Diversity on Wall Street: Where are the women decision makers?Stacey Troup
a case study on the failure of Wall Street to vastly recognize women as viable solutions to portfolio management and other high-profile positions that are predominantly held by men.
States of Denial: Gendering Policy & Practice in Domestic Abuse and Mental Health Services - Professor Linda McKie, Glasgow Caledonian University - a presentation at A Difficult Alliance? Making Connections between Mental Health and Domestic Violence Research and Practice Agendas on 7 June 2011
Economics and Sociological Foundations of Prosocial Behavior: A Theoretical S...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Economic incentives and social norms known as social preferences are likely to have important effects on shaping of prosocial behaviors of individuals. In this paper, we attempt to bring together social norms and economic incentives on an equal footing in a model of individual choice concerning prosocial behavior. We present a comprehensive overview of economics and sociological theories that address themotives of individual’s prosocial behavior.
Diversity on Wall Street: Where are the women decision makers?Stacey Troup
a case study on the failure of Wall Street to vastly recognize women as viable solutions to portfolio management and other high-profile positions that are predominantly held by men.
States of Denial: Gendering Policy & Practice in Domestic Abuse and Mental Health Services - Professor Linda McKie, Glasgow Caledonian University - a presentation at A Difficult Alliance? Making Connections between Mental Health and Domestic Violence Research and Practice Agendas on 7 June 2011
Economics and Sociological Foundations of Prosocial Behavior: A Theoretical S...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Economic incentives and social norms known as social preferences are likely to have important effects on shaping of prosocial behaviors of individuals. In this paper, we attempt to bring together social norms and economic incentives on an equal footing in a model of individual choice concerning prosocial behavior. We present a comprehensive overview of economics and sociological theories that address themotives of individual’s prosocial behavior.
El Acceso Abierto en España ha recorrido un largo camino y con éxitos evidentes pero con demasiados obstáculos. A riesgo de simplificar demasiado, hemos pasado en España de abordar como dar soporte desde el punto de vista de la tecnología al Acceso Abierto, a tener que afrontar problemas menos de infraestructura y más de estrategia y política institucional con respecto al mismo. Son muchas las preguntas y dudas a las que aun hoy nos enfrentamos.
¿Cuál es y cuál debe ser el papel de las agencias financiadoras? ¿Resulta fácil para un investigador en España cumplir con los requisitos que se le imponen con respecto al Acceso Abierto? ¿Es posible apostar a nivel institucional por el Acceso Abierto y al mismo tiempo cumplir con las limitaciones que la vigente Ley de propiedad intelectual impone al acceso a través de las redes? ¿Es factible un acuerdo gana/gana entre bibliotecas y grandes editores académicos? ¿Cuál es el papel que deben jugar las bibliotecas? ¿Estamos preparados para afrontar los retos del Open Data?
REBIUN, sectorial de la CRUE dedicada a las bibliotecas universitarias, ya en 2004 se posicionó como defensora e impulsora del Acceso Abierto y, desde entonces, han sido numerosas las iniciativas y trabajos liderados por REBIUN en este sentido. En la actualidad, su vigente plan estratégico recoge objetivos estratégicos relacionados con la difusión y promoción del acceso abierto.
CHAPTER 11Women Across CulturesHilary Lips and Katie Lawson.docxbartholomeocoombs
CHAPTER 11
Women Across Cultures
Hilary Lips and Katie Lawson
Women’s lives differ, sometimes drastically, across cultures. Yet there are themes in their difficulties and challenges, in their strengths and successes, that link women’s experiences across cultural boundaries. In diverse cultures, women face, for example, an emphasis on molding their bodies to fit cultural standards of physical appearance and beauty, an expectation that they will carry the major burdens of childrearing, and ascribed status that is lower than men’s. Yet women in different cultures deal differently with such issues. This chapter examines some of the important commonalities and differences across cultures in women’s lives. Included in our narrative are issues linked to physical bodies, motherhood and family, work and pay, violence, power and leadership, and feminist activism. A theme that links all these issues is the gendering of power. Women and men control different amounts and types of the resources upon which power is based; such differences in access to resources help shape gender differences in behavior in each of these realms.
Physical Bodies
Worldwide, women face enormous pressure to adhere to strict standards of physical beauty—in part because a beautiful body is one resource a woman can use to gain status, solidify relationships, and attract other resources. Due to the body dissatisfaction that often results from this pressure to be beautiful, women go to great lengths to mold their bodies to conform to cultural standards. In parts of Africa and Thailand, girls as young as age 3 begin to wear rings around their necks in an attempt to make them appear longer, in order to attract an affluent husband as an adult. Over the years, additional rings (weighing up to 12 pounds) are added to the neck. The rings push down the collarbone and ribs to create the illusion of a neck up to 10 to 12 inches longer (Mydans, 2001). In the United States, nearly 91% of the 11.7 million cosmetic surgeries were performed on women in 2007 (American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 2008). These surgeries include breast and buttocks implants, collagen lip injections, and liposuction (Gangestad & Scheyd, 2005).
Although women worldwide are often dissatisfied with their bodies, the type of dissatisfaction depends on the culture. Women in Western cultures often strive for thinness (which is associated with control, wealth, and happiness), while individuals in non-Western, poorer cultures often associate thinness with poverty, disease, and malnutrition, and thus admire larger women. Although traditionally more affluent cultures prefer thin women while poorer cultures prefer larger women, the gap between these cultural preferences has been shrinking due to the “Westernization” of many cultures (Grogan, 2008). Cultures not only differ on weight preferences, but also on desirable size for particular areas of the body. Women between the ages of 18 and 24 in Canada report more diss.
GenderAs Edmund Leach observed, one of the things that mar.docxbudbarber38650
Gender
As Edmund Leach observed, one of the things that marriage does is “Give either or both
spouses rights to the labor of the other.” This is necessary because the gendered division of labor
is one of the basic aspects of all societies. That is, a society in which males and females do
exactly the same things is unknown. Marriage creates a household that encompasses both male
and female tasks, theoretically creating a unit in which everything that needs to be done can be
done, regardless of who does it (which varies by culture).
Male and female, and other genders are subject to the same kinds of hierarchical
distinctions, advantages, and disabilities as classes, castes, ethnic groups, and social races.
Anthropologists approach gender as being culturally constructed, as well as biologically
determined. A person’s sex is determined by chromosomes, hormones and physical
characteristics. Gender, in contrast, is culturally defined and constructed, so that the rights,
duties and responsibilities associated with biological sex vary from group to group. Each culture
has its ‘gender scripts’ which define what it means to be male and female and how men and
women should interact in a variety of social settings. These scripts are learned through
enculturation and are legitimized and sanctioned through gender-related ideologies contained in
creation myths, and by rituals that validate gender role authority and dominance.
Gender Ideologies
In many cultures, males believe that they are spiritually superior to women and that
females are dangerous, weak, and untrustworthy. The male knowledge embraces secret male
initiation rites, male residence in a separate men’s house, from which women are excluded. Any
woman who admits to knowing the secrets of the cult is threatened with rape or death.
In contrast, in west African cultures, women are often portrayed as creative agents; their
mythological charters describe women as progenitors of the people and agents for the fertility of
the soil. Moreover, female deities are often found in societies where women are valued as food
producers – where women are actively engaged in producing crops and are farmers in their own
right. However, there is no ethnographically known case of matriarchy, a society in which
women are dominant.
The myth of matriarchy invariably highlights women’s failure as rulers — because
women did not know how to handle power — and reaffirms the inferiority of their present
position. In the case of the Mundurucu of Brazil, the myth describes the reversal of the social
order, when women controlled the sacred instruments. The women, however, did not know how
to protect the trumpets, and because of their incompetence, men took control of the instruments
and became the dominant sex.
The relativity of gender Hierarchies
How much of the male claim to spiritual superiority do women believe in societies where
it is professed? One must be skeptical that an.
Slavery Essays. . Slavery Essay Essay on Slavery for Students and Children i...Kelly Simon
Slavery essay Fall 2014 Grade A - From 1775 to 1830, many African .... The Impact of Slavery - Free Essay Example | PapersOwl.com. Modern-day Slavery in the United States - Free Essay Example .... Sample essay on slavery. Essay on slavery in the us - dissertationideas.x.fc2.com. Slavery and Reconstruction History Essay - Perfect Academic. The Abolishment of the Slave Trade Essay - GCSE History - Marked by .... Essay on Slaves | Slaves Essay for Students and Children in English - A .... 12 Years a Slave: A Unique View On Slavery - Free Essay Example .... Arguments for Slavery - An Essay | Abolitionism In The United States .... the historical event essay | Slavery In The United States | Slavery. Write my Paper for Cheap in High Quality - essay on abolition of ....
Sociology Essays.pdfSociology Essays. Sociology paper example. Sociology Ess...Dawn Tucker
First Sociology Essay - David Flynn 117451924 SC Karl Marx and The .... Sociology Essay - Dorothy Smith “That is, women experience oppression .... Sociology essay example. sociology - Custom Essays, Coursework and Assignment Writing Center. Sociology essay writing.
Feudalism Essay. The Effects Of Feudalism In Europe Following The Fall Of The...Felicia May
Feudalism essay rought draft. Social classes in european feudalism essay. Write an essay on feudalism. Feudalism And Manorialism Essay Contest - Essay for you. Feudalism reading only. (DOC) Feudalism in Europe | Ishita Roy - Academia.edu. Feudalism - Medieval History Essay - GCSE History - Marked by Teachers.com. Essay on feudalism - Reliable Writing Aid From Top Writers. Feudalism In Europe - 354 Words | Free Essay Example on GraduateWay. PPT - Feudalism: A System for Living PowerPoint Presentation, free .... An Introduction to Feudalism | Feudalism | Lord. ⇉The Transition from Feudalism to the Renaissance Essay Example .... Feudalism Essay | Feudalism | Nobility. Feudalism and Court Services Vassals - PHDessay.com. Feudalism. Feudalism is a dominate social in medieval Europe. Feudalism consists .... The Decline of Feudalism Read the text below and answer the. The Effects Of Feudalism In Europe Following The Fall Of The Rome .... Feudalism in Europe - GCSE History - Marked by Teachers.com. Feudal Economic System (600 Words) - PHDessay.com. Feudalism presentation info. FEUDALISM. Feudalism Reading. Medieval Feudal Hierarchy | Feudal Hierarchy In Medieval Europe. Feudalism Project. The advantages and disadvantages of the feudal system, a prize essay ... Feudalism Essay
Essay on History of Sexuality
Essay on Sex and Gender
Essay about Human Sexuality
Gender and Sexuality Essay
Female Sexuality Essay examples
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Essay on Womens Sexuality
Reflection On Sexuality
All About Sex Essay
Essay on Sexuality and Sexual Identity
Sexuality in the Elderly Essays
Gender And Sexuality Essay
Inequalities of women trahan & growe (focus) doneWilliam Kritsonis
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS are a group of national and international refereed, blind-reviewed academic journals. NFJ publishes articles academic intellectual diversity, multicultural issues, management, business, administration, issues focusing on colleges, universities, and schools, all aspects of schooling, special education, counseling and addiction, international issues of education, organizational behavior, theory and development, and much more. DR. WILLIAM ALLAN KRITSONIS is Editor-in-Chief (Since 1982). See: www.nationalforum.com
El Acceso Abierto en España ha recorrido un largo camino y con éxitos evidentes pero con demasiados obstáculos. A riesgo de simplificar demasiado, hemos pasado en España de abordar como dar soporte desde el punto de vista de la tecnología al Acceso Abierto, a tener que afrontar problemas menos de infraestructura y más de estrategia y política institucional con respecto al mismo. Son muchas las preguntas y dudas a las que aun hoy nos enfrentamos.
¿Cuál es y cuál debe ser el papel de las agencias financiadoras? ¿Resulta fácil para un investigador en España cumplir con los requisitos que se le imponen con respecto al Acceso Abierto? ¿Es posible apostar a nivel institucional por el Acceso Abierto y al mismo tiempo cumplir con las limitaciones que la vigente Ley de propiedad intelectual impone al acceso a través de las redes? ¿Es factible un acuerdo gana/gana entre bibliotecas y grandes editores académicos? ¿Cuál es el papel que deben jugar las bibliotecas? ¿Estamos preparados para afrontar los retos del Open Data?
REBIUN, sectorial de la CRUE dedicada a las bibliotecas universitarias, ya en 2004 se posicionó como defensora e impulsora del Acceso Abierto y, desde entonces, han sido numerosas las iniciativas y trabajos liderados por REBIUN en este sentido. En la actualidad, su vigente plan estratégico recoge objetivos estratégicos relacionados con la difusión y promoción del acceso abierto.
CHAPTER 11Women Across CulturesHilary Lips and Katie Lawson.docxbartholomeocoombs
CHAPTER 11
Women Across Cultures
Hilary Lips and Katie Lawson
Women’s lives differ, sometimes drastically, across cultures. Yet there are themes in their difficulties and challenges, in their strengths and successes, that link women’s experiences across cultural boundaries. In diverse cultures, women face, for example, an emphasis on molding their bodies to fit cultural standards of physical appearance and beauty, an expectation that they will carry the major burdens of childrearing, and ascribed status that is lower than men’s. Yet women in different cultures deal differently with such issues. This chapter examines some of the important commonalities and differences across cultures in women’s lives. Included in our narrative are issues linked to physical bodies, motherhood and family, work and pay, violence, power and leadership, and feminist activism. A theme that links all these issues is the gendering of power. Women and men control different amounts and types of the resources upon which power is based; such differences in access to resources help shape gender differences in behavior in each of these realms.
Physical Bodies
Worldwide, women face enormous pressure to adhere to strict standards of physical beauty—in part because a beautiful body is one resource a woman can use to gain status, solidify relationships, and attract other resources. Due to the body dissatisfaction that often results from this pressure to be beautiful, women go to great lengths to mold their bodies to conform to cultural standards. In parts of Africa and Thailand, girls as young as age 3 begin to wear rings around their necks in an attempt to make them appear longer, in order to attract an affluent husband as an adult. Over the years, additional rings (weighing up to 12 pounds) are added to the neck. The rings push down the collarbone and ribs to create the illusion of a neck up to 10 to 12 inches longer (Mydans, 2001). In the United States, nearly 91% of the 11.7 million cosmetic surgeries were performed on women in 2007 (American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 2008). These surgeries include breast and buttocks implants, collagen lip injections, and liposuction (Gangestad & Scheyd, 2005).
Although women worldwide are often dissatisfied with their bodies, the type of dissatisfaction depends on the culture. Women in Western cultures often strive for thinness (which is associated with control, wealth, and happiness), while individuals in non-Western, poorer cultures often associate thinness with poverty, disease, and malnutrition, and thus admire larger women. Although traditionally more affluent cultures prefer thin women while poorer cultures prefer larger women, the gap between these cultural preferences has been shrinking due to the “Westernization” of many cultures (Grogan, 2008). Cultures not only differ on weight preferences, but also on desirable size for particular areas of the body. Women between the ages of 18 and 24 in Canada report more diss.
GenderAs Edmund Leach observed, one of the things that mar.docxbudbarber38650
Gender
As Edmund Leach observed, one of the things that marriage does is “Give either or both
spouses rights to the labor of the other.” This is necessary because the gendered division of labor
is one of the basic aspects of all societies. That is, a society in which males and females do
exactly the same things is unknown. Marriage creates a household that encompasses both male
and female tasks, theoretically creating a unit in which everything that needs to be done can be
done, regardless of who does it (which varies by culture).
Male and female, and other genders are subject to the same kinds of hierarchical
distinctions, advantages, and disabilities as classes, castes, ethnic groups, and social races.
Anthropologists approach gender as being culturally constructed, as well as biologically
determined. A person’s sex is determined by chromosomes, hormones and physical
characteristics. Gender, in contrast, is culturally defined and constructed, so that the rights,
duties and responsibilities associated with biological sex vary from group to group. Each culture
has its ‘gender scripts’ which define what it means to be male and female and how men and
women should interact in a variety of social settings. These scripts are learned through
enculturation and are legitimized and sanctioned through gender-related ideologies contained in
creation myths, and by rituals that validate gender role authority and dominance.
Gender Ideologies
In many cultures, males believe that they are spiritually superior to women and that
females are dangerous, weak, and untrustworthy. The male knowledge embraces secret male
initiation rites, male residence in a separate men’s house, from which women are excluded. Any
woman who admits to knowing the secrets of the cult is threatened with rape or death.
In contrast, in west African cultures, women are often portrayed as creative agents; their
mythological charters describe women as progenitors of the people and agents for the fertility of
the soil. Moreover, female deities are often found in societies where women are valued as food
producers – where women are actively engaged in producing crops and are farmers in their own
right. However, there is no ethnographically known case of matriarchy, a society in which
women are dominant.
The myth of matriarchy invariably highlights women’s failure as rulers — because
women did not know how to handle power — and reaffirms the inferiority of their present
position. In the case of the Mundurucu of Brazil, the myth describes the reversal of the social
order, when women controlled the sacred instruments. The women, however, did not know how
to protect the trumpets, and because of their incompetence, men took control of the instruments
and became the dominant sex.
The relativity of gender Hierarchies
How much of the male claim to spiritual superiority do women believe in societies where
it is professed? One must be skeptical that an.
Slavery Essays. . Slavery Essay Essay on Slavery for Students and Children i...Kelly Simon
Slavery essay Fall 2014 Grade A - From 1775 to 1830, many African .... The Impact of Slavery - Free Essay Example | PapersOwl.com. Modern-day Slavery in the United States - Free Essay Example .... Sample essay on slavery. Essay on slavery in the us - dissertationideas.x.fc2.com. Slavery and Reconstruction History Essay - Perfect Academic. The Abolishment of the Slave Trade Essay - GCSE History - Marked by .... Essay on Slaves | Slaves Essay for Students and Children in English - A .... 12 Years a Slave: A Unique View On Slavery - Free Essay Example .... Arguments for Slavery - An Essay | Abolitionism In The United States .... the historical event essay | Slavery In The United States | Slavery. Write my Paper for Cheap in High Quality - essay on abolition of ....
Sociology Essays.pdfSociology Essays. Sociology paper example. Sociology Ess...Dawn Tucker
First Sociology Essay - David Flynn 117451924 SC Karl Marx and The .... Sociology Essay - Dorothy Smith “That is, women experience oppression .... Sociology essay example. sociology - Custom Essays, Coursework and Assignment Writing Center. Sociology essay writing.
Feudalism Essay. The Effects Of Feudalism In Europe Following The Fall Of The...Felicia May
Feudalism essay rought draft. Social classes in european feudalism essay. Write an essay on feudalism. Feudalism And Manorialism Essay Contest - Essay for you. Feudalism reading only. (DOC) Feudalism in Europe | Ishita Roy - Academia.edu. Feudalism - Medieval History Essay - GCSE History - Marked by Teachers.com. Essay on feudalism - Reliable Writing Aid From Top Writers. Feudalism In Europe - 354 Words | Free Essay Example on GraduateWay. PPT - Feudalism: A System for Living PowerPoint Presentation, free .... An Introduction to Feudalism | Feudalism | Lord. ⇉The Transition from Feudalism to the Renaissance Essay Example .... Feudalism Essay | Feudalism | Nobility. Feudalism and Court Services Vassals - PHDessay.com. Feudalism. Feudalism is a dominate social in medieval Europe. Feudalism consists .... The Decline of Feudalism Read the text below and answer the. The Effects Of Feudalism In Europe Following The Fall Of The Rome .... Feudalism in Europe - GCSE History - Marked by Teachers.com. Feudal Economic System (600 Words) - PHDessay.com. Feudalism presentation info. FEUDALISM. Feudalism Reading. Medieval Feudal Hierarchy | Feudal Hierarchy In Medieval Europe. Feudalism Project. The advantages and disadvantages of the feudal system, a prize essay ... Feudalism Essay
Essay on History of Sexuality
Essay on Sex and Gender
Essay about Human Sexuality
Gender and Sexuality Essay
Female Sexuality Essay examples
Essay on Gender and Sexuality
Essay on Womens Sexuality
Reflection On Sexuality
All About Sex Essay
Essay on Sexuality and Sexual Identity
Sexuality in the Elderly Essays
Gender And Sexuality Essay
Inequalities of women trahan & growe (focus) doneWilliam Kritsonis
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS are a group of national and international refereed, blind-reviewed academic journals. NFJ publishes articles academic intellectual diversity, multicultural issues, management, business, administration, issues focusing on colleges, universities, and schools, all aspects of schooling, special education, counseling and addiction, international issues of education, organizational behavior, theory and development, and much more. DR. WILLIAM ALLAN KRITSONIS is Editor-in-Chief (Since 1982). See: www.nationalforum.com
1. Name: Susannah East
Student ID number: 231616
Essay title: An analysis of bodily modification: “Snow Flower and the Secret Fan” by
Lisa See
Course: Politics of Gender
Course code: 153400074
Assignment 2
Word count: 2017
2. An analysis of bodily modification:
“Snow Flower and the Secret Fan” by Lisa See
Introduction
“Snow Flower and the Secret Fan” (2007) is a fictional novel by Lisa See that tells the story
of Lily and her relationship with her ‘old-same’ (close friend) Snow Flower, through their
experiences of family, foot binding, marriage, and rebellion in 19th
century rural China. I shall
analyse the bodily modification that takes place in the book while reflecting on essays by
Brooks (2004), Gimlin (2002), Gruenbaum (1996) and James (1998). I find that there are
many similarities between various forms of bodily modification (in this case foot binding,
female circumcision and cosmetic surgery). These similarities stem from processes of
normalisation of practice; various costs implicated; cultural significance; and critiques. I shall
address each of these topics in turn, while assessing whether the essays illuminate the issues
addressed in Lisa See’s novel.
In Brooks’ (2004) essay “Under the knife and proud of it: an analysis of the normalisation of
cosmetic surgery”, the author illustrates how processes such as advertisement; approval from
higher authorities; traits of virtue and courage; the practical nature of self improvement;
language and conformity shape how society perceives bodily modification. This is extremely
relevant to the practice of foot binding discussed in See’s (2007) novel, as similar processes
resulted in the normalisation and acceptance of the extremely crippling and painful practice of
foot binding. For example, Brooks’ (2004) argues that media coverage and advertisement of
cosmetic surgery in America casts cosmetic surgery in a very positive light. Similarly, in the
Yao culture of See’s novel, there are many songs and poems performed that articulate the
beauty and virtue of having perfectly bound feet, while explicitly leaving out the risks and
3. dangers of foot binding (Lily’s sister dies a few weeks after beginning the process). The songs
and stories promote conformity through language by also including how the Emperor was
pleased by women’s small feet, which provided a strong sense of approval from China’s
highest authority figure. This can be equated with America’s FDA (Food and Drug
Association) officially approving the use of Botox in 2002 (Brooks, 2004), thereby
legitimising the practice.
Traits of virtue and courage in the face of bodily modification are also highly prized in the
practices of both cosmetic surgery and foot binding. For example, Brooks (2004) argues that
women who “embrace cosmetic surgery without hesitation are praised for their boldness and
courage”, while those who are open and honest about the procedure are equated with virtue.
In See’s novel, at seven years old, Lily is determined to show how brave she is by not
resisting, while her sister is called worthless for attempting to escape the procedure. As Lily
explains, submitting to foot binding “offered proof to prospective in-laws of my personal
discipline and my ability to endure the pain of childbirth”. While age difference may seem a
discrepancy between the two bodily modifications, Gimlin (2002) describes how it is not
uncommon for parents to suggest surgery for their children – such is the extent of the
normalisation of the practice. Finally, in both circumstances the practical nature of self-
improvement is stressed. Lily is lucky enough to have small, well formed feet – if they are
bound correctly then she will be given the opportunity to marry into a higher family, one that
will provide her with “better connections, a better bride-price, and long-term political and
economic protection”. Likewise, Brooks (2004) argues that some women are keen to have
surgery in order to appear young, thereby enhancing their job prospects. Clearly then, bodily
modifications have some similarities across time and space, with the normalisation and
acceptance of often painful procedures being key to their survival, despite crippling or
desensitising side effects.
4. In “Cosmetic surgery: Paying for your beauty”, Gimlin (2002) provides analysis of various
costs involved in bodily modifications regarding cosmetic surgery. These include painful side
effects; the body as a commodity; symbolic damage to others; modification as a quick
alternative to changing perceptions of one’s self; and short term benefits which reproduce
dominant beauty cultures. In See’s novel Lily experiences all of the above, all resulting from
her feet being bound. Firstly, and most obviously, the painful side effects of foot binding are
extreme. Lily describes the two year process in excruciating detail, explaining how four toes
are bent under the foot, the arch is broken, and the girls are made to walk daily in order to
break the bones, as their feet are bound tighter every week or so. Her body is also clearly
depicted as a commodity, as Lily, Madame Wang (the matchmaker), and Lily’s family use
her bound feet to reap economic and political rewards. However, there are also examples of
economic drawbacks to foot binding. These (as in cosmetic surgery) are mainly felt by the
poor who can’t afford the ‘luxury’ of body modification. With sympathy, Lily describes
impoverished rural farmers whose wives only bind their feet loosely prior to marriage before
removing the bandages in order to work on the land. This is regarded by Lily as, “…the most
horrible thing I could imagine: not having your feet bound, being raised by strangers who had
to be of such low morals that they didn’t want a proper daughter-in-law.”
From this statement the normalisation of, and indeed preference for, bodily modification is
clearly expressed. As Gimlin (2002) argues, this results in symbolic damage done to other
women, who, in being ‘ordinary’ (unmodified) are regarded as being ugly, poor, or generally
subordinate. Lily finds that the derogatory term “little daughters-in-law” is regularly used to
describe such women; thereby legitimising the practice further. Gimlin (2002) rightly argues
that body modification is a quick alternative to changing one’s perception of themselves,
which can take a lot of time and mental and emotional effort. Although self-esteem is not a
goal to strive for in Lily’s life, it is clear that bodily modification is the only means to secure a
5. proper identity – as foot binding leads to marriage and sons. Lily’s character also illustrates
Gimlin’s point that short-term gains (such as marriage into a powerful family) help perpetuate
beauty regimes, or harmful traditions. After marriage, as Lily becomes more wrapped up in
her title of ‘Lady Lu’ she even uses Nu Shu (women’s secret writing) to advocate women’s
subservience to men, as she argues that, “Sons are the foundation of a woman’s self. They
give a woman her identity, as well as dignity, protection, and economic value.” Therefore it is
evident that there are cross-overs between cosmetic surgery and foot binding practices; which
illustrate that bodily modifications can and have lead to painful side effects; the body as a
commodity; symbolic damage to others; and ‘quick-fix’ self images that perpetuate
potentially harmful practices.
Gruenbaum (1996), in her paper, “The cultural debate over female circumcision”, argues that,
despite the harmful (physical, mental and emotional) nature of female circumcision, “…most
women and girls react with acceptance- as well as with some fear. Their attitude is that
although circumcision is difficult, it is just one aspect of being a woman.” This clearly
resonates with Lily’s story, as she fearfully expresses the various painful aspects of foot
binding while also constantly being reminded by her mother that it is necessary, and part of
being a woman. Gruenbaum (1996) also argues that dangerous practices aren’t necessarily
maladaptive, as she cites respect, status, and various economic and political gains associated
with circumcision. These also ring true for Lily, however, I argue that the damage done
through her foot binding far outweigh these gains. For example, not withstanding the painful
and crippling nature of the procedure itself, her adherence to the patriarchal norms and
traditions associated with foot binding tragically lead to her overlooking Snow Flower’s fatal
illness; believing instead that Snow Flower should “wrap herself in the conventions that
protect women” rather than seek medical or emotional support. It is misguided therefore, for
Gruenbaum (1996) to argue that there are many other problems that need to be addressed that
are unrelated to bodily modification, as adherence to patriarchal practices clearly have effects
6. on the manner in which ‘unrelated’ issues such as disease, conflict, and starvation are dealt
with. This is further illustrated by See’s depiction of the Taiping Rebellion (1851-64);
wherein women are unable to sufficiently cope with long marches of escape due to their
bodily modifications.
Gruenbaum (1996) is a firm critic of Western scholars preaching against what they perceive
to be ‘ignorance’ and ‘barbaric’ cultures because they are uncomfortable with highly different
cultural practices. Lisa See, however, gives an extremely relevant cultural perspective. Far
from focusing purely on dominance of men over women, she illuminates the practices of
NuShu (women’s secret writing), which allows women to retain natal ties, giving them a
voice that travels far and wide despite their bound feet. The emotional companionship of
women is consistently held in higher regard than the love of husbands. Through Lily’s story,
we learn that love cuts through unequal relationships – as ‘worthless’ daughters and cousins
are mourned bitterly, even while singing songs of how a woman is the basest of creatures.
Lisa See also highlights Gruenbaum’s (1996) point that harmful practices are preserved
because of symbolic importance. This is shown through Lily’s determination to achieve
wealth, honour, status, but above all, protection and security. Foot binding was central to
achieving these goals, however Lily finds that in participating in this kind of culture, she
alienates and deeply hurts Snow Flower, her closest friend. In a similar vein, it is clear how
adhering to these traditions led to the reproduction of them over time. For example, years
after marriage, when Lily and Snow Flower both have daughters, they talk casually about
binding their daughters’ feet while eating sweets. This was in sharp contrast to earlier
chapters in the book where Lily gave excruciating accounts of the foot binding process.
Finally, Gruenbaum (1996) strongly argues that circumcision practices should be changed
from the inside of the Sudanese culture, not pressured from what may be perceived as
arrogant western perceptions. Just as the practice of female circumcision has become less
7. extreme in Sudan, foot binding in China was eradicated through internal cultural changes
(although the practice remained in rural areas up until the early 20th
century).
Finally, I would like to finish by briefly discussing an element of James’ (1998) essay,
“Shades of Othering, reflections on female circumcision/genital mutilation”, as it once again
highlights how arrogant Western perspectives can result in the perception that those who have
their bodies modified are victims without agency. In See’s novel, Snow Flower enters a deep
depression during the Taiping rebellion where she illustrates her agency through seriously
questioning culture and societal codes of her village life. She beseeches Lily, with the words,
“Lily… you have everything, and yet you have nothing”. Unfortunately, Lily, who has
security in the form of a good marriage, is not willing to see life though the same lens as
Snow Flower, and can only console her deepest friend through ‘practical advice’, such as to
have more sons, obey her husband, and please her mother-in-law. Understandably, Snow
Flower reacts by saying, “When you talk like that my head feels empty. I hear only the wind
rushing through the trees…”. In this way Lisa See illustrates that agency is clearly evident,
but many choose to adhere to harmful customs in order to achieve security and protection.
Conclusion
In conclusion, I have analysed the bodily modification practice of foot binding that takes
place in Lisa See’s (2007) novel, “Snow Flower and the Secret Fan”, while reflecting on
essays by Brooks (2004), Gimlin (2002), Gruenbaum (1996) and James (1998). My findings
are that there are a number of similarities between 18th
-20th
century Chinese practices of foot
binding and more recent bodily modification practices of cosmetic surgery and circumcision.
These similarities revolve around the normalisation of harmful practices; various costs
involved (such as economic, political, identity-based etc); cultural significance; and critiques.
8. All in all, the essays illuminated the issues addressed in Lisa See’s novel, providing an
interesting take on similarities between bodily modification practices through time and space.
Snow Flower and the Secret Fan: A Summary
The novel begins in 1903, when Lily is 80 years old, she recounts her life from birth through
to old age. In rural Hunan Lily and her friend Snow Flower are matched as a laotong pair,
whose relationship is closer than a husband and wife’s. They experience foot binding at the
same time, and are taught NuShu, a secret form of women’s writing, along with stories and
poems. Although Lily comes from a lowly family, she marries into a highly ranked one due to
her feet being considered ‘perfect golden lilies’. She is later known as Lady Lu, the region’s
most influential woman. Although Snow Flower comes from a formerly prosperous family,
she is not so fortunate, as she is married to a butcher, culturally considered the lowest of all
professions; and suffers beatings as well as the deaths of many of her children. Lily’s inability
to forgive what she considers to be acts of betrayal lead her to inflict harm on many people,
Snow Flower most of all, and virtually destroys her reputation. When Snow Flower is dying
Lily is called to her bedside and tends to her until the end.
9. REFERENCES
Brooks, A. (2004) “‘Under the Knife and Proud of It’: An Analysis of the Normalization of
Cosmetic Surgery” in Critical Sociology 30(2), 207-239.
Gimlin, D (2002) Body Work: Beauty and Self-Image in American Culture, University of
California Press, Chapter 3.
Gruenbaum, E. (1996) ‘The Cultural Debate Over Female Circumcision: The Sudanese are
Arguing This One out for Themselves’ Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 10 (4) pp. 455-475
James, S. (1998) “Shades of Othering: Reflections on Female Circumcision/Genital
Mutilation” in Signs 23(4), 1031-1048.
See, L. (2007) Snow Flower and the Secret Fan, London: Bloomsbury Publishing PLC