The document summarizes the story of "The Four Chaplains" who sacrificed their lives on the USS Dorchester in 1943. It describes how as the ship was sinking after being hit by a torpedo, the four chaplains of different faiths removed their lifejackets and gave them to four frightened young men. Witnesses saw the chaplains, with their arms linked on the slanting deck, offering prayers as the ship went down. The story illustrates moral leadership and the importance of "formation" or building human character, which religious traditions aim to do through intentional strategies rather than just organic development.
Since ancient times, scholars in the West have shown great enthusiasm towards understanding
the subject on man and personality. Driven by this zeal, there appeared a multitude
of theories discussing man and his nature. Various concepts on man showcased by
the scholars, quite often, complemented one another and, at times, their ideas contradicted
and discredited one another. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) the founding father of
psychoanalysis presented to the world a concept on man and his personality which
turned out to be a controversial one. His idea of man seems to have shaped the western
culture and human psyche in general. What appears from the impact of Freud’s concept
of man and personality is that it has denigrated man. This paper represents an appraisal
of his idea of man and personality from human angle.
Since ancient times, scholars in the West have shown great enthusiasm towards understanding
the subject on man and personality. Driven by this zeal, there appeared a multitude
of theories discussing man and his nature. Various concepts on man showcased by
the scholars, quite often, complemented one another and, at times, their ideas contradicted
and discredited one another. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) the founding father of
psychoanalysis presented to the world a concept on man and his personality which
turned out to be a controversial one. His idea of man seems to have shaped the western
culture and human psyche in general. What appears from the impact of Freud’s concept
of man and personality is that it has denigrated man. This paper represents an appraisal
of his idea of man and personality from human angle.
Institute of Interfaith Dialog - Prison Conversion to Islam - Christianityrigsbyml
In prison many inmates turn to religion for a novel world-view fostering belonging, identity, and management of life. Religious conversion may reinforce anti-social, radical identity or it may encourage pro-social conformity. This study focuses on the role of conversion in prisoner rehabilitation and the potential for the radicalization of prisoners in context of religious conversion. Given the relative dearth of research on either of the above subjects, this study examines conversion in prison and the potential tendencies for, the inclusivist, or the exclusivist, the incorporationist, or the rejectionist trajectories of conversion.
The striking conclusion of this research is that religious conversion is a much nuanced pathway for both Islam and Christianity. In each religion no definitive process of radicalization emerged to prove radicalization. What is found in both religions were many forks in the road during the conversion process and transforming of identities. These forks were evidenced in both the inclusivist and exclusivist religious community identity and in the incorporationist and rejectionist world-view identity. The narratives provided evidence that religion is just one alternative for gaining knowledge of self and belonging. The narratives defined other alternatives for gaining knowledge of self that included education, counseling, and gangs. What emerged from the analysis is that not all who experience religious conversion and exhibit exclusivist identity also become rejectionist. Conversely most became become incorporationist. In the analysis of this data only two participants, one Muslim and one Christian, coded both exclusivist and rejectionist. Of the exclusivists that are rejectionist, some may be nonviolent isolationists while others may be violent. It is these that may have the greatest tendency toward terrorism. In supporting the call of the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights (2008) for sound academic study of radicalization in America’s prisons this research supports a major policy issue. It supports the finding that isolating one religion as a radicalization source may unduly burden the free practice of religion while failing to recognize that other religions may have the same tendencies to lead to radicalization and even terrorism.
Rigsby, Malcolm L. 2012. "Religious Conversion in Prison and its Directions: Community Identity, Religious Dogma, and Exclusivist Or Inclusivist Religiosity in American Prisons." Texas Woman's University, United States -- Texas.
Islamophobia & the ideological, assault from the past to the present, vol...topbottom1
Islamophobia & the ideological, assault from the past to the present, volume 1, how the onslaught of foreign beliefs led to the early decline of muslim civilization by umar quinn
Communication and Exchange in Secular and Catholic DiscourseRuairidh MacLennan
A study of the dialectics of secularization, with particular emphasis on the 2004 debate 'Dialektik der Säkularisierung: Über Vernunft und Religion' between philosopher and social theorist Jürgen Habermas, and the then Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, later to be known as Pope Benedict XVI.
Islamization of Sociological Knowledge: A ReviewMd Sayed Uddin
Presented by
MD SAYED UDDIN
PhD candidate in Sociology and Anthropology
Presented at
Postgraduate Islamization Seminar in conjunction with 25 anniversary of Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences
May 08, 2015 (FRIDAY)
Time: 9.00 Am -12.00 NOON
Organized by Department of Sociology and Anthropology
Conceptual frameworks for understanding global jihadism braniffbraniff
This brief is meant to serve as an introduction to global jihadism, by examining the al-Qa'ida centric movement from multiple vantage points, including grand historical, theological, political, virtual and organizational.
Before analyzing Freud’s Understanding of Religion , it is important to understand certain things
concerning him. First, Freud has a religious background. He had parents who were devout
Catholics and Jews. As such, Freud understood religion properly. Thinking that he argued about
this matter from an atheist basis would be wrong (Paloutzian & Park 2005, p. 82).
What is worth noting is that Freud was a good scholar because he underwent formal training in
languages and medicines. When it comes to religion, his understanding was that it was a means
that was developed by humans to serve as a method of controlling the sensory world.
- See more at: http://www.customwritingservice.org/blog/freuds-understanding-of-religion/
Institute of Interfaith Dialog - Prison Conversion to Islam - Christianityrigsbyml
In prison many inmates turn to religion for a novel world-view fostering belonging, identity, and management of life. Religious conversion may reinforce anti-social, radical identity or it may encourage pro-social conformity. This study focuses on the role of conversion in prisoner rehabilitation and the potential for the radicalization of prisoners in context of religious conversion. Given the relative dearth of research on either of the above subjects, this study examines conversion in prison and the potential tendencies for, the inclusivist, or the exclusivist, the incorporationist, or the rejectionist trajectories of conversion.
The striking conclusion of this research is that religious conversion is a much nuanced pathway for both Islam and Christianity. In each religion no definitive process of radicalization emerged to prove radicalization. What is found in both religions were many forks in the road during the conversion process and transforming of identities. These forks were evidenced in both the inclusivist and exclusivist religious community identity and in the incorporationist and rejectionist world-view identity. The narratives provided evidence that religion is just one alternative for gaining knowledge of self and belonging. The narratives defined other alternatives for gaining knowledge of self that included education, counseling, and gangs. What emerged from the analysis is that not all who experience religious conversion and exhibit exclusivist identity also become rejectionist. Conversely most became become incorporationist. In the analysis of this data only two participants, one Muslim and one Christian, coded both exclusivist and rejectionist. Of the exclusivists that are rejectionist, some may be nonviolent isolationists while others may be violent. It is these that may have the greatest tendency toward terrorism. In supporting the call of the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights (2008) for sound academic study of radicalization in America’s prisons this research supports a major policy issue. It supports the finding that isolating one religion as a radicalization source may unduly burden the free practice of religion while failing to recognize that other religions may have the same tendencies to lead to radicalization and even terrorism.
Rigsby, Malcolm L. 2012. "Religious Conversion in Prison and its Directions: Community Identity, Religious Dogma, and Exclusivist Or Inclusivist Religiosity in American Prisons." Texas Woman's University, United States -- Texas.
Islamophobia & the ideological, assault from the past to the present, vol...topbottom1
Islamophobia & the ideological, assault from the past to the present, volume 1, how the onslaught of foreign beliefs led to the early decline of muslim civilization by umar quinn
Communication and Exchange in Secular and Catholic DiscourseRuairidh MacLennan
A study of the dialectics of secularization, with particular emphasis on the 2004 debate 'Dialektik der Säkularisierung: Über Vernunft und Religion' between philosopher and social theorist Jürgen Habermas, and the then Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, later to be known as Pope Benedict XVI.
Islamization of Sociological Knowledge: A ReviewMd Sayed Uddin
Presented by
MD SAYED UDDIN
PhD candidate in Sociology and Anthropology
Presented at
Postgraduate Islamization Seminar in conjunction with 25 anniversary of Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences
May 08, 2015 (FRIDAY)
Time: 9.00 Am -12.00 NOON
Organized by Department of Sociology and Anthropology
Conceptual frameworks for understanding global jihadism braniffbraniff
This brief is meant to serve as an introduction to global jihadism, by examining the al-Qa'ida centric movement from multiple vantage points, including grand historical, theological, political, virtual and organizational.
Before analyzing Freud’s Understanding of Religion , it is important to understand certain things
concerning him. First, Freud has a religious background. He had parents who were devout
Catholics and Jews. As such, Freud understood religion properly. Thinking that he argued about
this matter from an atheist basis would be wrong (Paloutzian & Park 2005, p. 82).
What is worth noting is that Freud was a good scholar because he underwent formal training in
languages and medicines. When it comes to religion, his understanding was that it was a means
that was developed by humans to serve as a method of controlling the sensory world.
- See more at: http://www.customwritingservice.org/blog/freuds-understanding-of-religion/
HR Meetup Riga topic on creating candidate experience. Insight into UX tools and how they can be used in recruiting process optimisation and improvement.
Presentation Slides from the 8/11/11 joint IIBA & PMI Dinner.
Key Note speaker, Harry Mingail CBAP® and PMP®, author of 'Project Management Entrepreneuring' and 'Business Information Technology Strategic Planning', gave an entertaining and informative presentation on "How BA's and PM's Anticipate and Turnaround Troubled Projects - Tips & Techniques."
The Legacy of William James The American psychologist.docxcdorothy
The Legacy of William James
The American psychologist William James (1842-1910) was one of the most influential
intellectuals of the nineteenth century, and as the decades following his death increased in
number, his influence increased as well. By the twenty-first century, he was considered the
“Father of American Psychology,” and his famous cross-cultural study on religious experience
had become a fixture on the syllabi of college courses throughout the United States. Yet when
the weightiness of James’ legacy is considered, his specific impact on the study of religion is
incommensurately difficult to evaluate. Most scholars agree that he is a foundational figure, but
few have continued his research, even fewer utilize his methodology, and almost none would
publically recognize the validity of several of his conclusions.
Compared to his contemporaries, including Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917), James
George Frazer (1854-1941), and Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), James’s approach to studying
religion is unique; he was one of the few who did not believe scientific knowledge would—or
should—become a replacement for the religious “truths” that shaped the values of the nineteenth
century. Though James maintained that modern science was better equipped to address questions
regarding the evolution of man and the creation of the universe—answers previously deemed the
intellectual property of religion—he also believed that science needed to do more to account for
mankind’s spiritual evolution. Moreover, James maintained that each academic discipline and/or
intellectual tradition’s approach to analyzing the physical and metaphysical components of life
was based on fallible methods of inquiry, and thus no matter how thorough each believed its
methodology to be, each was limited in terms of the scope of data that it could effectively
account for. Therefore, James insisted that scholars supplement their findings with those of other
fields, and rather than treating religion and science as wholly separate objects of study, or as
being at odds with another, he believed a more comparative approach would be beneficial to all.
The impact of James’ legacy is seemingly evident in the field’s movement towards a
more scientific study of religion, yet each of the figures previously mentioned, Tylor, Freud, and
Frazer (among others), also claimed to favor a scientific approach. Religious studies scholars
have, like James, attempted to avoid exclusionary Christo-centric religious jargon in an effort to
better analyze the social function of various religious traditions, yet as the field moved in this
direction religious studies also became increasingly specialized. As of today, many focus on one
aspect of a single culture’s religion during one historical epoch, and few engage in comparison
across traditions.
No matter where you open [history’s] pages, you find things recorded under the name of
divinations, inspirations, demonia.
Sujay Religion in the twenty-first century and beyond FINAL FINAL FINAL.pdfSujay Rao Mandavilli
The term "Religion" refers to a wide range of social-cultural systems, which include beliefs, morals,
ethics, religious practices, thought worlds, worldviews, holy texts and scriptures, sanctified holy
places, and institutions that typically relate to the general belief in a God or a supernatural entity.
Religion has been known in a wide variety of geographical contexts and situations, and attested since
very early times; as a matter of fact, even before the dawn of human civilization. As a matter of fact,
there have been very few known human societies without some form of an organized or an informal
religion. In the past few centuries, technology has progressed at a rapid pace, and at a rate that
would have been unimaginable just two centuries ago. Many pundits predicted that the role played
by religion in society would invariably and inevitably diminish; alas, such prophecies have not come
to pass. Religion, and the role played by it in society, remains as deeply entrenched as ever before. As
a matter of fact, globalization has unleashed a clash of civilizations, and has brought different and
widely differing ideologies into direct contact with each other, often unleashing waves of terror. In
the wide array and assortment of papers that we have been publishing over the years, we have
introduced many different concepts that we believe can greatly help in understanding the role
religion plays in relation to society. Readers can easily reference these papers. In this paper, we
attempt to take our endeavours to a much higher level, to analyse how the beneficial aspects of
religion can be magnified and amplified, and the negative implications of religion curtailed. We also
lay out the contours of social science research that can effectively tackle the menace of religious
fanaticism and hatred, and draw out a road map and a course of action other researchers and
scholars can easily relate to.
An Invitation to the Study of World Religions Chapter 1ProfessorWatson
Exploring Chapter 1: An Invitation to the Study of World Relgions
Invitation to World Religions (2nd Edition)
Authors: Jeffrey Brodd, Layne Little, Brad Nystrom, Robert Platzner, Richard Shek, Erin Stiles
A CULTURE DIVIDED Americas Struggle for Unity DAV.docxblondellchancy
A CULTURE
DIVIDED
America's Struggle for Unity
DAVID TREND
Paradigm Publishers
Boulder • London
A�tifURE DIVIDED
btiltural conformity. Indeed, to some theorists such an obsession with
an articulated "common culture" has become synonymous with the
integrity of national identity itself In this context then, the form of
democracy we now face becomes "radical" in at least two senses of
the term. Not only does it imply a fundamental rejection of mono
lithic party politics in favor of broader models based on identity
groupings, but it also suggests the rejection of a set of national
accords seen by many to constitute the very glue that holds. the
nation together. These two factors make possible the type of new
spaces for engagement and new definitions of citizenship that radical
democracy implies.
In other writings I have sought to delineate the problems pro
duced by the binary epistemology of Enlightenment humanism
across a range of disciplinary fields: photography, film, television,
education, music, and new media.18
The roots of this enlightenment model are perhaps nowhere more
dearly articulated than in philosopher George W. F. Hegel's phe
nomenology, which mapped out a basic theory subject/object rela
tions. Hegel postulated an abstract dyad of the self and other,
constructed in the consciousness of individuals. Within this idealized
rendering, the subject envisions an external object that it comes to
recognize as different from itsel£ This difference produces a dissatis
faction that prompts the subject to absorb the attributes of the exter
nal other. He termed this process "sublation."19 According to Hegel,
sublation was the motor force of human learning, as the subject is
changed through the appropriatipn of new ideas and objects. What is
important to remember is that this dialectic was a pure function of
metaphysics. Although Hegel's fundamental subject/object dualism
was replicated for many decades in western philosophies and institu
tions, it was not a model of the world--as contemporary feminist,
poststructuralist, and postcolonial theories have made dear. Indeed,
it is now increasingly evident that it is less productive to view social
relations in binary "either/or" terms than in multiple "ands."
CHAPTER THREE
Belief
Faith in What?
I
N THE 2000s the topic of values reemerged in public discourse as
a point of contention between liberals and conservatives, as well as
a rallying call for moral absolutists. The values debate has emerged
most strongly in debates over "good" and "evil" in people's lives and
on the international stage. In the 2000 presidential race, George W.
Bush ran on a platform of moral platitudes, echoed in his victory
speech by imploring Americans to vanquish "evil" from the world
and "teach our children values." 1 While President Barack Obama has
expressed his values in more nuanced terms, Obama' s appeals for
dialogue, tolerance, and responsibility conve ...
Essay 1 generally good content; but some issues with content as n.docxYASHU40
Essay 1: generally good content; but some issues with content as noted and some writing issues
Essay 2: good content, but writing issues in several places
Essay 3: good content, but lots of writing issues
Religion and Society
1. What is the “sociological perspective” and how does it impact the way we study religion? How is it different from non-social scientific (philosophical, theological) approaches to the study of religion? From other social scientific (psychological, anthropological) approaches?
The sociological perspective is a way of looking at religion that focuses on the human especially social aspects of religious belief and practice. It has two characteristics that separate it from non-scientific approaches to religion. It is empirical and objective. Sociologists usually try as much as possible to base their interpretations on empirical evidence. “They verify their images and explanations of social reality by experimental or experienced evidence. The objectivity in the sense that they do not attempt to evaluate accept or reject the content of religious beliefs .In the sociological perspective there is no religion that is superior to the other. One religion is not superior to another. Indeed the perspective does not presume the merits of religious over non-religious approaches. But if a religion has ideas on these subjects, it examines them and tries to understand them.
There are two central sociological perspectives which are: substantative and functional. Substantative tries to establish what religion is. It attempts to establish categories of religious content that qualify as religion and other categories specific as non-religion. Functional describes what religion does. It emphasizes what religion does for individual and social group. Accordingly religion is defined by the social functions it fulfills in the society
It emphasizes on the provision of meaning because the establishing of shared meaning is an essentially social event.
The sociological perspective impacts on the way we study religion in various ways. The aspects of the sociological perspective on religion may create elude a bad feeling to students who find their cherished beliefs and practices dispassionately treated as object of study as stipulated in (http://fasnafan.tripod.com/religion.pdf).Normal human beings due to their nature tend to feel bad when they find their religion becoming the subject of discussion and study. They feel that those people are abusing and disregarding their religion. It may be disturbing to have one’s own religion treated as comparable to other religions and not as superior or uniquely true.maybe maybe not---you need proof to make this claim--not just ideas
Also true, but awkward writingwhat the sociologist and the believer hold about a certain religion may be contradicting. What is central to the sociologist may be irrelevant and uninteresting to th ...
From the Histories of Herodotus by HerodotusIs Morality as Custo.docxpauline234567
From the Histories of Herodotus by Herodotus
Is Morality as Custom?
It is clear to me therefore by every kind of proof that Cambyses was mad exceedingly; for otherwise he would not have attempted to deride religious rites and customary observances. For if one should propose to all men a choice, bidding them select the best customs from all the customs that there are, each race of men, after examining them all, would select those of his own people; thus all think that their own customs are by far the best: and so it is not likely that any but a madman would make a jest of such things. Now of the fact that all men are thus wont to think about their customs, we may judge by many other proofs and more specially by this which follows:—Dareios in the course of his reign summoned those of the Hellenes who were present in his land, and asked them for what price they would consent to eat up their fathers when they died; and they answered that for no price would they do so. After this Dareios summoned those Indians who are called Callatians, who eat their parents, and asked them in presence of the Hellenes, who understood what they said by help of an interpreter, for what payment they would consent to consume with fire the bodies of their fathers when they died; and they cried out aloud and bade him keep silence from such words. Thus then these things are established by usage, and I think that Pindar spoke rightly in his verse, when he said that "of all things law is king."
These materials are made available at this site for the educational purposes of students enrolled at
Anne Arundel Community College. They may be protected by U.S. Copyright law and should not be
reproduced or transmitted electronically. One photocopy or printout may be made of each article for
personal, educational use.
SICK SOCIETIES
AH societies are sick, but some are sicker than others, This paraphrase of Orwell's
famous quip about the equality of animals calls.attention to the existence of traditional
beliefs and practices that threaten human health and happiness more in some societies than
in others. But it also indicates that there are some customs and social institutialns in all
societies that compromise human well-being. Even populations tha t appear to be well-
adapted to their environments maintain some beliefs or practices that unnecessarily
imperil their well-being or, in some instances, their.survival. Populations the world over
have not been well sewed by some of their beliefs such as, for example, those concerning
witchcraft, the need for revenge, or male supremacy, and many of their tradkionral
practices invoiving nutrition, heaIth care, and the treatment of chillrirem have been harmful
as well, Slavery, infanticide, human sacrifice, torture, female genital mutilation, rape,
homicide, feuding, suicide, and environmental pollution have sometimes been needlessly
harmful to some or all members of a society and under some circumstances they can .
Religion and ScienceBy Albert Einstein(The following article b.docxdebishakespeare
Religion and Science
By Albert Einstein
(The following article by Albert Einstein appeared in the New York Times Magazine on
November 9, 1930 pp 1-4. It has been reprinted in Ideas and Opinions, Crown
Publishers, Inc. 1954, pp 36 - 40. It also appears in Einstein's book The World as I See
It, Philosophical Library, New York, 1949, pp. 24 - 28.)
Everything that the human race has done and thought is concerned with the satisfaction
of deeply felt needs and the assuagement of pain. One has to keep this constantly in
mind if one wishes to understand spiritual movements and their development. Feeling
and longing are the motive force behind all human endeavor and human creation, in
however exalted a guise the latter may present themselves to us. Now what are the
feelings and needs that have led men to religious thought and belief in the widest sense
of the words? A little consideration will suffice to show us that the most varying
emotions preside over the birth of religious thought and experience. With primitive man
it is above all fear that evokes religious notions - fear of hunger, wild beasts, sickness,
death. Since at this stage of existence understanding of causal connections is usually
poorly developed, the human mind creates illusory beings more or less analogous to
itself on whose wills and actions these fearful happenings depend. Thus one tries to
secure the favor of these beings by carrying out actions and offering sacrifices which,
according to the tradition handed down from generation to generation, propitiate them or
make them well disposed toward a mortal. In this sense I am speaking of a religion of
fear. This, though not created, is in an important degree stabilized by the formation of a
special priestly caste which sets itself up as a mediator between the people and the
beings they fear, and erects a hegemony on this basis. In many cases a leader or ruler or
a privileged class whose position rests on other factors combines priestly functions with
its secular authority in order to make the latter more secure; or the political rulers and the
priestly caste make common cause in their own interests.
The social impulses are another source of the crystallization of religion. Fathers and
mothers and the leaders of larger human communities are mortal and fallible. The desire
for guidance, love, and support prompts men to form the social or moral conception of
God. This is the God of Providence, who protects, disposes, rewards, and punishes; the
God who, according to the limits of the believer's outlook, loves and cherishes the life of
the tribe or of the human race, or even or life itself; the comforter in sorrow and
unsatisfied longing; he who preserves the souls of the dead. This is the social or moral
conception of God.
The Jewish scriptures admirably illustrate the development from the religion of fear to
moral religion, a development continued in the New Testament. The religions of all
civilized peoples, especially the peoples of the ...
CHRIST AND CULTURE To Reinie CHRIST AND CULTURE VinaOconner450
CHRIST AND CULTURE
To Reinie
CHRIST AND CULTURE
Copyright, 1 95 1 , by Harper & Row, Publishers, Incorporate.ct,
Printed in the United States of America
All rights in this book are reserved.
No part of the book may be used or reproduced
in any manner whatsoever without written per
mission except in the case of brief quotations
embodied in critical articles and reviews. For
information address:
Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. ,
10 East 53rd Street, New York, N. Y. 10022.
First HARPER TORCHBOOK edition published 1956
CONTENTS
FOREWORD
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
]. The Enduring Problem
I. THE PROBLEM
II. TOW ARD A DEFINITION OF CHRIST
III. TOWARD THE DEFINITION OF CULTURE
IV. THE TYPICAL ANSWERS
2. Cbrist Against Culture
I. THE NE'V PEOPLE AND
"
THE WORLD
"
II. TOLSTOY
'
S REJECTION OF CULTURE
III. A NECESSARY AND INADEQUATE POSITION
IV. THEOLOGICAL PROBLEMS
3. Tbe Cbrist of Culture
ix
xi
1
11
29
39
I. ACCOMMODATION TO CULTURE IN GNOSTICISM AND ABELARD 83
II.
"
CULTURE-PROTESTANTISM
"
AND A. RITSCHL 91
III. IN DEFENSE OF CULTURAL FAITH I 0 I
IV. THEOLOGICAL OBJECTIONS 108
4. Christ Above Culture
I. THE CHURCH OF THE CENTER
II. THE SYNTHESIS OF CHRIST AND CULTURE
III. SYNTHESIS IN QUESTION
5. Christ and Culture in Paradox
I. THE THEOLOGY OF THE DUALISTS
II. THE DUALISTIC MOTIF IN PAUL AND MARCION
n1. DUALISM IN LUTHER AND MODERN TIMES
lV. THE VIRTUES AND VICES OF DUAI.ISM
vii
116
120
141
viii CONTENTS
6. Christ the Transformer of Culture
I. THEOLOGICAL CONVICTIONS
II. THE CONVERSION MOTIF IN THE FOURTH GOSPEL
III. AUGUSTINE AND THE CONVERSION OF CULTURE
IV. THE VIEWS OF F. D. MAURICE
7. A "Concluding Unscientific Postscript"
I. CONCLUSION IN DECISION
II. THE RELATIVISM OF FAITH
III. SOCIAL EXISTENTIALISM
IV. FREEDOM IN DEPENDENCE
Index
230
234
24 1
249
257
FOREWORD
The present volume makes available in print and in expanded
form the series of lectures which Professor H. Richard Niebuhr
gave at Austin Presbyterian Theological Seminary in January, 1 949,
on the Alumni Foundation. This lectureship was inaugurated in
1 945. Since that time the Seminary has had the privilege of present
ing to its students and alumni at the time of the midwinter convoca
tions the reflections of leading Christian thinkers on important
issues and, in part, of stimulating the publication of these refl.ec�
tions for the benefit of a wider audience.
The men and their subjects have been:
1945-Ernest Trice Thompson, Christian Bases of World Order
1946-Josef Lukl Hromadka, The Church at the Crossroads
1947-Paul Scherer, The Plight of Freedom
1948-D. Elton Trueblood, Alternative to Futility
194g-H. Richard Niebuhr, Christ and Culture
1950--Paul Minear, The Kingdom and the Power
1951 -G. Ernest Wright, God Who Acts
Dr. Niebuhr makes a distinguished contribution in this dear and
incisive study in Christian Ethics.
Austin Presbyterian Theological ...
Similar to LEWIS-- US Army CH and Formation-- MWAAR2 complete (20)
LEWIS-- US Army CH and Formation-- MWAAR2 complete
1. U.S. Army Chaplaincy and Formation
James R. Lewis
Kent State University-- Cultural Foundations in Education
March, 2014 jlewis21@kent.edu
Formation and Moral Leadership
On Feb. 3, (1943) at 12:55 a.m., a periscope broke the chilly Atlantic waters. ...The U-
223 approached the convoy on the surface, and after identifying and targeting the ship, he
gave orders to fire the torpedoes, a fan of three were fired. The one that hit was decisive--
and deadly--striking the starboard side, amid ship, far below the water line. … Aboard the
Dorchester, panic and chaos had set in. The blast had killed scores of men, and many
more were seriously wounded....Others, stunned by the explosion were groping in the
darkness. Those sleeping without clothing rushed topside where they were confronted
first by a blast of icy Arctic air and then by the knowledge that death awaited.
Men jumped from the ship into lifeboats, over-crowding them to the point of capsizing,
according to eyewitnesses. Other rafts, tossed into the Atlantic, drifted away before
soldiers could get in them. Through the pandemonium, according to those present, four
Army chaplains brought hope in despair and light in darkness. Those chaplains were Lt.
George L. Fox, Methodist; Lt. Alexander D. Goode, Jewish; Lt. John P. Washington,
Roman Catholic; and Lt. Clark V. Poling, Dutch Reformed. …
One witness, Private William B. Bednar, found himself floating in oil-smeared water
surrounded by dead bodies and debris. "I could hear men crying, pleading, praying,"
Bednar recalls. "I could also hear the chaplains preaching courage. Their voices were the
only thing that kept me going." When there were no more lifejackets in the storage room,
the chaplains removed theirs and gave them to four frightened young men.…
'It was the finest thing I have seen or hope to see this side of heaven,' said John Ladd,
another survivor who saw the chaplains' selfless act. Ladd's response is understandable.
The altruistic action of the four chaplains constitutes one of the purest spiritual and
ethical acts a person can make. When giving their life jackets, Rabbi Goode did not call
out for a Jew; Father Washington did not call out for a Catholic; nor did the Reverends
Fox and Poling call out for a Protestant. They simply gave their life jackets to the next
man in line.
As the ship went down, survivors in nearby rafts could see the four chaplains--arms
linked and braced against the slanting deck. Their voices could also be heard offering
prayers 1
1 http://www.fourchaplains.org/story.html accessed March 12, 2014.
2. This is a re-telling of what is often known as the story of “The Four Chaplains,” well-
known in some quarters, though forgotten by many, and is one of the greatest depictions of moral
leadership and the product of “formation” processes from recent history. “Formation” is about
building human souls. In our current day, seemingly driven by dynamics of “secularization,” we
might prefer to use more (allegedly) “neutral” terms such as “selves” and “development.” Yet to
do so would suggest the false conclusion that spirituality is either irrelevant or immaterial to
most people. However, both in the U.S. American context and worldwide-- with limited
exceptions in Western Europe and parts of Asia, demographic studies consistently depict the fact
that most, even the large majority of humanity, identifies themselves as either “religious” or
“spiritual” in some way.
Additionally, the term “soul” as traditionally used, is intentionally inclusive of the whole
of a person, to include cognitive, emotive, motivational, physical, relational, and spiritual facets
of the person, more completely and more simply that some artificial “secular” term that could be
put together would. “Self” is almost as holistic a term, but does not subsume the spiritual
denotations that the term “soul” does, making “soul” more inclusive and useful when discourse
is intended to that majority of the population who do identify as “religious” or “spiritual,” along
with those who also identify in some way as “secular.” All major religious and spiritual
traditions2
are built on foundational assumptions of cross-generational replication, and often,
growth beyond merely generational transmission, through identifiable processes of enculturation,
habituation, and socialization, that necessitate intentional strategies of “formation,” rather than
merely organic processes as implied by the term “development.”
2 Focusing on the U.S. American context, and as measured by numerical demographics, emphasis here is on all
MAJOR religions: Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism, as well as non-religious spiritual
traditions rooted in these religions comprise all but a minute fraction of the American population who claim
some religious or spiritual tradition. According to a recent Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life study , all
other traditions combined composed less than three tenths of a percent of the American population.
3. The formation of souls in whatever manner or according to whatever tradition, entails
more than the mere transmission of technical knowledge for social and independent economic
functioning, as seems to be the default goal and process of public schooling.3
Even the most
superficial of reflection on the values and foundational assumptions of any range of religious or
spiritual traditions (which would again include the bulk of human experience, both living and
past) would yield the conclusion that most of those traditions are built on what political
philosopher John Rawls calls “comprehensive doctrines.”4
These are those sets of assumptions
which could also be called “worldviews” or “metaphysical” understandings, by which persons,
communities, and peoples “know” what is “real,” what they understand to be the underlying
foundational truths about the cosmos, and what thereby sets the agenda for all further thought on
values, civic, moral and ethical living. These are the kinds of philosophical “Truths” by which
people live, though most often unstated, which can neither be addressed nor examined directly
by empirical study of the natural, material world-- hence the need for the disciplines of the
humanities, which of course includes areas of knowledge explored by religion, philosophy,
spirituality, ethics, politics, and law.
Foundational Challenges
From the range of human experience and in the emerging political framework of modern
democratic values, among the most valued and cherished areas of foundational jurisprudence
enshrined in the U.S. Constitution are those pertaining to freedoms of religion and expression.
Collective human experience across time and cultures has also shown, that while a stable and
clear grasp of foundational truths is always important, never is it more important than for those
3 While “formation” or “transformation,” are themes that entail personal development in addition to technical
content and are sometimes themes in educational writing, these themes rarely predominate in public education,
as evidenced among other things, by how few educational journals are built around these themes.
4 John Rawls, Political Liberalism, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 134, 135.
4. who wield weapons of war, and who literally hold in their hands-- even at the tender young age
of those barely out of the schoolhouse—tools of life and death by which not only individuals, but
whole communities live or die in the blink of an eye.
Public schools do not prepare souls for that awesome responsibility. Neither do the
empirical disciplines of medicine-- meant to bring healing to body and mind, healing back to
conditions of presumably prior stability and homeostasis. Fighting skills themselves are taught
by those adept in the disciplined and controlled application of lethal force, and lawyers in
uniform assist Commanders in the right application of tools of justice after the fact of infraction.
How, then, are souls--trained in the basic economic skills provided by public schools-- trained in
and entrusted with the use of tools of systematically applied politics and lethality by drill
sergeants and Warrior trainers? How are young adults barely out of high school formed into
souls with the wisdom and capacity to use those deadly tools to “do justice, love mercy, and walk
humbly with (their) God” (as variously understood by any range of religious or a-religious
traditions or comprehensive doctrines), in ways that might possibly prevent war crimes
perpetrated on others, or moral wounding to their own souls?
Such questions weighed heavily on the mind of General George Washington even before
the birth of the Constitution under which we now live. Relying on the wisdom of the ages and
his own experience with fighting men, among his first acts as General of the Continental Army in
1775, was to fight for publicly funded religious and moral leaders to be those Chaplains who
could be entrusted with that awesome responsibility of forming and shaping the fighting
foundation of what would become a new nation. Central to his concern was to lead not only
effective fighting and killing machines, but Soldiers5
who were moral agents with lethal means
5 Except where used differently in quotations, I will be following standard U.S. Army practice of capitalizing the
terms “Soldier,” “Chaplain,” Warriors, “Veteran,” as well as “Constitution” when referring to the U.S.
Constitution.
5. of pursuing moral and noble political ends.6
Much more recently, Army doctrinal guidance pertaining to foundational roles of
Chaplains codified a more recent form of what General Washington's concerns from early on:
In the late 1940s, chaplains developed a program called Character Guidance to provide
religious, moral, and citizenship instruction to all army personnel....Although one of the
main reasons the army instituted Character Guidance was to reduce the high incidence of
venereal disease among soldiers, Character Guidance did not limit chaplains' moral
guidance to sexual matters. The lectures prepared by the Army Chaplain Board
inculcated a wide range of “personal and civic virtues,' including not only religious faith,
but also self-reliance, courage, obedience, fair play, and persistence. The stated objective
of the program was 'to develop the kind of soldier who has sufficient moral understanding
and courage to do the right thing in whatever situation he may find himself.” 7
Formation for Right Action
A central concern in the formational work of the chaplaincy has to do with inculcating
into Soldiers the wisdom, the will and the capacity, as this guidance states, “to do the right thing
in whatever situation”– regardless of one's personal opinion or preference, and regardless of how
one feels about any of the elements of a situation. The heroism depicted by The Four Chaplains
is an ideal example of the formation of souls-- not only of teaching about what “the right thing”
to do may be, but in demonstrating with their very lives, the capacity, the commitment and the
will to “do the right thing,” even in the most harrowing of experiences, even when their decisions
led to their own certain deaths. Formation involves not only right thought, but also wisdom to be
able to discern what is “right”-- despite a frequent milieu of moral ambiguity-- as well as the
discipline to do what is right regardless of any other belief, the “fog of war,” whatever emotional
state or what one might “feel like” at the time-- regardless of very real threat and cost to life and
limb. The capacity to discern that which is right has to do with morals, with ethics, which are
6 Office of the Chief of Chaplains, Strategic Roadmap: Connecting Faith, Service and Mission, 2012.
7 Anne C. Loveland, “From Morale Builders to Moral Advocates: U. S. Army Chaplains in the Second Half of the
Twentieth Century,” in Doris L. Bergen, ed., The Sword of the Lord: Military Chaplains from the First to the
Twenty-First Century, (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004) pp. 234-235.
6. often based in religious teachings from various traditions, hence Washington's desire to build into
his army the role of the Chaplain as religious and moral leader and practitioner.
One of the important “religious” freedoms also protected by the Constitution's First
Amendment, is for some, “freedom from religion,” or freedom from being subjected to
parameters of any particular religion. Yet a-religious worldviews are also shaped by certain
foundational assumptions about reality which function in a metaphysical, “religious” capacity for
persons holding such beliefs. In the same way that some understanding of the reality of “That
which is Divine” (however understood) shapes perceptions of reality for those with religious or
spiritually shaped identities, the assumed non-reality of any sense of that which could be called
“divine”-- the exclusively materialistic assumptions of philosophical naturalism--shapes some
atheists' foundational understandings of what is real. In many cases, these foundational
understandings of that which is real are mutually exclusive, shaping equally mutually exclusive
foundational values and conceptions of what is moral or ethical-- what it means to “do the right
thing.”
The religious context of Washington's day was a bit different from 21st
century America.
Yet straddling the thought worlds of the religious and the emerging Enlightenment, and perhaps
learning from his Masonic tradition in which religious tolerance was already a central theme in
the late 18th
century, Washington had the wisdom to also build an early form of pluralism into the
early chaplaincy. This intent and wisdom is clearly documented through letters, his early
General Orders, a range of excerpts from all three branches of the Federal Government, to
include documentation of early challenges. Summarizing this background, Pepperdine
University's Hans Zeiger states: “The constitutional history of the chaplaincy is consistently
affirmative. Early challenges were rejected by Congress. Far from an establishment of religion,
7. the chaplaincy is an essential bulwark of religious liberty.”8
Even without the constraints of budgetary restrictions, the character that formation
establishes could not be found by any stocking number in any catalog to by ordered by some
supply sergeant. Nor is that character merely a cognitive product that could be conveyed through
even the most brilliant of texts, nor merely a facet of an “emotional intelligence” that might be
picked up from experts on a radio show, though formation certainly includes intellectual
capacity, and is nurtured by emotional experience. Formation toward the capacity for the Soldier
to “do the right thing” regardless of circumstance involves shaping not only skills, but the will to
act, regardless of fear, self-interest, or even self-preservation. It is not only taught, but modeled,
it is not only in or through acts or rituals of religion, but acts of courage.
Formation for a Pluralistic Context
Many stories from both Chaplains and Soldiers depict what proper formation can yield
(and unfortunately, what happens in its lack as well). Many of those stories of moral leadership
at the same time, also depict that formed moral leadership in the midst of the military's context of
plurality, that, while more salient today, has always been a part of America's story. The
experience of The Four Chaplains described earlier is just one such icon. The following scene
unfolds from the memoirs of Father William Corby, a Roman Catholic Chaplain with the Union
Army at Gettysburg: Before advancing on the attacking Confederate troops at Cemetery Ridge:
Corby climbed onto a nearby boulder and, exposing himself to enemy fire, stood up and
pronounced the absolution of sin on every man he saw. He later claimed that all the
soldiers in the brigade, whether Catholic or not, knelt solemnly in front of him as
cannonballs exploded and bullets whistled over their heads. Sustained by their own
prayers and the priest's benediction, the troops then joined the battle and bravely risked
8 Hans Zeiger, “Why does the U.S. Military Have Chaplains?” Pepperdine Policy Review-Wol. II- 2009,
http://publicpolicy.pepperdine.edu/policy-review/2009v2/why-does-us-military-have-chaplains.htm , accessed
March 13, 2014.
8. death in defense of the Union position.... Veterans of the Irish Brigade never forgot the
courage their chaplain had displayed at that critical moment in the conflict, and nearly
fifty years after the event, they erected a bronze statue of the priest, his right hand raised
in blessing, on the Gettysburg battlefield.” 9
Formation entails the whole person, mind, body, emotions, and spirit, in multi-sensory
ways, and engages the whole person down to their adrenal glands, even under such deadly
circumstances as bullets and bombs whistling and bursting overhead, or a ship sinking out from
under one's feet in frigid Arctic waters. Textbook and Power-Point presentations do not gird the
soul for the capacities for right action in the face of combat. Consistent experience and
documented recollections of the “right action” of Chaplains, whether in providing religious ritual
on the hood of Jeeps or on cases of rations, slogging through the mud and blood of battle in the
Civil War,10
suffering torture and death for simple acts of kindness, as was the case in the Korean
War for Chaplain Father Emil Kapaun,11
it is in “accompanying the men on combat missions,
living in the dust and mud with them, eating the same rations, sharing the trauma and losses of
battle-- that kind of intimate association, apart from their performance of the usual priestly and
pastoral duties,”12
that earns Chaplains the “spiritual authority”13
necessary for their work of
formation.14
In words not fit for academic publication, one Chaplain Assistant after almost
twenty years experience in the role, trains ministry teams by indicating that the best place for the
ministry team to do their work is wherever the circumstances and situation is the worst.15
9 Gardiner H. Shattuck, , Jr., “Faith, Morale, and the Army Chaplain in the American Civil War,” chapter 5 in
Doris L. Bergen, ed., The Sword of the Lord: Military Chaplains from the First to the Twenty-First Century.
(Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004) in Bergen, pp. 112-113.
10 Shattuck in Bergen, p. 106
11 http://www.army.mil/medalofhonor/kapaun/ accessed March 13, 2014.
12 Loveland in Bergen, p. 236.
13 Shattuck in Bergen, p. 112.
14 Loveland in Bergen, p. 236.
15 Word of my own Chaplain Assistant, Staff Sergeant Ross Carter, used many times as we trained young Chaplains
and Chaplain Assistants.
9. Emerging Military Practice and Concerns
As recently as 2008, the U.S. Army, ever on an evolving quest for quality improvement,
re-organized its proponency for professional ethics to the new entity known at the Center for
Army Profession and Ethic(CAPE)16
under the guidance of its broad training directorate. With a
liaison to the Chief of Chaplains office, this new organization is helping with a part of that task
of formation that has always been a key facet of the chaplaincy since its organization in 1775
under General George Washington. The Soldier's personal and professional identities are
understood to be the foundational locus as the source for the Soldier's internalized will and
capacity to “do the right thing.”17
However, CAPE's role is to shape the ethical framework for Soldiers as “professionals”--
since the Army has appropriate jurisdiction of the professional behavior of its “employees.”
Therein lies the subtle difference between “ethics” and “morals.” “Ethics” are generally
understood to pertain to professional behaviors of persons in organizations, while “morality”
tends to be associated with one's personal behaviors outside of professional roles. This
distinction presents practical challenges in organizations such as the military, though, especially
in deployed contexts, where even when “off the clock,” all members of the U.S. military are
understood to be beholden to standards beyond their own personal “morality.” Additionally, how
personal morality is understood in 21st
century American culture is highly debatable, complicated
even further by those times when Soldiers are serving in the globalized context in areas which
often have very different understandings of what constitutes both personal morality as well as
professional ethics.
One's personal morality may either follow the whims of faddish social convention of
16 http://cape.army.mil/history.php accessed March 13, 2014.
17 Insight from a conversation with the current Chaplain Liaison for CAPE, in November, 2013.
10. whatever group with which one associates, or if thought of or developed with some
intentionality, is most often associated with the comprehensive doctrine/ religion/ worldview/
ideology that one follows. While the influence and authority the military as a professional
organization has over the personal lives and morality of its constituents is limited by
Constitutional First Amendment protections, common experience suggests that personal behavior
(that may or may not be construed as “moral”) is very often, far from intentional, but often
merely conventional-- at least if it's convenient at the time.18
However, quite frequently when
asked, a somewhat modified form of a “Judeo-Christian-Ten-Commandment” morality is
idealized and thought of as a personal moral framework.19
Unlike the limitations of concern to the professional realm of “professional ethics” by
which CAPE is bound, Chaplains address the identity and moral integrity of the whole person--
the Soldiers' soul-- and the life of that soul and how it is lived in both the personal as well as the
professional realms, in both their personal religious expression and their public expression of
pluralistic moral leadership. Even as far back as General Washington, wise souls recognized that
not only professional ethical integrity, but equally so, the personal moral integrity of Soldiers,
are both essential for a dynamic and motivated fighting force; but both facets are also a hedge
against very practical concerns such as security leaks. Current training like never before,
emphasizes that enemies capitalize on any avenue of attack. Breaches or weaknesses in personal
morality and integrity can be exploited just as readily as breaches or weaknesses in any fortress
wall. Personal moral and spiritual formation that protects against such personal vulnerabilities--
18 This assessment is derived from almost three decades of personal experience, intentional consulting and research
with others also involved in coaching, counseling, advising, and picking up the pieces of moral lives and moral
casualties in both civilians and military populations.
19 Observation from a career and consultation with others in areas of morality, where the modifications typically
fall in areas of sexuality and “little” infractions such as “little white lies,” cheating in school, speeding (as long
as it's not TOO fast...) and the like. Exactly where one draws the line between “minor” issues and those that are
major, hence becoming “moral” infractions varies immensely across people and contexts.
11. while the central theme of the Chaplain's area of concern with Soldiers-- is totally out of bounds
to all other military, professional or government influence.
Additionally, while civilian clergy who also service religious needs of Soldiers, civilian
clergy are concerned with the sectarian religious lives of their constituents, and are limited in
where they can serve. They cannot be where bullets fly and bombs burst, in the foxholes of life
where souls are laid bare, where the Valley of the Shadow of Death may be a dark path or may be
a bloody grave. Perhaps most importantly, civilian clergy are also neither trained in nor
concerned with Constitutional protections, with the needs of pluralistic contexts, nor the needs of
those outside their flock, and certainly not the distinct needs of protection “from religion” for
those who so choose. Their duties are their sectarian agendas, while Chaplains' duties extend to
pluralistic protections, ensuring not only the rights of their constituents, but the rights of those
with whom their beliefs may be mutually exclusive or even at odds. Yet as times are changing,
while once atheists needed the most adamant protections for religious freedoms, now both
atheists and religionists of all stripes face attacks and risks of suppression from persons both in
uniform and out. The chaplaincy stands almost alone in its proponency for freedom of religious
expression treasured by both followers of religion and followers of no religion.
Conclusion
I have argued here that two distinct facets of identity for military Service Members--
while not unique concerns for those in the military, but uniquely salient and relevant for those in
military service-- are those facets of formation and the Constitutional protections of the First
Amendment which are necessary for the political and ideological context of pluralism. These
facets of identity have been recognized as being foundationally important from before the birth
12. of the United States as well as moving into the twenty-first century. As the world and the U.S.
military grows in complexity and into a more secular context, various facets of human need are
addressed by ever more specialized professional roles and providers.
I would argue further that this increasing specialization and secularization, far from
eliminating the distinct need for military Chaplaincy, makes the need for the Chaplaincy all the
more vitally essential. Regardless of any given Service Member's “religious preference”-- the
formation both the personal and socio-cultural ideologies through which both distinct sectarian
expressions and intentional social plurality of expression are formed and protected necessitate
the unique roles and capacities of the Chaplaincy. Perhaps even more importantly on a practical
level, the formation of souls by which persons wield and control the god-like powers of life and
death over both individuals and whole communities, which distinguishes Warriors from mass
murderers, which shapes souls into “peacemakers” even while wielding weapons of war, rather
than mere barbarians or automatons in the service of global political actors, can only be
exercised in contexts of plurality, by those with the unique and distinct role of Chaplains. For
most people, the character of the soul is either religious or spiritual in nature, hence the need to
be fed by those trained and authorized to appropriately nurture souls in contexts of plurality. Yet
those souls which are shaped by “secular spiritualities” that provide or define meaning outside of
religious realms, also need to be formed in their own ways. The rights of both religionists and
the irreligious to be formed by their own Traditions is as “sacred” as anything in a Constitutional
society, though even with good intent, those rights can be unknowingly trampled if not
intentionally protected. Formation itself in any form, and the rights of the protection the range of
expressions of formation, are entrusted primarily, if not solely, to the Chaplain. If those rights
are to be maintained, if as a culture and society, we wish to have Constitutional freedoms and
13. physical safety in the hands of souls rather than automatons, then these roles of soul formation
and protection, ever entrusted into the hands of the Chaplaincy, are essential.
14. Bibliography
Carter, Ross A. From both formal and informal training events with military personnel across our
relationship, 2009-2014.
Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. U.S. Religious Landscape Survey.
http://religions.pewforum.org/reports. Accessed January 13, 2013.
http://cape.army.mil/history.php . Accessed March 13, 2014.
http://www.army.mil/medalofhonor/kapaun/ . Accessed March 13, 2014.
http://www.fourchaplains.org/story.html . Accessed March 12, 2014.
Loveland, Anne C. “From Morale Builders to Moral Advocates: U. S. Army Chaplains in the
Second Half of the Twentieth Century,” in Doris L. Bergen, ed., The Sword of the Lord:
Military Chaplains from the First to the Twenty-First Century. Notre Dame: University of
Notre Dame Press, 2004.
Office of the Chief of Chaplains. Strategic Roadmap: Connecting Faith, Service and Mission.
2012.
Rawls, John. Political Liberalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.
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chapter 5 in Doris L. Bergen, ed., The Sword of the Lord: Military Chaplains from the First
to the Twenty-First Century. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004.
Zeiger, Hans “Why does the U.S. Military Have Chaplains?” Pepperdine Policy Review-Wol. II-
2009. http://publicpolicy.pepperdine.edu/policy-review/2009v2/why-does-us-military-have-
chaplains.htm. Accessed March 13, 2014.