This presentation describes various movement disorders and its management strategies with particular focus of management of parkinson's disease. It gives basic overview of the drugs also.
4. Main Biochemical
Abnormality
Marked striatal DA depletion
“striatal dopamine deficiency syndrome”
At death, DA loss>90%
<50% DA loss is asymptomatic
~70% DA loss for symptom manifestations
Severity of DA loss best correlates with
bradykinesia in PD
10. Treatment options
Non pharmacological management
Medical (pharmacological and
neuroprotective agents)
Surgical treatment
Deep brain Stimulation
Treatment under development
Newer medications
Neural tissue transplantation
11. Nonpharmacologic TreatmentsNonpharmacologic Treatments
Patient/caregiver education:Patient/caregiver education: about symptoms,about symptoms,
nature of the disease, prognosis,nature of the disease, prognosis, emotional and
psychological needs of the patient with PD and family
should be addressed
• Support groups for the caregivers, parkinson diseaseSupport groups for the caregivers, parkinson disease
organizationorganization
Physiotherapy and ExercisePhysiotherapy and Exercise
Speech therapySpeech therapy
Occupational therapyOccupational therapy
12. Treatment Goals
Maintain function and quality of life
Avoidance drug induced complications
General considerations:
Bradykinesia, tremor, rigidity and abnormal
posture respond well in early PD
Cognitive symptoms, hypophonia, autonomic
dysfunction, imbalance respond poorly
Primary motor disability leads to sedentary
life style
Physical Deconditioning
Secondary motor disability
13. When to initiate treatment
As soon as symptom begin to interfere with
function
Early initiation of therapy is necessary to
maintain an adequate level of physical and
mental activity
Currently the priority is more beyond the
symptom control - neuroprotection
14. Initiation of Therapy
First line agent depends upon
age and cognitive status-more
clinical type and finances-less
Choices are:
1. Dopamine agonist
2. Levodopa preparation
3. MAO-B inhibitor
15. Dopamine agonist
Well tolerated
Improves motor function and disability
50% lower risk of dyskinesia
25% lower risk of motor fluctuations
66% patients on agonist therapy will require
levodopa preparations after 5 years
Successful agonist therapy requires higher doses
than usual
If levodopa is to be added it should have
supplemental role
16. Caution with Dopamine agonist
Higher incidence of non motor side effects
Higher motor disability than levodopa
Psychotic and behavioral symptoms
Severe day time sleep disturbances
Older patients and akinetic rigid form of PD
patients are better treated with levodopa
17. Pharmacotherapy of motor
symptom
Levodopa remains the most effective treatment of
PD
The aim of all dopaminomimetic strategies is to
restore dopamine transmission in the striatum. This
is accomplished by
o stimulating postsynaptic receptors (directly with
dopamine agonists),
o increasing dopamine precursor availability
(levodopa),
o blocking the metabolism of levodopa in the
periphery and in the brain, and
o blocking the catabolism of dopamine at the synapse
19. Dopamine agonist
Can be used as monotherapy
In combination with levodopa-carbidopa combination
In combination with anticholinergics and amantadine
ERGOT
• Bromocriptine
• Lisuride
• Pergolide
• Cabergoline
Non ERGOT
• Ropinirole
• Pramipexol
• rotigotine
20. Dopamine agonist
A long-acting formulation of ropinirole and
a transdermal patch delivery system of
rotigotine will soon be approved for use in PD.
Infusion therapy has proved superior at
- controlling motor fluctuations
- Reducing dyskinesias over time
Use of two dopamine agonist simultaneously is
not recommended
Apomorphine administered parenteraly
21. Side effects of DAs
Similar to levodopa
Nausea.
Vomiting.
Postural hypotension.
Confusion.
Hallucinations.
Somnolence.
Can be managed by
reducing the dose
Decreasing other
medications
Adding domperidone
22. Side effects of ERGOT DA’s
Fibrotic reactions
Pulmonary, retroperitoneal and pericardial
fibrosis
Cardiac valvulopathy
In most cases non ergot DA’s preferred
CXR, PFT’s, ESR,and S. creatinine before
starting treatment
23. Unusual side effects of
DA’s
Complex group of impulse control disorders
Pathological gambling.
Hypersexuality.
Compulsive eating or shopping.
. Repetitive perseverative behavior.
-- Punding
-- Excessive hobbyism.
24. Levodopa
Used since the 1960’s
Remains the ‘gold standard’
Always used with dopa decarboxylase
inhibitor( either carbidopa or benserazide.)
Preparations available: regular, immediate
release, controlled release, in combination
with entacapone
Initiation of dosing at mealtimes will reduce
the incidence and severity of nausea.
25. Side effects of levodopa
Very common
Nausea, vomiting
Excessive drowsiness
Insomnia
End of dose fluctuations
Nocturnal immobility
Motor fluctuations and dyskinesias
26. Levodopa augmentation
strategies
MAO -B inhibitors:
Selegiline
10 mg. Od or 5 mg. Bd
2.5 mg in elderly.
Zelapar( oral lyophilisate ) 1.25 mg. Before breakfast.
Place on tongue and allow to dissolve
Neuroprotective??
Rasagiline
1 mg. Expensive
o These compounds offer a modest symptomatic motor benefit
when used as monotherapy and enhance the efficacy of
carbidopa/levodopa formulations when used as adjuncts
o it increases “on” time while reducing motor fluctuations
27. COMT inhibitors
Entacapone
Talcapone
In combination with levo dopa and carbidopa
Dosage: 12.5/50/200
25/100/200
When used in conjunction with carbidopa/levodopa,
o These agents increase the plasma levodopa levels by
>30%
o alleviate wearing-off symptoms
Entacaprone (200 mg with each dose of
carbidopa/levodopa) increases “on” time by <1 h/d,
whereas tolcapone (100–200 mg tid) increases “on”
time by about 1.8 h/d.
28. Amantidine
Antiviral properties
Weak DA, anti cholinergic
Reduce fatigue, tremor and dyskinesia
Only for moderate to severe dyskinesia
Glutamate antagonist
100 mg. BD or TDS
Amantadine can reduce drug-induced
dyskinesias by up to 70%.
29. Antimuscarinic drugs
- Benzatropine, Procyclidine
- Trihexyphenidyl (2-5mg bd or tid)
Anticholinergics are particularly useful for
controlling rest tremor and dystonia,
- Side effects may include dry mouth, blurred
vision, sedation, delirium, hallucination,
constipation, and difficulty urinating
- Cognitive impairment in elderly
- Useful in drug induced Parkinsonism
- can be used for excessive salivation
30. Apomorphine
Potent dopamine agonist
Significant cost (10,000 £ PA for cont. Infusion)
Only parenteral use
Subcutaneous (rescue ) injections.
SC continuous infusion.
Severely emetogenic.
Needs priming with Domperidone.
Only used in advanced PD with severe motor
fluctuations.
Injection site reactions
Could be an alternative to invasive surgical
procedures
35. Treatment of Non-motor
symptoms
Depression
Affects the quality of life in 40%
Although SSRIs (e.g., citalopram and
sertraline) are first choice, it may cause a
deterioration of parkinsonian symptoms
Mirtazapine (presynaptic A2 antagonist)
Alternative drugs are the TCAs
In severe cases electroconvulsive therapy
may be an option
36. Psychosis
Occurs in 10%–15%
Symptoms: mild illusions, visual hallucinations, and paranoid
delusions
Underlying pathophysiology is combination of development of
cortical Lewy body dementia and medication effects.
Management
Treat any infection (urinary tract infections, bed sores, etc.).
Correct any metabolic derangement, e.g., dehydration.
Reduce and withdraw anticholinergics, selegiline, amantadine,
DAs, and, lastly, levodopa.
If necessary, balance between “mad and mobile” and “stiff but
sane.”
Consider addition of a newer generation of antipsychotic drugs,
e.g., quetiapine 25–50 mg daily to bid. Low-dose clozapine (6.25–
50 mg, mean 25 mg) has been shown to be effective.
Agranulocytosis occurs in 1.2% of patients using clozapine.
37. Dementia
Features of Lewy body dementia include
visual hallucinations, a fluctuating course
with lucid intervals, and an exquisite
sensitivity to neuroleptic drugs.
Benefit with the use of cholinesterase
inhibitor drugs used in the treatment of AD,
such as donepezil and rivastigmine.
38. Sleep disturbance
Common problem due to combination of factors:
Stiffness and rigidity, making it diffi cult to turn in
bed. Consider CR levodopa preparations or
cabergoline.
Bladder disturbance due to detrusor hyperrefl exia
resulting in nocturia. Oxybutynin and tolterodine
may help.
Restless legs: CR levodopa or cabergoline at night
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavior disorder
(RBD) where purposeful nocturnal motor activity
occurs during REM sleep phase. Clonazepam 0.5–2
mg is effective.
39. Excess saliva due to an
inability to swallow
Can be treated with anticholinergic drugs but
will have significant side effects
Hyoscine patches behind the ear
Instillation of atropine drops 0.5% on the
tongue two or three times a day
Botulinum toxin injection or radiation therapy
into the parotid glands if unresponsive and
problematical
40. Falls and postural instability
Occur late in the course of the disease and are
unresponsive to medication
Multidisciplinary assessment with a
physiotherapist and occupational therapist to
acquire walking aids and make appropriate
adaptations
41. Neuroprotective therapy
Slowing the progression of PD- is a major
focus of research
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents or
the use of estrogen replacement in
postmenopausal women may delay or
prevent the onset of PD through yet-unclear
mechanisms.
Similarly, in large populations, the long-term
use of nicotine and caffeine has been
associated with a lower risk of PD
42. Neuroprotective therapy
Selegilline monotherapy
Coenzyme Q10: an antioxidant and a cofactor of complex I of
the mitochondrial oxidative chain, has been shown to have neuro-
protective effects against multiple toxic agents in vitro and in animal
models of PD-phase 3 trial is running
creatine monohydrate and acetyllevo-carnitine: under
investigation, phase 3 trial has started
Dopamine agonists
nitric oxide synthetase inhibitors
Antiapoptotic agents such as Jun N-terminal kinase
inhibitors and desmethylselegiline
Intrastriatal infusion (or delivery via viral vectors) of
neurotrophic factors
43. DBS Overview
The most common indications for surgery in PD are
intractable tremor and drug-induced motor fluctuations or
dyskinesias. The best candidates are patients with clear
levodopa-responsive parkinsonism who are free of
significant dementia or psychiatric comorbidities.
PD Subthalamic Nuclei
ET VIM (Thalamus)
Dystonia GPi (Globus Pallidus interna)
OCD Anterior Limb internal capsule
FUTURE
Depression Cingulate Gyrus
Seizures Anterior Nucleus Thalamus
Headaches Cluster HA -Hypothalamic
45. Treatment under development
D1 receptor specific Dopamine agonist
Adenosine A2A receptors antagonists
Antagonists that block ionotropic glutamate
receptors (MK-801 or remacemide)
Drugs acting on Metabotropic glutamate
receptors: more distributed in basal nuclei
46. Neural tissue transplantation
Dopaminergic transplants in patients with PD use of
dopaminergic adrenal or fetal mesencephalic donor
tissues
Intrastriatal transplantation of human embryonic
mesencephalic tissue have shown that grafted DA
neurons reinnervate the striatum, restore striatal DA
release and, in some patients, induce major clinical
benefit
Transplantation- induced dyskinesias: result of
unregulated DA release from the transplanted tissue
treatment of SNc cells with glia-derived nerve
growth factor may protect such neurons from
degeneration and may induce sprouting of
dopaminergic terminals
47. Stem cell therapy
embryonic stem (ES) cells proliferate
extensively and can generate dopamine
neurons
Highly enriched population of midbrain neural
stem cells can be derived from mouse ES cells
Dopamine neurons generated by these stem
cells show electrophysiological and behavioral
properties expected of neurons from the
midbrain
Results encourage the use of ES cells in cell-
replacement therapy for Parkinson's disease
48. Treatment of essential
tremor
Non Medical:
Applying weight to wrist
Relaxation techniques, biofeedback
Avoiding medications like lithium, antipsychotics, valproic acid,
corticosteroids, some anti-depressants and adrenergic agonists
Medical:
Primidone
Propranolol
benzodiazepines, especially clonazepam
Refractory cases: gabapentin, topiramate and methazolamide
Severe head tremors: botulinum toxin injections
49. Treatment of essential
tremor
Surgery:
Placing a surgical lesion in the ventral intermediate
thalamus (Vim)
Side effects: speech problems
Deep brain Stimulation:
Same site stimulation: ventral intermediate thalamus
50. Treatments of dystonia
Differ depending upon type of dystonia
Pharmacologic
Levodopa(Sinemet), Anticholinergic medications
(Artane), Baclofen, Clonazepam, Dopamine
agonist, Clozapine, Tetrabenazine
Chemodenervation
Botox, alcohol, phenol
Surgery
DBS, Pallidotomy
51. Treatment of dyskinesias
stopping the antipsychotic
Change from typical to atypical
Use clozapine and quetiapine
Other medications: valproic acid,
anticholinergics, or botulinum toxin injections
Refractory cases: reserprine or tetrabenazine
Other approaches include baclofen (40–80
mg/d), clonazepam (1–8 mg/d), or valproic
acid (750–3000 mg/d).
52. Treatment of Myoclonus
Treatment is aimed, whenever possible, at
the underlying cause,
If symptomatic treatment is required, can use
clonazepam,
levetiracetam,
valproic acid
Primidone
53.
54. I have no choice about whether or not I have
Parkinson's. I have nothing but choices about
how I react to it. In those choices, there's
freedom to do a lot of things in areas that I
wouldn't have otherwise found myself in.
-Michael J. Fox