Lesson2.pdf

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JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
OF
AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF OPEN, DISTANCE AND eLEARNING
P.O. Box 62000, 00200
Nairobi, Kenya
E-mail: elearning@jkuat.ac.ke
HRD 2101 Communication Skills

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This presentation is intended to covered within one week.
The notes, examples and exercises should be supple-
mented with a good textbook. Most of the exercises have
solutions/answers appearing elsewhere and accessible by
clicking the green Exercise tag. To move back to the same
page click the same tag appearing at the end of the solu-
tion/answer.
Errors and omissions in these notes are entirely the re-
sponsibility of the author who should only be contacted
through the Department of Curricula & Delivery
(SODeL) and suggested corrections may be e-mailed to
elearning@jkuat.ac.ke.
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innova-
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LESSON 2
Verbal Communication
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2.1. Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this topic you should be able to:
• Describe oral communication
• Highlight the forms of oral communication
• Describe the factors that make oral communication effec-
tive
• Outline the merits and demerits of oral communication
• Describe written communication
• Outline the forms of written communication.
• Outline the merits and demerits of written communication.
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2.2. Introduction
As was unravelled in the previous lesson, there are two forms of
communicatio, namely verbal and non-verbal. Communication
by the spoken or written word, as we all may have noticed in
our lives, is the most familiar and consciously acclaimed type
of communication. For this reason, official communication is
mainly pegged on verbal communication as it is considerred evi-
dentiary and as such admissible by law. It is therefore important
to understand verbal communication in all its various forms. In
this chapter, you will be exposed to verbal communication in its
spoken and written forms, the merits and demerits of each form.
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2.3. Definition
This type of communication involves the use of words to con-
vey information. The following are the main forms of verbal
communication
• Oral communication
• Written communication
2.4. Oral Communication
Oral communication is that communication in which the spoken
word is used.In this case, the voice is the channel of communi-
cation and the sense of hearing is vital for the reception of the
message. Oral communication can be in the form of:
1. Face-to-face communication which is presented as;
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• Classroom lectures
• Meetings
• Seminars
• Conferences
• Group discussions
• Public rallies
• Teleconferencing
2. Telephone
3. Mass-media e.g. TV, radio
4. Songs; poems etc
2.4.1. Factors that make oral communication effective
Oral communication is as challenging as written communication.
One needs therefore, to give a careful attention and thought
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when engaging in conveying messages orally. It is imperative
to be a good and effective communicator (speaker or orator) so
that your audience can understand your message.
Exercise 1. Are good speaker/orators born or made?
Understanding the factors below could help us address this
question:
• Projection/Audibility/ Enunciation; The volume of
voice at the time we speak is crucial to how effective the
communication will be. The voice should be loud enough
as per the demand of the audience. The amount of volume
used is varied depending on the size of the audience or
room .
• Articulation; One should speak all parts of a word cor-
rectly, carefully and distinctly. He or she should avoid the
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following:
1. Deletion-this refers to leaving out parts of a word, for
instance ’cause’ instead of ’because’.
2. Addition of extra parts that do not exist to a word. Take
,for example, ’orientated’ instead of ’oriented’ .
3. Slurring- occurs when someone speaks two or more words
in a hurry to make them sound as one e.g. ‘kinda’ instead
of ‘kind of’
• Modulation; One should vary the tone and pitch of one’s
voice. Pitch refers to the sound vibration frequency while
tone is the rise and fall of pitch. Pitch should never be too
high or too low. Listeners like a controlled pitch. A varied
tone on the other hand helps to enhance the mood of the
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message at hand.
• Pronunciation; One should open and close the mouth
appropriately when speaking , use correct sounds for vow-
els and consonants and use appropriate stress in words and
syllables of words to make communication effective.
• Repetition; The coming over and over of key phrases or
words with different vocal emphasis to create a desired
emotional effect is crucial to ensure communication is ef-
fective.
• Speed; The appropriate rate and timing of words as we
speak is important in ensuring communication is effective.
2.4.2. Advantages of oral communication.
1. First,there is immediate feedback.
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2. Also, one can seek clarification of things not well under-
stood.
3. Oral communication also allows participation of all present.
The message is therefore all-inclusive.
4. Oral communication is a very fast means of communica-
tion since the sound is always transmitted immediately or
almost always.
5. The sender and receiver are encouraged to be creative as
a result of a spontaneous reaction to something said or
heard at the time.
6. Oral communication is a direct means of communication
to people thus lessening chances of distortion.
7. There is an increased chance of bonding.
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2.4.3. Disadvantages of oral communication.
1. Oral communication lacks tangible record hence cannot be
used for future reference in a legal context.
2. It can be difficult to control discussions where so many
people are involved due to the spontaneity of their reac-
tions.
3. It may take a long time to make decisions when different
participants hold different views.
4. Spontaneous reactions may result in inferior or ill-considered
decisions which reduce the quality of communication done.
5. It is not easy to hold grounds especially when opposed.
6. If communication is through more than two parties, then
chances of distortion are high.
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2.5. Written Communication
Written communication is communication whereby words are
put down using letters of the alphabet and symbols to form
documents. This type of communication takes the form of:
• letters
• memos
• notices
• advertisements/publicity
• minutes
• reports
• curriculum vitae
• journals
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• newsletters
• circulars
• Statements etc
Each of the above documents are mostly used in organizations
for passing information to people. It is therefore important to
know the following about them:
1. Types
2. Purposes
3. Contents
4. Formats
5. Language used
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2.5.1. Selected Written Forms of Communication
• Letters
There are two types of letters: formal and informal letters.
Formal letters may be in the form of business letters, letters of
inquiry, letters of complaint, letters of apology, letters of order,
application letters, letters of recommendation, letters of confir-
mation etc.
Contents (features) of a formal letter
1. Address of the sender
2. Reference number (for specific documents)
3. Date of writing
4. Address of the recipient
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5. Salutation
6. Subject
7. Body; the intended message
8. Complementary closing (yours faithfully, yours sincerely)
9. Name
10. Designation: official position of the sender
11. Enclosures
12. Carbon copies
Formatting of the formal letter This refers to the various styles
of display. There are two types: Fully-blocked style and the
semi-blocked style.
Fully-blocked: All writing begins at the margin on the left-
hand side.
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Semi-blocked:
• Reports
A report is a structured written document in which a specific
issue is examined for the purpose of conveying information, in
order to report findings, to answer a request, to put forward
ideas and make recommendations or offer solutions.
An effective report is one that is written appropriate to its
purpose and audience, accurate, logical; clear and concise; and is
well organised into clear section headings. These sections enable
readers to find and focus on specific pieces of information.
Purpose, audience and types of Reports
Keep in mind what your audience needs to know, this will
dictate what type of report you will need to write and the
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Figure 2.1: Semi-blocking style
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amount of detail to be contained therein. Some questions you
need to keep in mind include:
• Who is the report written for?
• How is it relevant to them?
• Why has the report been written?
• Why should they read the report?
• What will the audience do with the information?
• What are the topics covered?
• What are the recommendations or outcomes?
It is most important to think about your reader(s) in terms of
heir wants, needs and expectations. The level of knowledge they
have on the topic and their individual areas of expertise could
impact greatly on how your report is received.
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It’s always important to make a note on the report itself
which outlines who the report was prepared for. If it is not pos-
sible to narrow your focus, and you are required to write a report
that is accessible for differing audiences, it may be appropriate
to write several different versions of the same report.
What type of report am I writing?
• Objective reports: The primary purpose of an objective
report is to present both sides of an argument in a balanced
non-biased way.
• Persuasive reports are usually quite one sided: stressing
the benefits of one side of the argument and the pitfalls
of the other. For this reason, persuasive reports are struc-
tured quite differently.
Planning your report
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Figure 2.2: Planning your report
See fig.2.2
Research the topic
In order to produce a high quality report, it is essential to
include accurate, relevant and up to date information collected
from a wide variety of sources. Examples of where to collect
information include: interviews or discussions with experts, sur-
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veys, observations, a compilation of statistics and company or
industry data – this is called primary data. You may also find
secondary data in books, theses, on the Internet, in journals or
newspapers, reports, conference papers, brochures etc.
Report writers also consult secondary sources in order to get
ideas for writing a report. It is always useful to not only consult
sources but also refer to them directly in the body of the report.
Create the outline
To begin an outline, start by jotting down a list of topics
that you know you need to cover. break the topics down into
subsets.
When creating an outline:
1. Allow chaos to reign
2. Give structure to your brainstorming by deciding on the
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topics you wish to cover
3. Create sub topics under your main headings
4. Arrange the topics and sub topics in a logical order
5. Add appropriate introductions and conclusions to your
structure
6. You may wish to circulate your outline for feedback at this
stage.
The next step is to arrange the headings into a logical sequence.
It may help to follow an argument development method as shown
in table2.1:
Write the Draft
Once you have created an outline, the next step is to create a
draft. It is important not to worry too much about details such
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Table 2.1:
as punctuation and spelling at this point. The most important
thing is to establish a logical flow and ensure you have enough
evidence to support the ideas you are presenting. For each sec-
tion and sub-section ensure you lead with a summary sentence
that immediately flags to the reader what the main idea of the
section is.
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Impartiality is imperative in the drafting stage. As the re-
searcher and writer you must express your ideas in an objective
manner. This is why report writers often express themselves in
the third person. For example, they may write: The research
reflected. . . rather than: Our research reflected.
Types of Reports
There are numerous types of reports that are widely used
in business. These range from short informal or semi-formal
reports to longer formal reports. The format is determined by
the purpose of the report, the amount of detail required, and
the audience for whom it is intended.
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• SHORT INFORMAL / SEMI-FORMAL REPORT
The short report is generally less than four pages or 1200 words
in length. It has fewer parts than a longer report and may use
headings to guide the reader through the ideas being presented
in the body of the text. Because the report is written in an
informal or semi-formal style, first person and active voice are
preferred (e.g. “I consider that . . . ” rather than “It is considered
that . . . ”).
Structure:
• Title
• Introductory statement – what the report is about and
why it is being written
• Body of the report – findings and discussion
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• Conclusions and recommendations
Other formats may also be used for short reports. For example:
• Pre-Printed Report Form
A report form usually consists of questions to gain specific in-
formation that can be stored manually and/or entered onto a
computer.
• Letter Report
If a short report is written for a reader outside the organisation
in which it was written, it may be written as a letter report. This
report is usually written in the first person and active voice (e.g.
“I consider that . . . ” rather than “It is considered that . . . ”) and
is more informal than a long report.
A letter report shares certain features with normal letters
– features that would not normally be found in a report: it is
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written on letterhead and includes the address of the reader,
salutation (Dear . . . ), close (Yours Sincerely/faithfully) and sig-
nature.
On the other hand, a letter report is more structured than a
normal letter. It has a subject line, which is sometimes seen in
letters, and an introduction and conclusion which are similar to
those of a letter in that neither is prefaced by a heading. The
body of the letter, however, is in report format, with headings
and sub-headings clearly defining the sections and sub-sections.
• Memo Report
A memo report may be written to a reader who works in the
same organisation as the writer. Because the writer is likely to
know something about the reader and his/her requirements and
level of knowledge of the subject matter, the memo report does
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not need to contain detailed background information about all
of the things to which it refers.
This report is written on memo paper and follows the memo
format. However, it is longer than the conventional memo (two
pages or more) and is therefore divided into separate, labelled
sections. The memo report is usually written in the first person
and active voice (e.g. “I consider that . . . ” rather than “It is
considered that . . . ”) and is more informal than a letter report.
• LONGER INFORMAL / SEMI-FORMAL REPORT
Longer informal or semi-formal reports contain more informa-
tion and deal with the material in much greater detail than short
informal reports.
The longer report is more structured and has more sections
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than the short report. Headings and sub-headings are used to
guide the reader through the sections and sub-sections. Because
it is informal or semi-formal, first person and active voice are
preferred.
Structure:
• Title page
• Summary
• Introduction
• Body of the report - findings and discussion
• Conclusions and recommendations Appendices (if applica-
ble)
Layout of an Informal Report
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Figure 2.3: Layout of an Informal Report
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• FORMAL REPORT
Formal reports are rarely less than ten pages long and can often
run into hundreds of pages. They are commonly written for a
large audience who do not know the writer, and are sent outside
an organisation. Third person and passive voice should be used
(e.g. “It is considered that . . . ” rather than “I consider that
. . . ”).
Structure:
• Cover letter/memorandum
• Cover
• Title page
• Summary
• Table of contents
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• Table of illustrations, figures, tables, etc. (if applicable)
• Introduction Body of the report – methodology, findings
and discussion
• Conclusions
• Recommendations
• Bibliography
• Appendices (if applicable)
• Glossary or list of abbreviations (if applicable)
• Index (optional)
Cover Letter/Memorandum
• Write a cover letter if the report is to be sent to a reader
outside the organisation.
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• Write a cover memo if the report is to be sent to a reader
inside the organisation.
• The letter/memo should contain a salutation (“Dear . . . ”
for a letter), statement of purpose (“Here is the report on
. . . that you requested”), a brief overview or summary (“In
this report you will find . . . ”), acknowledgements (“Several
people proved to be of great assistance to me. . . ”), and a
courteous close (“Thank you for the opportunity to inves-
tigate . . . If you have any questions about the report,
please contact me”).
Cover
• A report may be bound into a folder or professionally pro-
duced as a book.
• The cover should be attractive.
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• The report title should be on the cover and spine.
Title
• The title should be complete and comprehensive, without
being so long that it is difficult to grasp. E.g. “Report
on the Proposed Realignment of CSU Division of Human
Resources 2008”
Title Page
• Title of the report.
• Name and position of the person who wrote the report.
• Name of the person (or organisation) for whom the report
was written.
• An alternative to having a separate title page is to set out
this information at the top of the first page.
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Summary
• The summary is a quick overview of the aim, conclusions
and most important aspects of the report.
• The summary is designed to be read by people who are
too busy to read the whole report. It is therefore essential
that it be brief, comprehensive and interesting.
• The summary is usually written last.
Table of Contents
• The table of contents is a systematic list, in page order, of
all the parts of a report.
• Page numbers are listed next to each heading and sub-
heading.
• If desired, a numbering system may be used for organising
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the table of contents and report:
Table of Illustrations, Figures, Tables, etc. (if applica-
ble)
Include separate tables of illustrations, figures (i.e. graphs
and diagrams) and/or tables if the report is four or more pages
long and contains a number of graphics, figures or tables.
Introduction
• The introduction is the beginning of the major part of the
report. Its aim is to provide all the necessary information
so that the reader can understand the main discussion and
the body of the report.
• It is the place for a broad, general view of your material.
Avoid details that belong properly to the body of the re-
port or the appendices.
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• Authorisation or terms of reference: What is the problem
or issue being reported on? Who asked for the report?
• Purpose: Why is the report being written?
• Background information: What was the sequence of past
events leading to the present problem or issue?
• Scope: What aspects of the topic will be dealt with? What
will be excluded? What kind of information will be pre-
sented?
• Definitions of technical terms and words that you intend
to use in a special sense.
Methodology
• Outline the method of investigation or research: When
and how was the information obtained?
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• Outline the sources of information: Where was the infor-
mation obtained?
Findings
• Present the facts and results that were obtained through
the investigation or research.
• Restrict the content of this section to factual information
of high credibility. Opinions should be located in the dis-
cussion section of the report.
• Divide the section into sub-topics and use sub-headings.
• Arrange the sub-topics in accordance with a basic plan or
logical progression. For example:
– Order of time
– Order of location
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– Order of importance
– Order of process Parallel order.
– Discussion
• Analyse and evaluate the facts already presented.
• Present your expert opinions. Avoid emotional statements
or opinions expressed in a “parent” tone.
• Based on the results of your research, argue the case for
and against various courses of action, estimate the possible
effects, and then recommend a suitable course of action.
• If you wish, briefly include some additional material to
support your argument, e.g. graph, diagram, table, pic-
ture.
• Throughout the discussion, refer to any appendices you
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have attached to supplement the information in the body
of the report.
Conclusions
• Summarise the discussion.
• Summarise your findings and inferences.
• Emphasise the significance of your subject matter.
• Refer briefly to any wider consideration, outside your terms
of reference, on which your report may have a bearing.
Recommendations
• Make recommendations based on your findings and infer-
ences.
• Be as specific as you possibly can.
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• State clearly what action should be taken as a result of
your recommendations, and by whom.
• Use subjunctive mood, e.g. “That . . . be [past tense of
verb]”
• Set your recommendations out step by step and in a logical
sequence.
• Do not put more than one step in each recommendation.
• Always number your recommendations.
• Keep your explanations out of the recommendations. If
it needs explaining, do so in the discussion section of the
report.
• If you expect a “knockback” on some of your recommenda-
tions, include some alternatives in the recommendations.
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• Don’t be afraid to recommend further investigation if you
feel you still don’t have the answer when it is time to write
the report.
Close
• Signature.
• Printed name.
• Position.
• Name of organisation or committee.
• Date that the report was completed or signed.
Bibliography (if applicable)
• Record the bibliographic details (i.e. author, title, edition,
publisher, place of publication, and year of publication) for
the sources of information used.
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• List the sources of information alphabetically by author.
Appendices (if applicable)
• The appendices contain data (such as charts, tables, pho-
tographs, maps and statistics) that support the body of
the report. These are located in a separate section to avoid
disrupting and cluttering the flow of the discussion.
Glossary or List of Abbreviations (if applicable)
• If the report is particularly complex and involves termi-
nology that the reader may not be familiar with, include a
glossary (mini-dictionary) to explain the meaning of words
and terms.
• If there are a number of abbreviations (acronyms, initials
or shortened words), create a list of abbreviations and
what they stand for.
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Index (if applicable)
• If the report is over 20 pages long, an index will help the
reader find specific information contained within the re-
port more easily than is possible with the table of contents.
• Minutes
• Curriculum Vitae
Application for a job consists of two parts:
• Your bio data( curriculum vitae or resume)
• A covering letter
The application including the bio-data creates an impression of
the cabdidate in the selectors mind. There are things you must
follow when writing an application:
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1. Compile accurate information about your life. Include de-
tails like age, academic qualifications, co-curricular activ-
ities, work experience„ publications, seminars attended to
and membership held.
2. Package and present the information properly to give the
employer a clear picture of your personality. All the in-
formation you provide must be chronologically arranged
in reverse order and there must be sub headings wherever
possible.
3. Trhe bio-data should be formulated impressively with mar-
gins on both the left and right hand sides of the paper.
4. First write a draft, then make the necessary corrections.
After this you can make the final draft as perfectly as
possible. Here is an example of a resume:
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Main points to remember in writing resume
• Use bulleted sentences, so that the employer takes just five
or si messages from your resume
• A resume must be short on words but long on facts
• It must focus on your strengths and abilities
• It must make a factual and sincere representation of your
skills
• It must reflect your worth as a potential employee
Exercise. Following an advertisment on the paper for a secetar-
ial job vacancy in Kimo Limited, write an application letter.
Exercise 2. Define what is meant by Oral communication
Example . what are some of the disadvantages of oral com-
munication
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Figure 2.5: Resume
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Figure 2.6: Cover letter
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Solution:
Oral communication lacks tangible record hence cannot be
used for future reference in a legal context.
It can be difficult to control discussions where so many people
are involved due to the spontaneity of their reactions.
It may take a long time to make decisions when different
participants hold different views.
Spontaneous reactions may result in inferior or ill-considered
decisions which reduce the quality of communication done.

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2.6. Non-verbal Communication
Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this topic you should be able to:
• Describe non-verbal communication
• Highlight the forms of non-verbal communication
• Describe the various forms of body language
• Explain the role of non-verbal communication
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2.7. Introduction
The statement ’...Words mean nothing without emotion...’ is
a widely asserted quote that bares a lot of truth. Interesting
to note, these feelings that give meaning to words are largely
conveyed by non-verbal means which , as research has proven,
comprise of more than 75% of communication between persons;
so ,in essence, more than half of all communication is non-verbal.
Unfortunately, the common human instinct to ignore this cate-
gory of communication has led to distortion in information and
at times a complete breakdown in communication. As a scholar,
it is our hope that at the end of this topic you will be able to
identify with ease the different non-verbal forms of communi-
cation and as such instinctively take them into account as you
interpret any information that is conveyed to you from another
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person to foster effective communication.
Culture and Non-Verbal Messages
Nonverbal communication has been said to have a greater
universality than language, in that ‘we can often make ourselves
known in a rudimentary way through signs and gestures when
communicating with people from differing cultural backgrounds
who do not share a common language’ (Hargie et al, 2004, p.38).
However, a word of warning- non-verbal cues can also differ dra-
matically from culture to culture.
An American hand gesture meaning ’AOK’ for example, would
be viewed as obscene in some South American countries. It can
be vital for those in contact with people from different cultures
to do their research and discover what it means to make eye-
contact, use hand gestures, to touch another person etc in the
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other culture; and especially to find out what is taboo (Goman,
2002). Be careful!
2.8. Audio
Involves the use of sound and engages hearing senses e.g. music
(horns, trumpets, drums, alarms etc.)
2.9. Visual
Communication that involves sight i.e. symbols and signs
2.10. Audio-visual
Uses both the sense of sight and hearing
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2.11. Body language
Has a lot to do with the visual aspect since observation of body
signs is used. It can be traced back to 1872 (Charles Darwin) in
the book “ Expression of emotions in Man and Animals” It may
be divided into the following categories:
1. Kinesics
2. Occulesics
3. Paralanguage/Paralinguistics
4. Proxemics
5. Artifactics; objects that people carry, wear or own e.g.
dressing style, colour of clothes, perfume, personal objects
such as briefcases, cars and pens. These describe some-
one’s personality and character.
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6. Chronemics; this is the study of time and its impact on
people. High-culture people are very time conscious while
low-culture people are not time conscious at all
7. Tactilics/Haptics; Refers to the language of touch e.g.
greetings, bodily touch. There are two types of touch
language;
• body contact : Body contact is unconscious and acci-
dental. Any part of the body can be involved
• touching with hands: Touching implies actions are de-
liberate, conscious and made primarily by hand. Touch-
ing is therapeutic. It fulfills physiological and sociological
needs; these may be sexual or psychological
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2.12. Non-verbal Communication Skills
As well as using active listening skills to develop awareness and
monitor the non-verbal cues of others, it is important to de-
velop awareness of your own non-verbal cues and their likely
impact through close self-monitoring. Some training courses of-
fer videotaping of simulated work situations, and these can be
invaluable in developing awareness of characteristic habits or
patterns of non-verbal behaviours that you tend to show as well
as the possible impact of these (eg, overly sharp tone of voice
mistakenly conveying displeasure; smiling when conveying criti-
cism thus watering down the impact of the verbal message; lack
of comfortable eye contact suggesting aloofness or dishonesty).
However through close self-monitoring and reflecting on your
own behaviour as well as by seeking feedback from others who
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are prepared to give you an honest response, awareness of your
own NVC and its likely impact can be gained. In conversations,
ask yourself ‘Are my non-verbal behaviours reflecting my words?
Are they reflecting the message that I want to convey?’
Exercise 3. Research and discuss the following:
Kinesics
Proxemics
Occulesics
Paralanguage/ vocalics
Example . Explain the role of non-verbal communication
Solution:
Express emotions
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Express interpersonal attitudes
To accompany speech in managing the cues of interaction
between speakers and listeners
Self-presentation of one’s personality Rituals (greetings)

Exercise 4. Citing examples, explain the advantages and
diadvantages of audio- visual communinication.
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Solutions to Exercises
Exercise 2.
It is that communication in which the spoken word is used.In
this case, the voice is the channel of communication and the
sense of hearing is vital for the reception of the message
Exercise 2
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Exercise 3.
Kinesics is the study of body language, or more formally, non-
verbal behaviour related to movement, either of any part of the
body or of the body as a whole.Kinesics are an important part
of non-verbal communication behavior. the movement of the
body, or separate parts, conveys many specific meanings and
the interpretations may be culture-bound. As many movements
are carried out at a sub-conscious or at- least low awareness
levels, kinesic movements carry a signfificant risk of being mis-
interepreted in an intercultural communication situation.
Proxemics refers to the interrelated observations and theories
of man’s use of space as a specialised elaboration of culture.We
all have an area of space around us that we consider as ours
and tend to feel uncomfortable when this space is breached.
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The extent to which people will keep out of or encroach upon
our personal space, depends on a multitude of factors including
culture, personality, age, sex, status and dominance (Hargie et
al, 2004). For example, women typically adopt closer distances
than men, particularly with other women. Similarly, extroverts
adopt closer distances than introverts, as do the very young and
old. North European and North American cultures tend to pre-
fer larger interpersonal distances than do people from Southern
Europe, Latin America and the Middle East (Hargie et al, 2004).
The distance that people put between themselves and others can
also be instrumental in reflecting attitudes, creating feelings and
indicating the balance of power. Thus, we may stand away from
someone we regard as unfriendly, or whom we think is going
to tell us something we do not want to hear (Knapp Hall,
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1992). Likewise, those who create a large interpersonal distance
when communicating with us, we tend to view as less friendly
and understanding (Adler Elmhorst, 1999). The person with
the higher status in an interaction generally controls the level of
distance and degree of approach.
Occulesics, a sub-category of kinesics, is the study of eye
movement, eye- behaviour, gaze and eye-related non-verbal com-
munication. It has four dimensions:
Eye- contact
Eye-movement
Pupil Dilation
Gaze Direction
It has long since been recognised that the eyes communicate
a great deal with expressions such as ‘the eyes are the windows
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of the soul’ in common parlance. Think about how it can be
difficult to deal with someone wearing sunglasses, for example.
Eye contact can indicate engagement or involvement with the
speaker and complete lack of eye contact can suggest detach-
ment, nervousness or that the person is hiding something. Use
of eye contact can serve a number of purposes – for example, a
sequence of breaks and contact in eye gaze is used to regulate the
flow in conversation, with the speaker typically engaging in eye
contact as they come to the end of their speech turn.Eye contact
of the listener needs to be at a comfortable level – a constant or
fixed eye gaze can be unnerving. In addition, the rules for what
amounts to appropriate or comfortable eye contact varies from
culture to culture.
Vocalics is how people express themselves through voice. The
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voice has different properties. These are rate, inflection and vari-
ety in the voice, volume, being loud or soft, and articulation and
pronunciation, or how correctly and clearly the person speaks.
the voice will also develop physiological properties termed as
voice qualities such as breathiness, raspiness or hoarseness, and
nasality(having a really whiny voice). A great deal of informa-
tion can be communicated this way. It is easy to tell for exam-
ple that twopeople are arguing when you can hear the sound of
their voices but not their words. To illustrate this further, think
about how paralinguistics can change the meaning of the follow-
ing statement, spoken by a student: ‘I‘ll not have that report
finished by Friday. Would Monday do?’ Depending on how this
is said, the meaning may be heard as ‘I don’t think it’s impor-
tant’ or ‘I don’t care about it’ or ‘I’m becoming overwhelmed
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with the work’ or ‘I’m very sorry’ etc. In a very general sense,
varying the tone, pitch, rate and other vocal features can com-
municate enthusiasm and can create a sense of interest in the
listener. This can be of importance when giving a presentation
). However, sometimes paralinguistic cues are difficult to de-
code and are ambiguous. For example, is the student who talks
very quickly nervous, eager to get away, under pressure or is this
simply their characteristic way of speaking? Exercise 3
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