2. The existing literature on workplace happiness shows that organizational-level
determinants of individual (employee) happiness at work have gained little scholarly
attention. Moreover, despite the fragile nature of well-being (Bezuidenhout, 2022; Nimmi et al.,
2022) and career management of future workforce (Shah et al., 2023) amidst unpredictable
times, the research on how HR practices affect career outcomes to enhance employee well-
being in the new normal seems significantly ignored research stream. Considering this gap,
the present study primarily connects departmental-level high-performance work systems
(HPWS) with individual-level happiness at work (subjective well-being) through serial
mediation of employee career aspiration and thriving at work. Based on the literature and in
response to the recent research calls (Rubio-Andr
es et al., 2022; Shahid et al., 2021; Wang et al.,
2022), we argue that our multi-level investigation to link HPWS with employee happiness
could offer valuable insights to organizational theory and practice. HPWS are innovative and
mutually reinforcing human resource practices and work design initiatives that could
potentially drive synergistic benefits. The core areas of HPWS include sophisticated selection
and training, behavior-based appraisal, contingent pay, job security, employee involvement
(Heffernan and Dundon, 2016), remuneration and communication (Guthrie et al., 2011).
Schloemer-Jarvis et al. (2022) argued that HPWS are employee-centric HR practices
designed to nurture employees, foster their abilities and develop them to achieve
organizational goals. Study of Cao et al. (2022) found that HPWS are vital to creating a
developmental climate that significantly triggers employees’ thriving at work. Based on this,
present study proposes that HPWS could indirectly derive happiness at work through career
aspiration and thriving as mediators. Career aspirations refer to the degree to which an
individual aspires to take leadership positions and continues education in their careers
(Li and Huang, 2017). An individual’s career aspirations could also result in positive work
outcomes, i.e. service orientation and performance. Thriving at work refers to a collective
experience of vitality and learning (Jiang et al., 2021; Spreitzer et al., 2012) contributing to
psychological health and well-being (Goh et al., 2022; Kleine et al., 2019). Through a multi-level
investigation, present study’s authors posit that HPWS (hereafter the acronym HPWS is used
as a third person singular for better expression) creates a synergistic platform (within a
department) that supports employees’ career aspirations. Furthermore, when career
aspirations are met, it enhances thriving, creating happiness at work. This study applies
self-determination theory (SDT) to understand how HPWS may foster workplace happiness.
According to Ryan and Deci (2017), SDT offers a framework for understanding factors that
contribute to individuals’ growth tendencies and psychological functioning (Ryan et al., 2021).
We argue that when appropriate working conditions characterize the work context,
employees are satisfied and more likely to enjoy the work. As SDT stresses work
environment as a crucial contributor to positive affect and positive employee experiences
(Rigby and Ryan, 2018), we argue that SDT may explain how HPWS (e.g. employee
involvement, effective communication and rewards) creates an employee-centric work
environment (characterized by autonomy, relatedness and competence), where career
aspirations are achieved (career growth, market-oriented skills and promotions) which
enhances their thriving (learning and vitality) for improving happiness at work. Thus, this
study posits SDT as an effective lens for exploring workplace happiness in the context
of HPWS.
The present study offers three contributions. First, it advances nascent research on HPWS
as an enhancer of employee-level outcomes (e.g. Guthrie et al., 2011; Oppenauer and Van De
Voorde, 2018; Kehoe and Wright, 2013) and contributes to HRM literature as it uncovers
career aspiration, thriving and happiness as organizationally-desired (individual-level)
outcomes of HPWS. Evidence exists that HPWS influences happiness (Guerci et al., 2022),
however, little is known about the underlying psychological mechanisms which could be
instrumental to employee happiness at work. Building upon earlier studies (Wang et al., 2022;
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3. Guerci et al., 2022), this research enriches our understanding of whether and how (through
which mechanisms) HPWS boosts happiness at work and offers a novel view of achieving it
through serial mediation of employees’ career aspirations and thriving at work. It stresses
that when departmental-level HPWS is employed (i.e. effective compensation,
communication, sophisticated training, behavior-based appraisal), it motivates employees
to achieve their career aspirations (i.e. they develop market-oriented skills and capabilities for
higher positions). It further argues that meeting career aspirations is vital to thriving (higher
learning and vitality at work) which enhances individual happiness at work. Thus, we argue
that career aspiration and thriving are untested yet feasible mediators. Second, this study
improves our existing knowledge of SDT’s potential to explain how organizational systems
enable employees to experience higher levels of happiness by achieving desired career goals
and thriving at work. Thus, it expands the applications of SDT and enriches literature on
career aspirations (e.g. Huang, 2022; Mignonac and Herrbach, 2003). Although career
aspirations of students and adolescents have attracted scholarly attention, research on
employee career aspirations is limited especially as a contributor to employee well-being.
As employee career aspirations seems to be a neglected research stream, this study
contributes by offering SDT as an overarching framework to explain how employing HPWS
provides a conducive platform (motivation-enhancing context) to support employees’ career
aspirations, thriving and happiness (i.e. sophisticated training, behavior-based appraisals,
effective compensation and communication create autonomy, relatedness and competence).
Thus, our study contributes to a research stream which presents HR systems and practices
(HPWS) as a career management tool and a well-being enhancer in post-pandemic
organizations. Third, the study proposes a multilevel framework to delineate how
organizational-level HR systems (HPWS) improve individual-level outcomes in
post-pandemic workplaces, i.e. career aspirations, thriving and happiness. We argue that
multi-level approach adopted in this study is not only unique and appropriate to gauge the
complex and underexplored (at multiple levels) phenomenon of workplace happiness but also
presents a holistic view of how management could strategically use well-crafted HR practices
to foster an individual’s job satisfaction, commitment and engagement at work (happiness at
work). This way it offers useful insights to nurture post-pandemic workforce through
fostering employee-supportive context which underlie the core assumptions of SDT (Lin et al.,
2022). This study also contributes to extending knowledge in this direction.
Present research not only expands organizational theory but also offers valuable insights to
practitioners in various industries as it uncovers that employing HPWS in the new normal
world of work may improve workforce’s sustainability, well-being and career management –
the three major challenges of recent times (Babapour Chafi et al., 2022; Bezuidenhout, 2022;
Shah et al., 2023). The practitioners may use effective compensation, behavior-based appraisals
and other HPWS to harness the power of post-pandemic employees. Such managerial efforts
would be helpful for employees’ professional development and elevation to senior positions
(supporting career aspirations). When employees achieve desired professional development
and career growth, they would not only exhibit high energy but also experience higher learning
at work (thriving). Finally, high energy and practical learning (thriving) would improve their
commitment, engagement and job satisfaction (happiness at work).
Literature review and hypothesis development
Self-determination theory
Vallerand et al. (2008) argue that SDT’s core assumptions include (1) environment as a key
determinant of individual motivation (i.e. support for an individual’s competence, autonomy
and relatedness), (2) individual motivation has a fundamental role in work outcomes (i.e. higher
motivation leads to higher outcomes and vice versa) and (3) internalization of motivation:
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4. shiftingits sub-optimalforms intomoreself-determined ones (i.e. contextual motivation helps to
build internalized type of motivation). SDT’s assumptions help to understand the motivational
processes underlying one’s self-determination (e.g. self-regulation and intrinsic motivation)
which could contribute to positive outcomes (Vallerand et al., 2008). In line with this, Rigby and
Ryan (2018) stressed that SDT assumes that high-quality motivation comes from fulfilling the
people’s basic psychological needs at work, i.e. autonomy, relatedness and competence. Reis
et al. (2000) argued that feeling understood and appreciated at work by coworkers and higher
ups (interaction partners) and exchanging meaningful ideas at work could improve autonomy,
relatedness and competence. Furthermore, fulfilling these needs is important for enhancing
well-being at work.
Research on SDT reveals that environment isa crucial determinantof individual motivation.
When the environment is conducive, it enables individuals to experience the feelings of
autonomy, relatedness and competence. As a result, they are more likely to perform better at
work (Vallerand et al., 2008). Rigby and Ryan (2018) argued that building a conducive
managerial climate, job design and well-crafted compensation strategies lead to higher levels of
need satisfaction, resulting in talent retention, workplace wellness and positive change in
employees. Furthermore, SDT emphasizes that needs and motivation are linked with social
factors, especially, other people at work tremendously affect an individual. For instance, one’s
supervisor and peers can influence one’s needs and motivation (Vallerand et al., 2008).Similarly,
Lin et al. (2022) found that contextual factors play an important role in shaping one’s positive
and negative experiences at work. Furthermore, SDT argues that appropriate working
conditions are vital to enhancing one’s thriving experience at work because in such
environments people find their work satisfying and enjoyable (Lin et al., 2022).
Given the above, we posit that SDT could explain how employing HPWS (i.e. sophisticated
training, employee involvement, effective compensation and effective communication) could
improve autonomy, relatedness and competence (understanding with coworkers,
appreciation for work and meaningful ideas, please see Reis et al., 2000) which may
support employees’ career aspirations (i.e. HPWS-driven conducive environment supports
career growth and helps to develop market-oriented skills and capabilities for higher
positions) and how those aspirations improve their thriving experience (i.e. autonomy,
relatedness and competence improve sense of vitality and continual learning) which in turn
creates happiness at work (job satisfaction, commitment and engagement).
High-performance work systems and career aspiration
Earlier literature sheds light on positive side of HPWS as many scholars argue that it offers
various benefits to individuals and organizations. Cooke et al. (2019) termed HPWS a job
resource which includes a package of distinct and complementary HR practices having
potential to enhance knowledge, skills, abilities and commitment of employees. Guerci et al.
(2022) found that HPWS improves health, happiness and relational well-being. Furthermore,
Haar et al. (2022) found that HPWS contributes to human capital. Garc
ıa-Chas et al. (2016)
found that HPWS effectively predicts job satisfaction. Similarly, Heffernan and Dundon
(2016) and Mao et al. (2013) found that HPWS enhances positive employee attitudes at work.
Boekhorst (2014) argued that various determinants of career success are gaining attention
and HPWS has emerged as one of them. Ghosh (2023) revealed that motivation-enhancing HR
practices can enhance employee career ambitions. Similarly, Alshaikhmubarak et al. (2020)
found that high-performance HR practices are instrumental in employee career success.
Furthermore, Barhate and Dirani (2022) stress that the millennial cohort would dominate
tomorrow’s workforce with high career expectations and need for supportive and flexible
organizational culture and workplace practices that contribute to their career success.
In contrast, Jewell et al. (2022) documented a wide academic-practitioner gap related to HPWS.
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5. The authors recommend more field-level practical research to explore impact of HPWS and
highlight possible areas where HPWS could effectively contribute, i.e. offering millennials a
different workplace experience.
Thus, HPWS may be instrumental in the (post-pandemic) employees’ career aspirations
because it is positively associated with employee growth and career development and it
contributes to their career success (Alshaikhmubarak et al., 2020; Boekhorst, 2014). Abutayeh
(2017) examined how HPWS explains managerial career progression in organizations. The
study concluded that HPWS positively correlates with subjective and objective aspects of an
employee’s career success. We argue that HPWS is employee-centric, it fosters employee
work capabilities (Schloemer-Jarvis et al., 2022) and could support them in achieving career
aspirations (Abutayeh, 2017). Moreover, SDT can be applied to understand how support at
work (HPWS-sophisticated training, employee involvement, effective compensation and
effective communication) leads to career growth and goals achievement (Rigby and Ryan,
2018). Given the above, we posit that HPWS positively affects employee career aspirations
and SDT explains this process (HPWS fuels autonomy, relatedness and competence).
Therefore, the hypothesis is provided below:
H1. High-performance work systems-HPWS is positively linked with career aspiration.
Career aspiration and thriving at work
According to Jiang (2017), thriving at work is associated with serious and consistent efforts to
manage career because career satisfaction and thriving at work are closely linked. Spreitzer
et al. (2012) found that career aspirations foster thriving at work because when individuals
progress toward achieving their career aspirations, it would more likely enhance their
workplace thriving. Similarly, research has revealed that various career outcomes are
positively associated with thriving at work (e.g. Goh et al., 2022; Kleine et al., 2019).
Besides, Huo (2021) found that attractive career growth opportunities improve an
employee’s thriving at work because when employees find opportunities to grow in their
career, it is likely to foster their learning and vitality. Furthermore, Weng and McElroy (2012)
reported that career growth (also) comprises an individual’s professional development and
attainment of their career goals which could predict their thriving at work. Similarly,
according to Coetzee (2019), achieving employees’ career goals and aspirations could
effectively foster their thriving at work because progressing toward desired career plans,
expectations and aspirations enhances one’s learning and vitality at work.
Based on these arguments, we reiterate that there seems substantial ground for linking
career aspirations and workplace thriving. Moreover, Shahid et al. (2021) recommend exploring
career-development-related antecedents of thriving at work. Thus, an individual’s career
aspirations can enhance their thriving at work. Whereas, SDT may explain how progress
toward career goals (fulfillment of basic psychological needs, i.e. autonomy, relatedness and
competence) contributes to thriving. Therefore, we propose the hypothesis as:
H2. Career aspiration is positively linked with thriving at work.
Thriving at work and happiness at work
Employee thriving and happiness positively affect workplace outcomes (Goh et al., 2022; Kleine
et al., 2019). According to the socially embedded thriving model (Spreitzer et al., 2005), thriving at
work can contribute to individuals’ subjective well-being and enhance positive subjective
experiences. A review by Goh et al. (2022) reported that there is positive relationship between
thriving at work and dimensions of happiness at work, i.e. job satisfaction, work engagement and
commitment. Furthermore, the study also revealed that thriving is generally associated with
individuals’ psychological health and life satisfaction at work.
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6. Basinska and Rozkwitalska (2022) found that employees’ thriving at work was associated
with their happiness at work in multinational corporations. Similarly, Qaiser et al. (2020)
reported that thriving at work significantly predicts happiness at work. When employees feel
that they are learning at work and are energetic to perform the desired tasks, they are likely to
experience higher subjective well-being.
Besides, a meta-analytical study by Kleine et al. (2019) concluded that thriving at work
positively influences individuals’ subjective health and significantly improves job satisfaction
and commitment. Given these arguments, we posit that workplace thriving predicts happiness
at work, while SDT explains how thriving (vitality and learning) improves mental health and
well-being (Rigby and Ryan, 2018; Ryan, 2009). Therefore, we hypothesize below:
H3. Thriving at work is positively linked with happiness at work.
Career aspiration as a mediator between HPWS and thriving at work
Literature shows that HPWS is instrumental in achieving employee career goals, aspirations
and success. For instance, Boekhorst (2014) reported that HPWS’ focus on employee
development and their role as growth-oriented systems potentially determine career success
of employees. Goh et al. (2022) found that HPWS enhances thriving and also correlates with
career outcomes. Similarly, according to Barhate and Dirani (2022), HPWS results in career
progress because employing these systems makes employees experience higher learning and
high energy and enables them to achieve their desired career outcomes. Similarly, Abutayeh
(2017) found that HPWS explains career progression of managerial-level employees. The
authors argued that HPWS could be an effective career management tool.
Besides, an individual’s career aspiration determines their thriving at work. For instance,
according to Spreitzer et al. (2012), it boosts thriving when an employee finds a close match
between their career path and career aspirations. Huo (2021) found that career growth
opportunities that meet employee career goals and aspirations foster their thriving
experience. Similarly, Coetzee (2019) found that pursuing one’s career aspirations
contributes to their thriving at work. Based on the above literature, there is a missing link
between career aspirations, HPWS and thriving at work.
In addition, few other studies revealed that career aspirations may be a potential mediator
between organizational variables and positive work outcomes. For instance, Tsemach and
Shapira-Lishchinski (2021) found that career aspirations of teachers mediated principals’
authentic leadership and the teachers’ workplace behaviors, i.e. career aspirations (as
mediator) increase professional identity and reduce counterproductive behaviors. In light of
these arguments, we reiterate that career aspirations potentially mediate HPWS and thriving
at work. Furthermore, we posit that SDT explains this link (Rigby and Ryan, 2018; Vallerand
et al., 2008), i.e. growth-oriented HPWS provides an employee-supportive context (conducive
for self-determined motivation-SDT assumption) where employees are able to achieve their
career aspirations (i.e. desired growth, elevation to higher positions). When these aspirations
are achieved, employees feel a higher sense of vitality and improved learning (thriving) (Huo,
2021). Thus, we propose the following hypothesis:
H4. Career aspiration mediates the relationship between HPWS and thriving at work.
Thriving at work as a mediator between career aspiration and happiness at work
Literature suggests that career success and thriving positively correlate (Goh et al., 2022;
Kleine et al., 2019) and it is found that progressing toward career goals enhances workplace
thriving. For instance, Spreitzer et al. (2012), Huo (2021) and Coetzee (2019) supported that
there exists a positive association between desirable career outcomes and thriving. Huo (2021)
argued that socially embedded model of thriving stresses that career goals and aspirations
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7. increase an individuals’ knowledge and positive psychological resources. This way,
appropriate career opportunities and promising career progression could foster thriving at
work (vitality and learning).
Similarly, findings from various studies reveal that thriving at work could positively
influence subjective well-being or happiness at work (and/or its dimensions). For instance,
Goh et al. (2022), Qaiser et al. (2020) and Klein et al. (2019) suggest positive and significant
links between thriving and subjective well-being (and/or its dimensions). Moreover,
meta-analytical study by Klein et al. (2019) further argues that when organizations value
employee learning (thriving dimension), the employees are more satisfied with their jobs.
Similarly, when employees are energetic enough to complete their tasks (vitality-a thriving
dimension), they are more satisfied. Furthermore, those employees who are effective learners
and full of energy, while at work (thrive), are likely to experience higher life satisfaction and
improved psychological health (Goh et al., 2022). Such employees generally experience higher
levels of well-being (Kleine et al., 2019). So, it is argued that workplace thriving could be a
missing and unexplored link between career aspirations and happiness at work.
In addition, literature sheds light on the role of workplace thriving as an underlying
mechanism between positive variable(s) and well-being at work. For example, according to Zhai
et al. (2020), workplace thriving can mediate the nexus between organizational support and life
satisfaction. Similarly,a recent studybyOkros andVirga (2022) concluded that thriving at work
significantly mediates the relationship between workplace safety and employee well-being.
Based on these arguments, we reiterate that workplace thriving potentially mediates the
link between career aspiration and happiness at work. Furthermore, SDT could explain this link
because when employees achieve their desired career aspirations (growth, rewards), they are
more likely to experience better learning and vitality, potentially improving satisfaction,
commitment and engagement (happiness) at work. Therefore, we propose below hypothesis:
H5. Thriving at work mediates the relationship between career aspiration and happiness
at work.
Serial mediation of career aspiration and thriving between HPWS and happiness at work
Murphy et al. (2018) reported that HPWS research stresses defining career paths and
employee development orientation as key dimensions of HPWS. Karatepe and Vatankhah
(2015) found that providing appropriate career opportunities to the employees is the most
dominant component within HPWS because such practices effectively enhance employee
career satisfaction. Furthermore, Spreitzer et al. (2005) and Coetzee (2019) argued that
providing employees with a career path of their choice helps them to achieve their career
aspirations which could be vital to enhance their thriving experience.
Furthermore, Klein et al. (2019) found that thriving at work determines employees’
subjective health. Similarly, Qaiser et al. (2020) concluded that thriving at work could
significantly predict happiness. Goh et al. (2022) concluded that HPWS could improve an
individual’s thriving experience, further enhancing their health and well-being at work.
These studies provide sufficient grounds to suggest that HPWS (a departmental-level
variable) could potentially drive an employee’s subjective well-being (happiness) through
underlying psychological mechanisms (serial mediators) of career aspiration and thriving at
work. Moreover, we argue that SDT’s perspective (when context fulfills basic psychological
needs of autonomy, relatedness and competence) could be utilized to explain this link.
Because HPWS contributes to employees’ career aspirations (market-oriented skills, career
growth and promotions to higher positions) which improve learning and vitality (thriving) to
enhance happiness at work. Given all the above, we propose that career aspiration and
thriving (as serial mediators) transmit the positive influence of HPWS on happiness at work.
Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis:
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8. H6. Career aspiration and thriving at work serially mediate the relationship between
HPWS and happiness at work.
Figure 1 presents the study’s multi-level research model. HPWS is a departmental-level variable,
whereas, career aspiration, thriving at work and happiness at work are individual-level variables.
The model demonstrates that HPWS (i.e. behavior-based appraisal, sophisticated training,
employee involvement, job security, effective remuneration and communication) creates an
employee-centric workplace which supports employee career aspirations (i.e. where an employee
finds desired career growth and develops market-oriented skills; where an individual’s
performance and effort translate into promotions to senior levels). When individuals
(employees) find appropriate growth opportunities to fulfill their career-related desires
(aspirations), they experience better learning and high energy at work (thriving). Furthermore,
betterthrivingincreasestheirjobsatisfaction,commitmentandengagementatwork(happinessat
work). So, HPWS determines happiness at work through serial mediation of career aspiration and
thriving at work.
Methods
Sample and data collection
We collected multilevel, multisource and time-lagged data from full-time employees working in
various organizations located in Pakistan. These organizations were in education, health,
information technology (IT) and banking industries. The study of HPWS in these industries is
important because of their importance to the country’s human capital development and economic
growth. Implementing HPWS in these industries can significantly impact employee satisfaction
and performance, improving student outcomes, better banking services and enhanced
patient care.
Snowball sampling was utilized in this study. Initially, we contacted Heads of Departments
(HODs) in the information technology (IT), education, banking and healthcare industries
through our personal and professional networks. We then requested the HODs to link us with
other HODs in their respective industries. These HODs, in turn, facilitated access to their
subordinates, allowing us to access a diverse sample of participants. Two research assistants
were hired to collect the data. They disseminated the questionnaire to the participants. Before
administering the questionnaire, the research assistants provided information to the
participants about the purpose of the research and ensured that their participation was
voluntary. They also informed the participants that their responses would be kept confidential
and anonymous. Employees were instructed to use a unique identification code known only to
them in the surveys to facilitate the matching of surveys. This helped to ensure that each
participant’s responses could be accurately linked to their corresponding survey.
Departmental level
Individual level
Source(s): Authors’ work
HPWS
Career
Aspiration
Thriving at
Work
Happiness at
Work
Note(s): HPWS-High Performance Work Systems
Figure 1.
Research model
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9. The data for the study were collected across two points in time with a time lag of two weeks
between each wave. We employed a time-lagged research design, which enabled us to
(1) mitigate common method variance (CMV) bias (Podsakoff et al., 2012), enhancing the
validity of the results and (2) increase our confidence in identifying causal relationships
between the variables. This two-wave research design was also deemed suitable for testing
the mediation paths (Cole and Maxwell, 2003). At Time 1, the departmental heads were asked
to rate their department’s HPWS, while employees were asked to rate their career aspirations.
Two weeks later, at time 2, employees were asked to rate thriving at work and happiness at
work. At time 1, out of 450 distributed questionnaires (50 to the departmental heads and 400
to the subordinates), 50 manager questionnaires and 375 employee questionnaires with
complete responses were received. Of 375 employee-rated questionnaires, 309 complete
responses were received at Time 2 (attrition rate 5 17.6%).
Of the 309, 84.1% were male with an average age of 32.49 years (SD 5 6.86) and average job
tenure of 4.23 years (SD 5 3.09). 81.2% held a master’s degree. Whereas, the average department
size was 8.57 (SD 5 5.09). The employees held either non-supervisory positions or positions as line
managers.
Measures
All constructs were measured on well-established scales with acceptable reliability. Responses
were assessed on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 5 strongly disagree to 7 5 strongly
agree. All the items were measured in English because it is Pakistan’s official language.
HPWS. At time 1, HPWS was rated by departmental heads using the 27-item scale
(Sun et al., 2007) previously used by Wang et al. (2022). Example items were “Individuals in
this job are allowed to make decisions” and “Employees are provided the opportunity to
suggest improvements in the way things are done”. Cronbach’s α was 0.89.
Career aspiration. At time 1, career aspiration was measured using an 18-item scale
(Kim et al., 2016) which consists of three dimensions including leadership (e.g. “I hope to
become a leader in my career field.”), educational (e.g. “I would pursue an advanced education
program to gain specialized knowledge in my field.”) and achievement aspirations
(e.g. “I aspire to have my contributions at work recognized by my employer”). Cronbach’s
α of the scale was 0.86. The scale was previously used by Kunchai et al. (2021).
Thriving at work. At time 2, thriving at work was measured with a ten-item scale
developed by Porath et al. (2012) previously used by Kim and Beehr (2020). The scale consists
of two dimensions, namely learning (Example item is “At work, I see myself continually
improving”) and vitality (Example item is “At work, I feel alive and vital”), with five items
each. The Cronbach’s α of the scale was 0.81.
Happiness at work. At time 2, happiness at work was measured using a nine-item short
version scale (Salas-Vallina and Alegre, 2021) previously used by Aboramandan and Kundi
(2022). The scale comprised of three dimensions, namely engagement (e.g. “At my job, I feel
strong and vigorous”), job satisfaction (e.g. “I am satisfied with the nature of work I perform”)
and affective organizational commitment (e.g. “I would be very happy to spend the rest of my
career with this organization”). The Cronbach’s α of the scale was 0.85.
Control variables. Following prior research, the subordinates’ gender, age and education
were controlled. In addition, we controlled department size (measured with the number of
individual members in each department).
Results
Confirmatory factor analyses
Before testing our hypotheses, we conducted multilevel confirmatory factor analyses (MCFA)
in Mplus 8.0 to assess the measurement model (HPWS, career aspiration, thriving at work and
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10. happiness at work). We created item parcels before MCFA because the sample size ratio to
parameters was less than 5 (Bentler and Chou, 1987). We created eight parcels for HPWS,
three parcels of career aspiration, two for thriving at work and three for happiness at work
based on their respective theoretical dimensions. The results indicated that the hypothesized
four-factor model fits the data well (χ2
5 237.87, CFI 5 0.96, TLI 5 0.94, RMSEA 5 0.07,
SRMRwithin 5 0.05 and SRMRbetween 5 0.05). We compared our four-factor model with three
alternative models and found that the hypothesized model was better than the alternative
models (see Table 1), supporting our modeling strategy.
Descriptive statistics
Table 2 presents means, standard deviations and correlations among the variables. Since we
were testing a multilevel model to justify the use of multilevel modeling, we calculated
intraclass coefficients (ICC1 and ICC2) to examine whether these individual variables varied
among different departments. We found that the ICC (1) was 0.38 for career aspiration, 0.33
for thriving at work and 0.29 for happiness at work. Whereas, the ICC (2) was 0.38 for career
aspiration, 0.33 for thriving at work and 0.29 for happiness at work, indicating that adequate
amount of variances for career aspiration, thriving at work and happiness at work resided at
the department level and providing justifications for the use of multilevel analyses.
We computed the variance inflation factors (VIF) for each regression equation to assess the
potential for multicollinearity. The VIF values ranged from 1.39 to 1.55, which is well below
Model χ2
(df) Δχ2
(df) CFI TLI RMSEA SRMR within SRMR between
Model 1: Four factors 237.87 (90) – 0.961 0.948 0.07 0.054 0.052
Model 2: Three
factors
342.98 (93) 105.11(3) 0.935 0.916 0.093 0.062 0.077
Model 3: Two factors 581.17 (95) 343.3(5) 0.873 0.840 0.129 0.071 0.102
Model 4: One factor 1464.81 (96) 1226.94(6) 0.642 0.553 0.215 0.195 0.202
Note(s): N 5 309. Model 1: Hypothesized four-factor model with HPWS, career aspiration, thriving at work
and happiness at work loaded on their respective factors. Model 2: Three-factor model with thriving at work
and happiness at work loaded onto one factor. Model 3: Three-factor model with career aspiration, thriving at
work and happiness at work loaded onto one factor. Model 4: One-factor model with all variables loaded onto
one factor
Source(s): Authors work
Variables Means SD 1 2 3 4 5 6
Departmental-level variables
1. HPWS 3.50 0.85 –
2. Department size 8.57 5.09 0.54**
Individual-level variables
1. Career aspiration 3.32 1.05 –
2. Thriving at work 3.24 1.07 0.51**
–
3. Happiness at work 3.40 1.00 0.52**
0.57**
–
4. Age 32.4 6.86 0.18**
0.14*
0.15**
–
5. Gender 0.15 0.36 0.16**
0.13*
0.06 0.11*
–
6. Education 2.96 0.43 0.03 0.02 0.16**
0.14*
0.01 –
Note(s): N (individual) 5 309; N (department) 5 55; **
p 0.01, *
p 0.05
Source(s): Authors work
Table 1.
Confirmatory factor
analysis results
Table 2.
Correlation matrix with
means and standard
deviations
Linking HPWS
and happiness
at work
545
11. the threshold of 10 recommended by Neter et al. (1996). This indicates that multicollinearity
was not a significant issue in our analyses.
Hypothesis testing
We tested our multilevel model in Mplus 7. As shown in Table 3, we found support for the
direct effects. In particular, we found support for Hypothesis 1 (b 5 0.35, p 0.01) which
stated that HPWS would be positively related to employee career aspiration. Hypothesis 2,
which posited that employee career aspiration would be positively related to employee
thriving at work, was also supported (b 5 0.32, p 0.01). Similarly, Hypothesis 3, which
posited that thriving at work would positively relate to happiness at work, was also
confirmed (b 5 0.27, p 0.01).
Furthermore, the mediating effect of career aspirations on employee thriving at work
(indirect effect 5 0.10, SE 5 0.04, 95% CI 5 0.035; 0.160; Hypothesis 4 supported) and the
mediating effect of thriving at work on happiness at work (indirect effect 5 0.09, SE 5 0.02,
95% CI 5 0.050; 0.128; Hypothesis 5 supported) were positive and significant. Finally, we
found a serial mediation effect of career aspiration and thriving at work on the association
between HPWS and happiness (indirect effect 5 0.03, SE 5 0.01, 95% CI 5 0.009; 0.054),
supporting Hypothesis 6.
Discussion
This study used multilevel analysis to examine how (departmental-level) HPWS fosters
(individual-level) workplace happiness. The findings expand on earlier studies and add to the
literature on the connection between HPWS, career aspirations, thriving at work and
workplace happiness. The study findings support a positive relationship between HPWS and
career aspiration. Career aspiration is also positively related to thriving at work. Similarly,
thriving at work is positively associated with happiness at work. Moreover, career aspiration
and thriving at work mediated the relationships between HPWS and thriving at work and
career aspiration and happiness at work respectively. Findings also support the serial
mediation of career aspiration and thriving at work between HPWS and workplace
happiness. This study suggests some theoretical contributions and managerial implications
which are discussed below.
Direct paths Estimate SE
HPWS → career aspiration 0.35**
0.12
HPWS → thriving at work 0.12 0.10
HPWS → happiness at work 0.01 0.09
Career aspiration→ thriving at work 0.32**
0.05
Career aspiration→ happiness at work 0.24**
0.05
Thriving at work→ happiness at work 0.27**
0.05
Indirect paths Estimate SE 95% LLCI and ULCI
HPWS → career aspiration → thriving at work 0.10**
0.04 0.035; 0.160
Career aspiration → thriving at work → happiness at work 0.09**
0.02 0.050; 0.128
HPWS → career aspiration → thriving at work → happiness at
work
0.03*
0.01 0.009; 0.054
Note(s): N 5 309. LLCI 5 Lower limit confidence interval, ULCI 5Upper limit confidence interval
Source(s): Authors work
Table 3.
Test of direct and
indirect effects
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12. Theoretical implications
First, this study extends HRM literature by examining HPWS and employee happiness
relationship using a multilevel mediation model from post-pandemic employee well-being
perspective. Although prior research found a positive direct relationship between HPWS and
employee happiness (e.g. Guerci et al., 2022), less attention has been paid to the multilevel
nature of HPWS. Moreover, this study suggests that HPWS enhances employee happiness
through an indirect path as well. The hypotheses significantly support the links between
HPWS and happiness at work because the study results show that HPWS indirectly fuels
happiness at work. Similarly, little is known about the underlying individual-level
psychological mechanisms which could enhance employee happiness at work (e.g. Wang
et al., 2022; Guerci et al., 2022). Furthermore, existing organizational scholarship seems to
neglect the role of employees’ career aspirations as an antecedent to thriving and happiness at
work. Therefore, present study uses a multi-level HPWS model to enhance an individual’s
workplace happiness (indirectly) through career aspiration and thriving as mediators.
Findings add to the HRM literature and suggest that when HPWS is in place
(i.e. sophisticated training, behavior-based appraisal, job security, employee involvement,
effective remuneration and communication), the employees find desirable career progression
opportunities (i.e. market-oriented skills, promotions to senior positions, desired career
growth) which improve their thriving experience (better learning and higher energy).
Furthermore, a better thriving experience enhances their happiness at work. Consequently,
as happy employees are satisfied, committed and engaged, they take responsibility for
improving their organization’s products, services and processes and try to perform with full
potential. The present research demonstrates that HPWS creates a challenging yet thrilling
platform for employees, where they set their career goals, align them with organizational
goals, and put serious efforts into reaching those goals which could enhance their thriving.
Resultantly, higher thriving can create feelings of happiness at work. Study findings are in
line with literature that links HPWS and well-being at work (e.g. Guerci et al., 2022; Rubio-
Andr
es et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2022).
Moreover, the study offers a deeper understanding of how HPWS contributes to employee
career progression and success. Findings demonstrate that departmental-level HPWS
improves employees’ subjective well-being (happiness). For instance, HPWS creates a
platform where employees are encouraged to strive and achieve their career goals and
aspirations, which enable them to reach higher career positions and meaningfully contribute
at work. We argue that by linking HPWS with career aspirations, our findings provide novel
insights for career management of employees in the post-pandemic era. Our study also
expands the limited research recommending career aspirations as a vital ingredient to trigger
thriving at work (Spreitzer et al., 2012; Coetzee, 2019). Based on the literature, we believe there
exists substantial research gap for empirically linking career aspirations with thriving, and
this study offers insights for future research in this stream. The study’s findings support
multilevel investigation and suggest that if departmental/unit-level supervisors implement
HPWS, they may convert an ordinary team of employees into a happy workforce. For
instance, it could be achieved if supervisors involve team members in departmental decisions,
offer helpful feedback as to how they could develop desired behaviors and attitudes,
challenge their skills by linking pay and promotions with performance, provide them
opportunities to stretch and try new things and encourage employees to think differently
about their work. Hence, using a multilevel mediation model to examine the effects of HPWS
on employee happiness, this study emphasizes that HPWS adoption leads to employee
happiness by supporting employee career aspirations and enhancing their thriving.
Second, this study also responds to the recent research calls (e.g. Rubio-Andr
es et al., 2022;
Wang et al., 2022) to examine the multilevel nature of HPWS toward employee happiness at
work through untested mediators. We argue that career aspirations and thriving form a
Linking HPWS
and happiness
at work
547
13. unique transmission pathway that leads to subjective well-being. Findings support career
aspirations’ role as a mediator between organizational variables and positive outcomes at
work (for example, Tsemach and Shapira-Lishchinski, 2021). Whereas, significant mediation
of thriving could be related to studies of Zhai et al. (2020) and Okros and Virga (2022) which
suggest that workplace thriving mediates organizational variables and well-being at work.
Third, findings suggest that HPWS adoption adds more meaning for career aspirant
employees to thrive, which may enhance their happiness at work. It supports SDT which
posits that employees experience motivation, well-being and life satisfaction when they are
provided with autonomy and relatedness. Providing conducive environment (context) to
foster these resources is essential in effectively carrying out the organization’s daily
operations and long-term goals. Findings support our conceptualization that SDT has
immense potential to explain positive employee outcomes at work, i.e. career success, vitality
and learning and well-being. SDT emphasizes enhancing employee motivation as a
prerequisite for achieving desired organizational goals. Therefore, our study’s findings
expand the applications of SDT and enrich the literature that links HR practices with career
aspirations to enhance thriving which works as a catalyst for happiness.
Managerial relevance
HPWS focuses on managers and employees in various work contexts. It plays a significant
role in employee and organizational performance. This study stresses that practitioners
should implement HPWS to counter employee well-being-related issues and enhance their
happiness at work. The study’s findings help implement the right mix of HR systems and
practices for transforming the post-pandemic employee experience at work.
For down-the-line execution and implementation of HPWS, the crucial responsibility lies
with the departmental and unit managers. They can make a visible difference in boosting
department-wide (or organization-wide) employee happiness through adopting various HR
practices – HPWS. For example, through sophisticated selection (choosing the fittest possible
human resources, keeping in view the organizational culture, task and work requirements)
and training (rolling out sophisticated capacity-building programs and training for hard and
soft skills). Using behavior-based appraisals (encouraging, appreciating and incentivizing
positive and desirable work behaviors, i.e. work efficiency, task competence, cooperation,
compliance to standards, positivity and pro-social behaviors at work) and improving
down-the-line communication (ensuring effective flow of information and encouraging
feedback, i.e. keeping team members informed of various organizational changes, asking for
their input, and regularly updating subordinates on milestones and deadlines). Such practices
under HPWS umbrella could be instrumental in employee career progression, i.e. building
their competencies and enabling them to be eligible for higher positions, involving them in
strategic discussions and recognizing their efforts.
Behavior-based appraisals and contingent pay systems encourage positive-minded and
intellectually-sharp people to move forward and perform better to achieve organizational
goals and (their) career aspirations. Similarly, using positive communication with
subordinates, i.e. healthy discussions concerning organizational changes, possible business
opportunities, potential areas to improve, etc., make them sincerely try to bring positive
improvements at work. Similarly, occasional discussions on employees’ career plans, possible
career paths, intentions or desires to work in any specific domain/work unit or willingness for
higher professional qualification could also boost their capacity to achieve desired career
goals. Moreover, involving team members in decisions, i.e. asking for their feedback to
improve a managerial decision could also expose them to complex scenarios of managerial
decisions which could contribute to their professional growth and development, playing a
vital role in their career aspirations.
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14. This managerial (departmental) support contributes to career aspirations which could
boost their vitality (growth with high energy) and learning (acquisition and application of
knowledge) at work (thriving). For example, when an employee gets promoted to higher
positions (based on skills, behavior and competencies), it puts the incumbent to tackle new
managerial situations, handle complex scenarios to solve various organizational problems.
All these require the individual to take risks and try new ways of doing things. Such
situations enhance their learning and create a feeling of being lively (push them to be alert;
showing high energy) for tackling complex situations (thriving). Furthermore, the higher
level of thriving (learning and vitality) could foster a positive affect in employees because
when people achieve their career aspirations and experience higher thriving, it create feelings
of being valued. Finally, higher learning and vitality contribute to employee job satisfaction,
engagement and commitment (happiness).
Limitations and future research avenues
As this study was conducted in various organizations operating in a collectivistic country,
i.e. Pakistan, its generalizability in western countries may be challenging because of high
subjectivity or significant difference in cultural perspectives. For example, people in
individualistic societies might view career aspirations, thriving and subjective happiness
from a different lens. Therefore, findings may be reproduced and validated in those societies
before arriving at any conclusions. Furthermore, theoretically, the constructs of the present
study have multiple sub-dimensions but we tested them in our model as single constructs, i.e.
happiness at work has three dimensions, thriving has two dimensions and so on. We didn’t test
their sub-dimensions separately with sub-dimensions of other constructs which may be another
limitation.
Future researchers may use the present study’s model in Western countries to test whether
results are replicated or new findings emerge. Separate HR practices that are part of HPWS may
be tested with sub-dimensions of career aspiration, thriving and happiness because it could lead
to more robust results. Future studies may use other prominent organizational theories to
understand the HPWS and happiness nexus, such as the interactionist perspective, signaling
theory, social learning theory, socially embedded thriving model, etc. Moreover, using variables
causing ill-being as mediators or moderators between HPWS and happiness in a multi-level
model (i.e. teams) may also be considered for future research, for example, how ostracism,
stigmatization and social exclusion operate between HPWS and happiness.
Another important aspect for future research is investigating how macro-level HPWS
improves meso-level outcomes in cross-cultural contexts. For example, HPWS adoption by a
transnationaloramultinationalorganizationmayaffectteam-level(ateamcomprisingexpatriates
and locals) desirable outcomes for their business units operating in various countries.
Conclusion
Employees’ psychological health and well-being require serious managerial attention (Wang
et al., 2022) in the post-pandemic workplace context (Ravina-Ripoll et al., 2023). Given the
emerging need to explore departmental-level determinants of (individual-level) workplace
happiness, this paper stresses that deploying HPWS could be vital to achieving this objective.
This research concludes that when employee-centric HPWS is implemented, the employees
feel valued and strive to work at their best. HPWS’s potential to nurture employee careers and
improve their workplace thriving may instill positive employer-related perceptions in
employees, increase positive affect and reduce their well-being concerns (by improving
happiness at work). Furthermore, the effective implementation of HPWS makes employees
feel that contributing to organizational goals simultaneously contributes to their career
Linking HPWS
and happiness
at work
549
15. development, learning and well-being. This way, HPWS enables employees to strive for and
achieve their career goals which improves their thriving experience. Moreover, the enhanced
thriving resultantly fosters positive feelings and emotions (happiness) at work.
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About the authors
Faisal Qamar is Assistant Professor-Business Administration at Sukkur IBA University. Main research
interests include leadership, organizational behavior, employee well-being and HRM practices.
Dr Shuaib Ahmed Soomro is an Assistant Professor of HRM/OB at Sukkur IBA University. He holds
a Ph.D. in HRM and OB from IAE Aix-Marseille University, France. Main research interests include
psychology, organizational behavior and HRM practices. Shuaib Ahmed Soomro is the corresponding
author and can be contacted at: shuaib.ahmed@iba-suk.edu.pk
Dr Yasir Mansoor Kundi is an Assistant Professor-Business Administration at Institute of Business
Administration, Karachi. Main research interests include employee careers, leadership integrity,
employee well-being and GHRM practices.
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