This document discusses memory management techniques in computer systems. It explains that programs must reside in main memory to execute, but the CPU can only directly access registers and main memory. It then describes different methods for binding program addresses to physical memory addresses, including at compile time, load time, and execution time. The document also discusses paging and segmentation for virtual memory management using address translation hardware to map virtual to physical addresses.
Unit III
STORAGE MANAGEMENT
Main Memory-Contiguous Memory Allocation, Segmentation, Paging, 32 and 64 bit architecture Examples; Virtual Memory- Demand Paging, Page Replacement, Allocation, Thrashing; Allocating Kernel Memory, OS Examples.
Unit III
STORAGE MANAGEMENT
Main Memory-Contiguous Memory Allocation, Segmentation, Paging, 32 and 64 bit architecture Examples; Virtual Memory- Demand Paging, Page Replacement, Allocation, Thrashing; Allocating Kernel Memory, OS Examples.
g
Background
Swapping
Contiguous Memory Allocation
Paging
Structure of the Page Table
Segmentation
Example: The Intel Pentium
Objectives
To provide a detailed description of various ways of organizing memory hardware
To discuss various memory-management techniques, including paging and segmentation
To provide a detailed description of the Intel Pentium, which supports both pure segmentation and segmentation with paging
Operating System
Topic Memory Management
for Btech/Bsc (C.S)/BCA...
Memory management is the functionality of an operating system which handles or manages primary memory. Memory management keeps track of each and every memory location either it is allocated to some process or it is free. It checks how much memory is to be allocated to processes. It decides which process will get memory at what time. It tracks whenever some memory gets freed or unallocated and correspondingly it updates the status.
Memory management is the act of managing computer memory. The essential requirement of memory management is to provide ways to dynamically allocate portions of memory to programs at their request, and free it for reuse when no longer needed. This is critical to any advanced computer system where more than a single process might be underway at any time
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
g
Background
Swapping
Contiguous Memory Allocation
Paging
Structure of the Page Table
Segmentation
Example: The Intel Pentium
Objectives
To provide a detailed description of various ways of organizing memory hardware
To discuss various memory-management techniques, including paging and segmentation
To provide a detailed description of the Intel Pentium, which supports both pure segmentation and segmentation with paging
Operating System
Topic Memory Management
for Btech/Bsc (C.S)/BCA...
Memory management is the functionality of an operating system which handles or manages primary memory. Memory management keeps track of each and every memory location either it is allocated to some process or it is free. It checks how much memory is to be allocated to processes. It decides which process will get memory at what time. It tracks whenever some memory gets freed or unallocated and correspondingly it updates the status.
Memory management is the act of managing computer memory. The essential requirement of memory management is to provide ways to dynamically allocate portions of memory to programs at their request, and free it for reuse when no longer needed. This is critical to any advanced computer system where more than a single process might be underway at any time
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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2. The main purpose of a computer system is to execute programs.
These programs, together with the data they access, must be in
main memory (at least partially) during execution.
Main memory and the registers built into the processor itself are
the only storage that the CPU can access directly.
Registers are generally accessible within one cycle of the CPU
clock. The same cannot be said of main memory, which is
accessed via a transaction on the memory bus.
Memory access may take many clock cycles to complete, in
which case the processor normally needs to stall, since it does
not have the data required to complete the instruction that it is
executing.
3. Usually, a program resides on a disk as a binary executable file.
To be executed, the program must be brought into memory.
The process of associating program instructions and data
to physical memory addresses is called address binding,
or relocation.
Addresses in the source program are generally relocatable
addresses generated by the compiler.
Loader will in turn bind the relocatable addresses to absolute
addresses.
Each binding is a mapping from one address space to another.
4.
5. User processes must be
restricted so that they only
access memory locations that
"belong" to that particular
process.
This is usually implemented
using a base register and a
limit register for each process.
Every memory access made by
a user process is checked
against these two registers, and
if a memory access is
attempted outside the valid
range, then a fatal error is
generated.
6. Changing the contents of the base and limit registers is a privileged
activity, allowed only to the OS kernel.
7. Classically, the binding of program addresses can be done at any
step along the way:
Compile time: The compiler translates symbolic addresses to
absolute addresses. If you know at compile time where the
process will reside in memory, then absolute addresses can be
generated (Static).
For example, if we know that a user process will reside starting
at location R, then the generated compiler code will start at that
location and extend up from there. If, at some later time, the
starting location changes, then it will be necessary to recompile
this code.
8.
9.
10. Load time: If it is not known at compile time where the process
will reside in memory, then the compiler must generate
relocatable code. In this case, final binding is delayed until
load time.
It references addresses relative to the start of the program.
If the starting address changes in RAM, then the program must
be reloaded but not recompiled.
13. Execution time: If the process can be moved during its
execution from one memory segment to another, then binding
must be delayed until run time.
Special hardware must be available for this scheme to work.
Most general-purpose operating systems use this method.
14.
15. ◦ Logical address – generated by the CPU; also referred to as
virtual address
◦ Physical address – address seen by the memory unit.
Actual addresses of RAM
Logical and physical addresses are the same in compile-time
and load-time address-binding schemes; logical (virtual) and
physical addresses differ in execution-time address-binding
scheme
16. Hardware device that maps virtual to physical address
In MMU scheme, the value in the relocation register is added
to every address generated by a user process at the time it is
sent to memory
The user program deals with logical addresses; it never sees
the real physical addresses
17.
18. A process can be swapped temporarily out of memory to a
backing store, and then brought back into memory for
continued execution.
Backing store – fast disk large enough to accommodate
copies of all memory images for all users; must provide direct
access to these memory images
Roll out, roll in –
swapping variant used
for priority-based schedu
ling algorithms; lower-pri
ority process is swapped
out so higher-priority
process can be loaded
and executed
19. Major part of swap time is transfer time; total transfer time is
directly proportional to the amount of memory swapped.
A modification of swapping is used in many versions of UNIX.
Swapping is normally disabled but will start if many processes
are running and are using a threshold amount of memory.
Swapping is again halted when the load on the system is
reduced.
20. External Fragmentation – total memory space exists to
satisfy a request, but it is not contiguous
Internal Fragmentation – allocated memory may be slightly
larger than requested memory; this size difference is memory
internal to a partition, but not being used
Reduce external fragmentation by compaction
◦ Shuffle memory contents to place all free memory together in
one large block
◦ Compaction is possible only if relocation is dynamic, and is
done at execution time
OS
P1
P2
P3
OS
P1
P3
OS
P1
P3
P4
OS
P3
P4
OS
P3
P4
P5
OS
P1
OS
P1
P2
OS OS
P3
P4
P5
P6
compaction
21. Divide physical memory into fixed-
sized blocks called frames (size is
power of 2, between 512 bytes and
8192 bytes)
Divide logical memory into blocks of
same size called pages.
Any virtual page can be located at any
physical page
Translation box converts from virtual
pages to physical pages
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
1
2
3
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Translation
Virtual
Page #
Physical
Page #
0x0000
0x6000
0x0000
0x4000
0x0000
0xE000
22. Address generated by CPU is divided into:
◦ Page number (p) – used as an index into a page table
which contains base address of each page in physical
memory
◦ Page offset (d) – combined with base address to define the
physical memory address that is sent to the memory unit
25. In paging we have no external fragmentation. Any free frame
can be allocated to a process that needs it. However, we may
have some internal fragmentation?
Today, pages typically are between 4 KB and 8 KB in size, and some
systems support even larger page sizes.
Important aspect of paging is the clear separation between the
user’s view of memory and the actual physical memory.
The user program views memory as one single space, containing
only this one program. In fact, the user program is scattered
throughout physical memory, which also holds other programs.