in a ‘rational’ masculine framework. Even generally speaking it
is not possible to understand anything in a non-gendered way as even objects are gendered.
Secondly, by analysing the article’s depictions of men I discover that in times of inter-state
conflict there is an emphasis on military masculinities and masculine hierarchies. These serve
to reinforce traditional masculine discourses surrounding international state violence, and lead
to gendered consequences in which feminised identities and issues are neglected. The
‘Ukraine Crisis’ is thus inherently gendered, which leads me to conclude that it is impossible
to understand inter-state violence in a non-gendered way.
Is inter-state violence gendered?
It is impossible to have a non-gendered understanding of anything, let alone inter-state
violence. The world is made up of discourse, and this discourse is constrained by binaries,
including that of male/female. Even apparently ‘gender neutral’ objects can be understood as
masculine or feminine, either through the propensity of gendered language, or through
gendered connotations or expectations. For example, a table seems like a neutral object,
however in French it becomes feminine due to its grammatical gender. Language aside, one
could analyse the gendered use of labour to make the table. If it was handmade, was the
carpenter a man or a woman? If it was mass produced in a factory, who was in charge of the
factory and which factory workers were deemed acceptable to use heavy machinery? One
could argue in this case that the table is a masculine object. But of course, if the table happens
to be small, delicate, and with jewellery covering the surface, it becomes feminine. Hence,
through association, language, and socially constructed discourse, even the plainest objects
have a gendered understanding. Arguing for a non-gendered understanding results in a cover
up of gendered meanings and practices, conversely making them all the more powerful, as
their invisibility hampers the ability of society to question them. Hence, even a so-called
‘non-gendered’ understanding turns out to be extremely gendered as it supports the status
quo.
‘Inter-state’ and ‘violence’ are therefore both gendered. While there are many ways to analyse
their gendered construction, I shall read them as part of a realist discourse of IR, as the article
I analyse seems to be written in a realist voice. Inter-state, in this instance, is therefore
understood as two or more genderless states existing separately from each other, much like
the billiard balls that are often used to explain neorealist IR theory. This is obviously
extremely reductionist, and obscures the masculine traits that make up this discourse.
‘Violence’, on the other hand, is easier to read as a gendered term as it implies a power
hierarchy in which masculinity is usually dominant. In the article violence comes across as
purely physical (as opposed to economic, social or psychological), and the natural domain of
men. This serves to undermine the multitude of effects violence might have on women, even
if they’re not directly engaged in physical combat. Both ‘inter-state’ and ‘violence’ are
therefore highly gendered terms, as they are understood in a hyper-masculine sense. I shall
now illustrate the way this plays out in the article, highlighting the gendered depiction of
individuals, society and institutions related to the ‘Ukraine Crisis’.
3. 2
Gendering the ‘Ukraine Crisis’:
Military masculinities
The article’s heading reads: “Ukraine Crisis: Meeting the Little Green Men” (Rosenberg
2014a). Firstly, there is a clear gendering of the inter-state crisis through the connection with
the word ‘crisis’ and ‘men’. This illustrates the masculinised context of inter-state violence,
with men being the main perpetrators of physical violence. Secondly, it is interesting to
analyse the notion of ‘little green men’. In another BBC News article the phrase is explained
as stemming from the colour of the pro-Russia activists’ uniforms, and the extent to which
they are unknown (Shevchenko 2014, Fig. 1). However the phrase also has connotations with
miniature model army sets for children. This is not an inaccurate portrayal of the military
institution, with the homogeneity illustrating ideals of discipline and order. Just like the
plastic models, real soldiers are expected to look the same as each other, a trait often shown
off in military parades. It is interesting to note that Russia’s annual victory parade was 14
minutes longer than usual this year (Rosenberg 2014b) – another example of muscle flexing.
While the plastic soldiers are by no means natural, neither are the ‘real’ green men. They too
have had to fit into pre-prepared moulds in the form of military training. As Enloe (1993: 55)
argues, if boys had the ‘raw’ potential to become men, then they wouldn’t need a drill
sergeant. Here it becomes clear that the military makes men out of people, thereby
masculinising, and therefore gendering, matters of inter-state violence. Finally it is interesting
to note the tone of the article. Rosenberg is highlighting the might of the pro-Russians while
also belittling them by using the word ‘little’. The different masculinities are playing off
against each other and competing for dominance. This all contributes to a gendered
understanding of the Ukraine crisis, as the battle of masculinities becomes a legitimate focus
of debate.
Fig. 1: The “little green men” (Shevchenko 2014).
4. 3
As the article is focusing on soldiers, there is understandably a large emphasis on military
service. However, the use of some of the interviewee’s veteran status as a part of their
character serves to bolster their masculinity and in turn their integrity and legitimacy in the
context of the inter-state violence in Ukraine. For example Nikolai is referred to as a “veteran
military intelligence officer” who happens to mirror the concerns of the West, thereby
legitimising their views. The veteran identity has always carried a lot of credibility and
power, with American presidents often capitalising on their own veteran experience in order
to gain votes from the public in elections (Tickner 1992: 41). The emphasis on military
service suggests the military is a kind of insider’s club, a group that all men should aspire to.
The importance of the group construct cannot be understated. Kimmel (1994: 129) argues that
masculinity is a homosocial phenomenon, where men are seeking group approval. It is this
need for approval that leads to a fear of being labelled feminine, which in turn results in an
exaggeration of traditional masculinity. In the context of inter-state violence the military
represents this insider group, as it displays traditional masculine behaviour that centres
around power and control in order to garner respect. As the military plays a central role in
conventional matters of inter-state violence, it therefore masculinises the process and hence
undermines any notion of a non-gendered understanding.
Masculine hierarchies: Grandfathers, soldiers and boys
The article also demonstrates the salience of masculinity through the depiction of multiple
masculinities. Masculinity is not a singular trait; it is a set of diverse and adaptable
expectations about gender roles. This diversity and adaptability serves to maintain
masculinity’s dominance in the gender hierarchy, with a prime example being the
introduction and legitimisation of soldier-scholar masculinities (Khalili 2011: 1491). The
article opens with the description of a disgruntled old man: “Nikolai stood near the local
council building in Konstantinovka, leaning on his walking stick and shaking his head at the
scene in front of him” (Rosenberg 2014a). His identity at first leads the reader to sympathise
with him, as he comes across as a gentle grandfatherly figure. However, his perspective is
later concretised when the reader learns he also worked for the military intelligence service
when he was younger. The combination of grandfather and veteran legitimises his view that
the pro-Russia activists are actually Russian soldiers, and the rest of article rests on this claim.
Whether it is true or not is beside the point, what is of note here is that this particular identity
has the power to command respect and legitimacy. It is arguable that interviewing a
disgruntled old woman would have been less valid.
In addition to the old man, the second type of masculinity depicted is the militarised
masculine identity. This includes the pro-Russia activists/militants/guards, the Military
Commandant Vadim Ilovaisky, and the military officer Igor Strelkov/Girkin. They arguably
form the hegemonic masculinity in this particular context as they display key traits of
masculinity – power and control – through their invasion of public offices. It is important to
note that hegemonic masculinities are constantly changing depending on social context. As
Hooper (2001: 62) argues “Hegemonic masculinity can then be seen not as a fixed set of
dominant traits but as a constantly negotiated construct that draws on a pool of available
characteristics which… can be put together in different combinations depending on
circumstances”. For example, not all soldiers can be put in the hegemonic masculinity class, it
depends on what their role in the military is, and whether they are losing or winning. In this
article there is a clear sense that the Russian military is more powerful and hence more manly
than the Ukraine military, with the invasion of offices presented as a symbolic as well as
strategic victory over the other side. The symbolism is indeed a powerful tool, as the article
concludes, “If President Putin's plan is to weaken, or even split Ukraine, he may not need to
send in Russian tanks” (Rosenberg 2014a). Thus, the badge of manliness that pro-Russia
5. 4
militants embody is powerful enough to suggest that the physical firepower of tanks may not
even be needed.
Fig. 2: The militarisation of youth, and the emasculation of Ukraine (Rosenberg 2014a).
A third type of masculinity portrayed is that of the boy in the photograph (Fig. 2), being
raised up by the pro-Russia militants as he holds an automatic rifle. Here the boy represents a
lower tier of masculinity that is used to feminise the Ukrainian military, suggesting that they
can’t even defend its buildings against young boys. Indeed the image and caption clearly
emasculates Ukraine, with the caption reading “Pro-Russia activists have occupied
government buildings with relatively little difficulty” (Rosenberg 2014a). It could also be
argued that the celebration or championing of the boy (he’s being held above the activists’
heads) shows a willingness to fight on in the long term, or that the pro-Russians are here to
stay. This once again comes across as a challenge to the Ukraine military, emasculating them
further. Of course if the boy is representing the future of pro-Russian conflict, then he also
represents the maintenance of military masculinities. They are championing a boy, they have
not put a girl in that position, and hence the gender order/hierarchy will remain the same. In
this way the image highlights the discourse that suggests the military is a natural place for
males. Not only is he wearing a camouflage hat and holding a gun, he is also smiling which
confers a sense of naturalness to the image. It seems that overall these different types of
masculinities – old, young, militarised, winning, losing etc. intersect with each other, and
depict a masculine power hierarchy, which in this inter-state violence context, puts the pro-
Russia activists on top. The formation of masculinities in this context shows the extent to
which inter-state violence is gendered, and hence it becomes clear that a non-gendered
understanding is impossible.
Defensive discourse
Language and discourse are what lead to the formation of masculinities. Cohn (1987: 705)
describes learning to use technostrategic language as “…learning a new language, but by the
time you are through, the content of what you can talk about is monumentally different, as is
the perspective from which you speak”. The constraining nature of discourse is apparent here,
6. 5
as the only acceptable way to talk about defense structures is in a masculine, rational,
unemotional tone. This kind of discourse is inherent in the military as an institution, with
snappy nicknames for high tech equipment and abbreviations that only military personnel will
understand, leading to the creation of insiders and outsiders. This militarised discourse is
apparent in the article, with the EU claiming Igor Girkin is a staff member of the “Main
Intelligence Directorate of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation
(GRU)” (Rosenberg 2014a). This excessive use of military labelling clearly militarises and
masculinises Igor’s identity removing him and the issues surrounding him from the feminine,
or everyday insecurities of Ukraine’s general population. This kind of language/discourse also
leads to a sense of urgency, where military issues are perceived as superior to that of all
others, legitimising realism’s version of world politics by downplaying the attractiveness or
feasibility of alternative solutions (Tickner 1992: 50). Language and discourse is therefore
key in masculinising inter-state violence.
Further evidence of the confines of masculine discourse during inter-state violence is apparent
in the article when Vadim Ilovaisky, Kramatorsk’s new Military Commandant (note the
militarised title), is asked where he is from. The reply, “I’m Cossack… my grandfather and
great-grandfather were from Stavropol region (in southern Russia)” highlights the use of
patriarchal ties to justify his identity in the now militarised setting of a Mayoral office that has
been taken over by pro-Russian soldier activists. If he were asked the same question in a
different setting which was outside of the inter-state violence context, he may well refer to
where his mother, grandmother, or generally grandparents were from. But this is not possible
now that he is wearing army fatigues in a building that he has taken by force. Suddenly his
masculinity must be asserted, his identity strengthened, in order to be taken seriously in a
time of masculinised conflict. By only mentioning his male relatives he is implicitly creating
a hierarchy between the sexes, suggesting that the men in the family are more important or of
higher value than the women. Furthermore he is described (and pictured in Fig. 3) as “poring
over the maps of the region” (Rosenberg 2014a) which demonstrates another military ideal –
‘rational’ thinking. As Enloe (2007: 40) argues, “National security thinking has left no room
for sentimentality: one has to be able to confront unpleasant facts ‘without blinking’; one has
to be ‘hard nosed’. Rational manly security experts must be capable of ‘muscular thinking’;
they must never show themselves to be ‘soft’”. Once again it is clear that the
military/masculinity discourse is extremely powerful and pervasive, effecting how inter-state
violence is conducted.
Fig. 3: Vadim Ilovaisky in the deputy mayor’s (now occupied) office (Rosenberg 2014a).
7. 6
The article also includes a reference to popular culture, a form of ‘low politics’ that arguably
has a huge impact on society’s conception of international relations. In paragraph two
Rosenberg writes, “Pro-Russia activists were building barricades with concrete blocks and
sandbags and singing along to а pop song about the Soviet Union.” The activists singing
while barricading the invaded government building conveys a sense of ease, confidence, or
even invincibility, once again serving to emasculate and belittle the Ukrainian authorities. The
pervasiveness of popular culture, here represented by a pop song, reflects the importance of
‘low politics’ in contributing to discourses that effect society. For example, Power (2007:
286) argues that the simplification of cultures and histories in popular culture can become a
form of violence as they are separated into categories leading to the exclusion of negative
‘others’. Carruthers (2003: 172) also argues that popular culture can reshape memories and
histories, promoting nationalist ideals, especially in depictions of conflicts, where the duty
and brotherhood of soldiers often trumps the politics that are causing the fighting, leading to a
lack of meaningful questioning of violence and war. Popular culture is also deeply gendered,
whether in its depiction of inferior, feminised cultures, or in ideals of masculinity being
promoted by action hero soldiers. As popular culture is intrinsic to every day life, it also
applies to inter-state violence, and hence provides another extremely gendered discourse in
understanding conflict.
The consequences of masculinised inter-state violence
Having analysed the central depiction of various masculine and military identities to inter-
state violence, I shall now discuss the gendered consequences that these powerful discourses
have on society. Firstly the importance attached to masculine identities means that nationalist
issues such as defence strategies tend to be prioritised over more general societal security. By
security I mean an absence of not only physical violence, but also of inequalities that lead to
feminised members of society experiencing unfair social and economic adversity. Enloe
(2000: 59) argues that nationalist policies often trump issues concerned with bettering
women’s place in society. This is because national security is a military issue, and the
masculine connotations associated with it give it credence in the political sphere. As Cohn
and Ruddick (2003: 13) explain, non-violent approaches are delegitimised through an
association with the feminine, hence making it embarrassing to be caught ‘thinking like a
woman’. Furthermore Anand (2008: 175) argues that nationalism is an extremely sexualised
issue, comparing it with groups of men who are anxious about their own sexuality and need to
impose a strong sense of manliness to be able to garner nationalist respect. Evidently Ukraine
is experiencing a similar crisis, as the sizing up of masculinities laid out in the article
illustrates. A focus on masculinities competing against one another has the consequence of
making feminised identities and issues invisible, hence gendering any understanding of inter-
state violence.
A second consequence stemming from a focus on masculine identities is the sheer absence or
misrepresentation of women. Rosenberg’s article uses a number of perspectives to understand
who the ‘little green men’ are,but none of these perspectives are female. There are six named
men in the article, as well as mentions of male soldiers and ancestors, however there is no
mention of women, despite the fact that the presence of these pro-Russia activists affect all of
Ukraine’s population – women included. Female voices are discounted as they are not part of
the masculinised realm of inter-state violence, despite the fact that it affects them equally or
even more. Two of the men highlighted in the article were state leaders, ‘President Putin’ and
‘acting President Olexander Turchynov’. It is unsurprising that they are both male, as political
leadership has traditionally been reserved for men, being ten times more likely to hold
political office than women (Connell 2005: 82). Despite this, women are still struggling to
break into this masculinised sphere. The masculine discourse of international politics is
8. 7
extremely powerful and difficult to change, resulting in many women essentially becoming
men to facilitate their integration. For example Enloe (2000: 4) describes women lowering
their voices an octave just in order to fit in. These are clear examples of how gender effects
international politics, and this in turn means that it is not possible to have a non-gendered
understanding of inter-state violence.
The article also alludes to an absence of women in politics more generally. Rosenberg writes
of a closed door meeting held in the US where Secretary of State John Kerry was present.
These closed door meetings represent a barrier to female perspectives being taken on board as
they are often for political elites only, who again are mainly men. This is demonstrated in
another article, “Ukraine crisis: Russian officials targeted by sanctions” (BBC News 2014,
Fig. 4). Out of twenty-two officials pictured, only one is a woman. Furthermore she is
depicted as being outside Putin’s ‘inner circle’, a list consisting of seven males. This gender
disparity is problematic as it contributes to the gender hierarchy in which men are dominant
and have more power. It is arguable that this power imbalance is a form of violence, as it
leads to the exclusion of people associated with femininity. This in turn has an effect on
international relations and the way that countries are governed as there is an over-reliance on
masculine values and discourse. Therefore it is evident that gender contributes to both politics
‘on the ground’ as well as in ‘high’ politics. This correlation means that inter-state violence
cannot be understood in a non-gendered way from any perspective.
Fig. 4: The male-dominated sphere of Russia’s ‘high politics’ (BBC News 2014).
The article also illustrates how the language surrounding matters of international relations
hides a hidden masculinised gender order. Thus, when it is written that “Washington had
already accused Russia” (Rosenberg 2014a); it is taken for granted who is representing these
place-names. Obviously neither Washington nor Russia can speak because they are
geographical territories. But they are written about in this way as these names are supposed to
represent the people within those geographical spaces. However, this is not the case. A more
accurate rephrasing would be “(mainly) old, white, powerful men in Washington accuse
(mainly) old, white, powerful men in Russia”. The gender hierarchy is hidden in the discourse
of traditional international relations, which assumes the world is genderless. Thus, “IR
symbolically becomes a wholly masculine sphere of war and diplomacy, at the furthest
extreme of families, women, and reproduction… personal life, domestic and family life, and
even much of civil society has been evacuated from IR” (Hooper 2001: 92). Once again it
becomes plain that apparently gender-neutral ways of discussing international relations
actually tend to hide the gender order where masculinity is dominant. This applies to inter-
state violence as it must be recognised that states are an extremely masculinised phenomenon.
9. 8
Conclusion
“If we do not redefine manhood, war is inevitable” – Paul Fussel (in Tickner 1992: 27)
In conclusion, there is not a non-gendered way to understand inter-state violence. This is
firstly because everything is gendered, and hence the terms ‘inter-state’ and ‘violence’ must
also be gendered. Furthermore, when combined, the concept of ‘inter-state violence’ is also
extremely gendered, as I have shown regarding the article “Ukraine Crisis: The Little Green
Men” (Rosenberg 2014a). By analysing the article’s depictions of men I have illustrated that
in times of inter-state conflict there is an emphasis on military masculinities and masculine
hierarchies. These serve to reinforce traditional masculine discourses surrounding
international state violence, and lead to gendered consequences in which feminised identities
and issues are neglected. Overall it is clear that gender is inherent in everything, and in this
case particularly the ‘Ukraine crisis’. It is not possible therefore, to state that there is a non-
gendered way of understanding inter-state violence. While, as a Gender and IR student, I find
this conclusion obvious, it is troubling that for most people this answer might be surprising.
The masculine nature of international relations (and in this case coverage of inter-state
violence) is as pervasive as it is hidden. In order to even attempt to reduce violence the gender
order must become visible so that is can be questioned, which might ultimately lead to
change.
10. 9
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