Introduction to all philosophers mentioned in Law and Politics Society . Easy way to know instead of Reading full book.

1. Key Thinkers
Law and Politics and Society
(Prepared by Fahad NooR)
Hannah Arendt (1906–75):
German political theorist and philosopher. Hannah Arendt was brought up in a middl
e-class Jewish family. She fled Germany in 1933 to escape from Nazism, and finally
settled in the USA, where her major work was produced. Her wide-ranging, even idio
syncratic, writing was influenced by the existentialism of Heidegger (1889–1976) and
Jaspers (1883–1969); she described it as 'thinking without barriers'. Her major work
s include The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), which drew parallels between Nazi G
ermany and Stalinist Russia, her major philosophical work The Human Condition (19
58), On Revolution (1963) and Eichmann in Jerusalem (1963). The final work stimula
ted particular controversy because it stressed the 'banality of evil', by portraying Eich
mann as a Nazi functionary rather than as a raving ideologue.
Aristotle (384–322 bce):
Greek philosopher. Aristotle was a student of Plato (see p. 13) and tutor of the young
Alexander the Great. He established his own school of philosophy in Athens in 335
bce; this was called the 'peripatetic school' after his tendency to walk up and down a
s he talked. His 22 surviving treatises, compiled as lecture notes, range over logic, p
hysics, metaphysics, astronomy, meteorology, biology, ethics and politics. In the Mid
dle Ages, Aristotle's work became the foundation of Islamic philosophy, and it was lat
er incorporated into Christian theology. His best-known political work is Politics, in w
hich he portrayed the city-state as the basis for virtue and well-being, and argued tha
t democracy is preferable to oligarchy (see p. 267–9).
B
Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832):
UK philosopher, legal reformer and founder of utilitarianism. Bentham developed a m

2. oral and philosophical system that was based on the idea that human beings are rati
onally self-interested creatures or utility maximizers, which he believed provided a sc
ientific basis for legal and political reforms. Using the 'greatest happiness' principle, h
is followers, the Philosophic Radicals, were responsible for many of the reforms in so
cial administration, law, government and economics in the UK in the nineteenth cent
ury. A supporter of laissez-faire economics, in later life Bentham also became a firm
advocate of political democracy. His utilitarian creed was developed in Fragments on
Government ([1776] 1948), and more fully in Principles of Morals and Legislation (1
789).
Isaiah Berlin (1909–97):
UK historian of ideas and philosopher. Berlin was born in Riga, Latvia, and came to
Britain in 1921. He developed a form of liberal pluralism that was grounded in a lifelo
ng commitment to empiricism and influenced by the ideas of counter-Enlightenment t
hinkers, including Vico (1668–1744), Herder (see p. 110) and Alexander Herzen (18
12–70). Basic to Berlin's philosophical stance was a belief in moral pluralism, the ide
a that conflicts of values are intrinsic to human life. His best-known political writing is
Four Essays on Liberty (1958), in which he extolled the virtues of 'negative' freedom
over 'positive' freedom. Berlin's writings constitute a defence of western liberalism ag
ainst totalitarianism.
Eduard Bernstein (1850–1932):
German socialist politician and theorist. An early member of the German SPD, Berns
tein became one of the leading advocates of revisionism, the attempt to revise and m
odernize orthodox Marxism. Influenced by British Fabianism and the philosophy of K
ant (see p. 410), Bernstein developed a largely empirical critique that emphasized th
e absence of class war, and proclaimed the possibility of a peaceful transition to soci
alism. This is described in Evolutionary Socialism ([1898] 1962). He left the SPD ove
r his opposition to World War I, although he subsequently returned and served as the
secretary of state for the economy and finance in the Ebert government (1918–19).
Bernstein is often seen as one of the founding figures of modern social democracy.
Edmund Burke (1729–97):
Dublin-born UK statesman and political theorist who is often seen as the father of the

3. Anglo-American conservative tradition. Burke's enduring reputation is based on a se
ries of works, notably Reflections on the Revolution in France ([1790] 1968), that wer
e critical of the French Revolution. Though sympathetic to the American Revolution,
Burke was deeply critical of the attempt to recast French politics in accordance with
abstract principles such as liberty, equality and fraternity, arguing that wisdom reside
d largely in experience, tradition and history. Nevertheless, he held that the French
monarchy was, in part, responsible for its own fate since it had obstinately refused to
'change in order to conserve'. Burke had a gloomy view of government, recognizing
that it could prevent evil but rarely promote good. He supported free market economi
cs on the grounds that it reflects 'natural law'.
C
Noam Chomsky (born 1928):
US linguistic theorist and radical intellectual. Chomsky first achieved distinction as a
scholar in the field of linguistic studies. His Syntactic Structures (1957) revolutionized
the discipline with the theory of 'transformational grammar', which proposed that hu
mans have an innate capacity to acquire language. Radicalized during the Vietnam
War, Chomsky subsequently became the leading radical critic of US foreign policy, d
eveloping his views in an extensive range of works including American Power and th
e New Mandarins (1969), New Military Humanism (1999) and Hegemony and Surviv
al (2004). In works such as (with Edward Herman) Manufacturing Consent ([1988] 20
06), he developed a radical critique of the mass media and examined how popular s
upport for imperialist aggression is mobilized.
D
Robert Dahl (born 1915):
US political scientist. Appointed professor of political science at Yale University in 19
46, Dahl subsequently became one of the USA's most eminent political analysts. In 1
953 (with Charles Lindblom) he coined the term 'polyarchy' (rule by the many) to disti
nguish modern societies from classical democracy. Dahl's early writings reflect the i
mpact of positivist and behaviouralist doctrines and, in the 1950s and early 1960s, h
e developed a conventional pluralist position. From the late 1960s, however, togethe
r with Lindblom and Galbraith (see p. 155), he developed a radicalized form of liberal
ism, 'neopluralism', that revealed an increasing concern with the power of major capit

4. alist corporations. His major works include A Preface to Democratic Theory (1956),
Who Governs? (1961) and Dilemmas of Pluralist Democracy (1982).
Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–59):
French politician, political theorist and historian. Following the July Revolution of 183
0 in France, Tocqueville visited the USA, ostensibly to study its penal system. This re
sulted in his epic two-volume Democracy in America (1835/40), which developed an
ambivalent critique of US democracy with its equality of opportunity, but warned agai
nst the 'tyranny of the majority'. His political career was ended by Louis Napoleon's c
oup in 1849, leaving him free to devote his time to historical work such as The Old R
egime and the French Revolution ([1856] 1947). A friend and correspondent of J. S.
Mill, de Tocqueville's writings reflect a highly ambiguous attitude to the advance of p
olitical democracy. His ideas have influenced both liberal and conservative theorists,
as well as academic sociologists.
E
Jean Bethke Elshtain (born 1941):
US political philosopher. Elshtain's Public Man, Private Woman (1981) made a major
contribution to feminist scholarship in examining the role of gender in fashioning the
division between public and private spheres in political theory. In Women and War (1
987), she discussed the perceptual lenses that determine the roles of men and wom
en in war, interweaving personal narrative and historical analysis to highlight the myt
hs that men are 'just warriors' and women are 'beautiful souls' to be saved. In Just W
ar Against Terror (2003), Elshtain argued that the 'war on terror' was just, in that it w
as fought against the genocidal threat of 'apocalyptic' terrorism, a form of warfare tha
t made no distinction between combatants and non-combatants.
F
Betty Friedan (1921–2006):
US feminist and political activist, sometimes seen as the 'mother' of women's liberati
on. Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique (1963) is often credited with having stimu
lated the emergence of 'second wave' feminism. In it, she examined 'the problem wit

5. h no name': the sense of frustration and despair afflicting suburban American women
. In 1966, she helped to found the National Organization of Women (NOW), becomin
g its first president. In The Second Stage (1983), Friedan drew attention to the dange
r that the pursuit of 'personhood' might encourage women to deny the importance of
children, the home, and the family. Her later writings include The Fountain of Age (19
93).
Francis Fukuyama (born 1952):
US social analyst and political commentator. Fukuyama was born in Chicago, USA, t
he son of a Protestant preacher. He was a member of the Policy Planning Staff of th
e US State Department before becoming an academic; he is currently at Johns Hopk
ins University. A staunch Republican, he came to international prominence as a resul
t of his article 'The End of History?' (1989), which he later developed into The End of
History and the Last Man (1992). These works claimed that the history of ideas had
ended with the recognition of liberal democracy as 'the final form of human governm
ent'. In Trust (1996) and The Great Disruption (1999), Fukuyama discussed the relati
onship between economic development and social cohesion. In The Origins of Politic
al Order (2011), he laid down the basis for a theory of political development.
G
John Kenneth Galbraith (1908–2006):
Canadian economist and social theorist. Following wartime service as the Director of
the US Strategic Bombing Survey, Galbraith became a professor of economics at H
arvard University and served as the US Ambassador to India, 1961–63. Galbraith wa
s closely identified with the Democratic Party, and was perhaps the leading modern
exponent of Keynesian economics (and certainly its most innovative advocate). He b
ecame one of the USA's most eminent social commentators. In The Affluent Society
(1958), Galbraith highlighted the contrast between private affluence and public squal
or, arguing that economic resources are often used in the wasteful gratification of triv
ial wants. The New Industrial State (1967) advanced a critique of corporate power in
the USA. His other major works include The Culture of Contentment (1992).
Marcus Garvey (1887–1940):

6. Jamaican political thinker and activist, and an early advocate of black nationalism. G
arvey was the founder in 1914 of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNI
A). He left Jamaica for New York in 1916, where his message of black pride and eco
nomic self-sufficiency gained him a growing following, particularly in ghettos such as
Harlem. Although his black business enterprises failed, and his call for a return to Afr
ica was largely ignored, Garvey's emphasis on establishing black pride and his vision
of Africa as a 'homeland' provided the basis for the later Black Power movement. Ra
stafarianism is also based largely on his ideas. Garvey was imprisoned for mail fraud
in 1923, and was later deported, eventually dying in obscurity in London.
Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937):
Italian Marxist and social theorist. The son of a minor public official. Gramsci joined t
he Socialist Party in 1913, and in 1921 became the General Secretary of the newly-f
ormed Italian Communist Party. Although an elected member of parliament, he was i
mprisoned by Mussolini in 1926. He remained in prison until his death. His Prison No
tebooks (Gramsci, 1971), written in 1929–35, tried to counterbalance the emphasis
within orthodox Marxism on 'scientific' determinism by stressing the importance of th
e political and intellectual struggle. Although proponents of Eurocommunism have cl
aimed him as an influence, he remained throughout his life a Leninist and a revolutio
nary.
H
Jürgen Habermas (born 1929):
German philosopher and social theorist. After growing up during the Nazi period, Ha
bermas was politicized by the Nuremburg trials and the growing awareness after the
war of the concentration and death camps. Drawn to study with Adorno (1903–69) a
nd Horkheimer (1895–1973), he became the leading exponent of the 'second genera
tion' of the Frankfurt School of critical theory. Habermas work ranges over epistemol
ogy, the dynamics of advanced capitalism, the nature of rationality, and the relations
hip between social science and philosophy. During the 1970s, he developed critical t
heory into what became a theory of 'communicative action'. Habermas' main works i
nclude Towards a Rational Society (1970), Theory and Practice (1974) and The The
ory of Communicative Competence (1984, 1988).

7. Friedrich von Hayek (1899–1992):
Austrian economist and political philosopher. An academic who taught at the London
School of Economics and the Universities of Chicago, Freiburg and Salzburg, Hayek
was awarded the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1974. As an exponent of the so-calle
d 'Austrian School', he was a firm believer in individualism and market order, and an i
mplacable critic of socialism. The Road to Serfdom (1948) was a pioneering work tha
t attacked economic interventionism. In later works such as The Constitution of Libert
y (1960) and Law, Legislation and Liberty (1979) Hayek developed themes in politica
l philosophy. Hayek's writings fused liberal and conservative elements, and had a co
nsiderable impact on the emergent New Right.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831):
German philosopher. Hegel was the founder of modern idealism and developed the
notion that consciousness and material objects are, in fact, unified. In Phenomenolog
y of Spirit (1807), he sought to develop a rational system that would substitute for tra
ditional Christianity by interpreting the entire process of human history, and indeed th
e universe itself, in terms of the progress of absolute Mind towards self- realization. I
n his view, history is, in essence, a march of the human spirit towards a determinate
endpoint. His major political work, Philosophy of Right (1821), portrays the state as a
n ethical ideal and the highest expression of human freedom. Hegel's work had a co
nsiderable impact on Marx and other so-called 'young Hegelians'. It also shaped the i
deas of liberals such as T. H. Green (1836–82), and influenced fascist thought.
Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803):
German poet, critic and philosopher, often portrayed as the 'father' of cultural nationa
lism. A teacher and Lutheran clergyman, Herder travelled throughout Europe before
settling in Weimar in 1776, as the clerical head of the Grand Duchy. Although influen
ced in his early life by thinkers such as Kant (see p. 410), Rousseau (see p. 97) and
Montesquieu (see p. 312), he became a leading intellectual opponent of the Enlighte
nment and a crucial influence on the growth in Germany of the romantic movement.
Herder's emphasis on the nation as an organic group characterized by a distinctive l
anguage, culture and 'spirit' helped both to found cultural history, and to give rise to a
particular form of nationalism that emphasized the intrinsic value of national culture.

8. Adolf Hitler (1889–1945):
German Nazi dictator. Hitler was the son of an Austrian customs official. He joined th
e German Worker's Party (later the National sozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (
NSDAP), or Nazi Party) in 1919, becoming its leader in 1921. He was appointed Cha
ncellor of Germany in 1933, and declared himself Führer (Leader) the following year,
by which time he had established a one-party dictatorship. The central feature of Hitl
er's world-view, outlined in Mein Kampf ([1925] 1969), was his attempt to fuse expan
sionist German nationalism and virulent anti-Semitism into a theory of history in whic
h there was an endless battle between the Germans and the Jews, who represented,
respectively, the forces of good and evil. Hitler's policies contributed decisively to bo
th the outbreak of World War II and the Holocaust.
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679):
English political philosopher. Hobbes was the son of a minor clergyman who subseq
uently abandoned his family. He became tutor to the exiled Prince of Wales Charles
Stewart, and lived under the patronage of the Cavendish family. Writing at a time of
uncertainty and civil strife, precipitated by the English Revolution, Hobbes developed
the first comprehensive theory of nature and human behaviour since Aristotle (see p
. 6). His classic work, Leviathan (1651), discussed the grounds of political obligation
and undoubtedly reflected the impact of the Civil War. It provided a defence for absol
utist government but, by appealing to reasoned argument in the form of the social co
ntract, also disappointed advocates of divine right.
Samuel P. Huntington (1927–2008):
US academic and political commentator. Huntington made influential contributions in
three fields: military politics, strategy and civil–military relations; US and comparative
politics; and political development and the politics of less-developed societies. In Th
e Third Wave (1991) he coined the notion of 'waves of democratization' and linked th
e process of democratization after 1975 to two earlier waves, in 1828–1926 and 194
3–62. His most widely discussed work, The Clash of Civilizations and the Making of
World Order (1996), advanced the controversial thesis that, in the twenty-first centur
y, conflict between the world's major civilizations would lead to warfare and internatio
nal disorder.

9. Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826):
US political philosopher and statesman. A wealthy Virginian planter who was Govern
or of Virginia 1779–81, Jefferson served as the first US Secretary of State, 1789–94.
He was the third president of the USA, 1801–09. Jefferson was the principal author o
f the Declaration of Independence, and wrote a vast number of addresses and letters
. He developed a democratic form of agrarianism that sought to blend a belief in rule
by a natural aristocracy with a commitment to limited government and laissez-faire, s
ometimes called Jeffersonianism. He also demonstrated sympathy for social reform,
favouring the extension of public education, the abolition of slavery and greater econ
omic equality.
K
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804):
German philosopher. Kant spent his entire life in Königsberg (which was then in East
Prussia), becoming professor of logic and metaphysics at the University of Königsbe
rg in 1770. His 'critical' philosophy holds that knowledge is not merely an aggregate
of sense impressions; it depends on the conceptual apparatus of human understandi
ng. Kant's political thought was shaped by the central importance of morality. He beli
eved that the law of reason dictated categorical imperatives, the most important of w
hich was the obligation to treat others as 'ends', and never only as 'means'. Kant's m
ost important works include Critique of Pure Reason (1781), Critique of Practical Rea
son (1788) and Critique of Judgement (1790).
John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946):
UK economist. Keynes' reputation was established by his critique of the Treaty of Ve
rsailles, outlined in The Economic Consequences of the Peace (1919). His major wor
k, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money ([1936] 1965), departed s
ignificantly from neoclassical economic theories, and went a long way towards establ
ishing the discipline now known as 'macroeconomics'. By challenging laissez-faire pri
nciples, he provided the theoretical basis for the policy of demand management, whi
ch was widely adopted by western governments in the early post-World War II period
. Keynesian theories have had a profound effect on both modern liberalism and socia

10. l democracy.
Robert Keohane (born 1941):
US international relations theorist. With his long-time collaborator, Joseph S. Nye, Ke
ohane questioned some of the core assumptions of realist analysis in Transnational
Relations and Wold Politics (1971), highlighting the increasing importance of non-sta
te actors and of economic issues in world affairs. In Power and Interdependence: Wo
rld Politics in Transition (1977), Keohane and Nye set out the theory of 'complex inter
dependence' as an alternative to realism. Since the publication of After Hegemony (1
984), however, Keohane has attempted to synthesize structural realism and complex
interdependence, creating a hybrid dubbed either 'modified structural realism' or 'ne
oliberal institutionalism'.
Ayatollah Khomeini (1900–89):
Iranian cleric and political leader. Khomeini was one of the foremost scholars in the
major theological centre of Qom until he was expelled from Iran in 1964. His return fr
om exile in 1979 sparked the 'Islamic Revolution', leaving the Ayatollah (literally, 'gift
of Allah') as the supreme leader of the world's first Islamic state until his death. Break
ing decisively with the Shi'a tradition that the clergy remain outside politics, Khomeini
's world-view was rooted in a clear division between the oppressed (understood large
ly as the poor and excluded of the developing world) and the oppressors (seen as th
e twin Satans: the USA and the USSR, capitalism and communism). Islam thus beca
me a theo-political project aimed at regenerating the Islamic world by ridding it of occ
upation and corruption from outside.
Naomi Klein (born 1970):
Canadian journalist, author and anticorporate activist. Klein's No Logo: Taking Aim at
the Brand Bullies (2000) is a wide-ranging critique of lifestyle branding and labour a
buses, and discusses emerging forms of resistance to globalization and corporate do
mination. It has been described as 'the book that became part of the movement', but
has had wider significance in provoking reflection on the nature of consumer capitalis
m and the tyranny of brand culture. Klein is a frequent and influential media commen
tator. She lives in Toronto but travels throughout North America, Asia, Latin America
and Europe tracking the rise of anticorporate activism and supporting movements ca

11. mpaigning against the negative effects of globalization. Her writings also include The
Shock Doctrine (2007), which analyses the rise of 'disaster capitalism'.
L
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (1870–1924):
Russian Marxist theorist and active revolutionary. As leader of the Bolsheviks, Lenin
masterminded the 1917 Russian Bolshevik Revolution, and became the first leader o
f the USSR. His contributions to Marxism were his theory of the revolutionary (or van
guard) party, outlined in What is to be Done? ([1902] 1968); his analysis of colonialis
m as an economic phenomenon, described in Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capi
talism ([1916] 1970); and his firm commitment to the 'insurrectionary road to socialis
m', developed in State and Revolution (1917). Lenin's reputation is inevitably tied up
with the subsequent course of Soviet history; he is seen by some as the father of Sta
linist oppression, but by others as a critic of bureaucracy and a defender of debate a
nd argument.
John Locke (1632–1704):
English philosopher and politician. Locke studied medicine at Oxford University befor
e becoming secretary to Anthony Ashley Cooper, First Earl of Shaftsbury, in 1661. Hi
s political views were developed against the backdrop of the English Revolution, and
are often seen as providing a justification for the 'Glorious Revolution' of 1688, whic
h ended absolutist rule and established a constitutional monarchy in Britain. Locke w
as a key thinker of early liberalism, placing particular emphasis on 'natural' or God-gi
ven rights, identified as the rights to life, liberty and property. An exponent of represe
ntative government and toleration, Locke's views had a considerable impact on the A
merican Revolution. His most important political works are A Letter Concerning Toler
ation (1689) and Two Treatises of Government ([1690] 1965).
M
Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527):
Italian politician and author. The son of a civil lawyer, Machiavelli's knowledge of pub
lic life was gained from a sometimes precarious existence in politically unstable Flore

12. nce. He served as Second Chancellor (1498–1512), and was despatched on mission
s to France, Germany and throughout Italy. After a brief period of imprisonment and t
he restoration of Medici rule, Machiavelli embarked on a literary career. His major wo
rk, The Prince, published in 1532, drew heavily on his first-hand observations of the
statecraft of Cesare Borgia and the power politics that dominated his period. It was w
ritten as a guide for the future prince of a united Italy. The adjective 'Machiavellian' s
ubsequently came to mean 'cunning and duplicitous'.
James Madison (1751–1836):
US statesman and political philosopher. A Virginian delegate to the Constitutional Co
nvention of 1787, Madison was a strong proponent of US nationalism and a keen ad
vocate of ratification. He later served as Jefferson's Secretary of State (1801–09) an
d was the fourth president of the USA (1809–17). Usually regarded as a leading sup
porter of pluralism and divided government, Madison urged the adoption of federalis
m, bicameralism and the separation of powers. However, when in government, he w
as prepared to strengthen the power of national government. His best-known political
writings are his contributions, with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, to The Federal
ist Papers (Hamilton et al., [1787–89] 1961).
Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung) (1893–1976):
Chinese Marxist theorist and leader of the People's Republic of China, 1949–76. Ma
o was the son of a peasant farmer in Hunan. He initially worked as a librarian and te
acher. In 1921, he helped to found the Chinese Communist Party and, in 1935, beca
me its leader. As a political theorist, Mao adapted Marxism–Leninism to the needs of
an overwhelmingly agricultural and still traditional society. His legacy is often associ
ated with the Cultural Revolution (1966–70), a radical egalitarian movement that den
ounced elitism and 'capitalist roaders' (these inclined to bow to pressure from bourge
ois forces), and that resulted in widespread social disruption, repression and death.
Maoism is usually understood as an anti-bureaucratic form of Marxism that places its
faith in the radical zeal of the masses.

13. Herbert Marcuse (1898–1979):
German political philosopher and social theorist, and co-founder of the Frankfurt Sch
ool. A refugee from Hitler's Germany, Marcuse lived in the USA from 1934. He devel
oped a form of neo-Marxism that drew heavily on Hegel and Freud. Marcuse came t
o prominence in the 1960s as a leading thinker of the New Left and a 'guru' of the stu
dent movement. He portrayed advanced industrial society as an all-encompassing sy
stem of repression that subdued argument and debate, and absorbed opposition. His
hopes rested not on the proletariat, but on marginalized groups such as students, et
hnic minorities, women and workers in the developing world. His most important wor
ks include Reason and Revolution (1941), Eros and Civilization (1958) and One-Dim
ensional Man (1964).
Karl Marx (1818–83):
German philosopher, economist and political thinker, usually portrayed as the father
of twentieth-century communism. After a brief career as a university teacher, Marx to
ok up journalism and became increasingly involved with the socialist movement. He
settled in London after being expelled from Prussia, and worked for the rest of his life
as an active revolutionary and writer, supported by his friend and lifelong collaborato
r Friedrich Engels. In 1864, Marx helped to found the First International, which collap
sed in 1871 because of growing antagonism between Marx's supporters and anarchi
sts led by Bakunin. Marx's classic work was the three-volume Capital ([1867, 1885, 1
894] 1970). His best-known and most accessible work is the Communist Manifesto ([
1848] 1967).
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805–72):
Italian nationalist and apostle of liberal republicanism. Mazzini was born in Genoa, It
aly, and was the son of a doctor. He came into contact with revolutionary politics as
a member of the patriotic secret society, the Carbonari. This led to his arrest and exil
e to France and, after his expulsion from France, to Britain. He returned briefly to Ital
y during the 1848 Revolutions, helping to liberate Milan and becoming head of the sh
ort-lived Roman Republic. A committed republican, Mazzini's influence thereafter fad
ed as other nationalist leaders, including Garibaldi (1807–82), looked to the House of
Savoy to bring about Italian unification. Although he never officially returned to Italy,
Mazzini's liberal nationalism had a profound influence throughout Europe, and on im

14. migrant groups in the USA.
John Stuart Mill (1806–73):
UK philosopher, economist and politician. Mill was subject to an intense and austere
regime of education by his father, the utilitarian theorist James Mill (1773–1836). Thi
s resulted in a mental collapse at the age of 20, after which he developed a more hu
man philosophy influenced by Coleridge and the German Idealists. His major writing
s, including On Liberty (1859), Considerations on Representative Government (1861
) and The Subjection of Women (1869), had a powerful influence on the developmen
t of liberal thought. In many ways, Mill's work straddles the divide between classical a
nd modern liberalism. His distrust of state intervention was firmly rooted in nineteent
h-century principles, but his emphasis on the quality of individual life (reflected in a c
ommitment to 'individuality') looked forward to later developments.
Jean Monnet (1888–1979):
French economist and administrator. Monnet was largely self-taught. He found empl
oyment during World War I coordinating Franco-British war supplies, and he was late
r appointed Deputy Secretary-General of the League of Nations. He was the originat
or of Winston Churchill's offer of union between the UK and France in 1940, which w
as abandoned once Pétain's Vichy regime had been installed. Monnet took charge of
the French modernization programme under de Gaulle in 1945, and in 1950 he prod
uced the Schuman Plan, from which the European Coal and Steel Community and th
e European Economic Community were subsequently developed. Although Monnet r
ejected intergovernmentalism in favour of supranational government, he was not a fo
rmal advocate of European federalism.
Charles-Louis de Secondat Montesquieu (1689–1775):
French political philosopher. Montesquieu came from an aristocratic family and beca
me an advocate before establishing his literary reputation with the publication of Pers
ian Letters (1721). After settling in Paris in 1726, he travelled throughout Europe stud
ying political and social institutions. Montesquieu's masterpiece, The Spirit of the La
ws ([1748] 1949), is a long and rambling comparative examination of political and leg
al issues. He championed a form of parliamentary liberalism that was based on the w
ritings of Locke (see p. 31) and, to some extent, a misreading of English political exp

15. erience. Montesquieu emphasized the need to resist tyranny by fragmenting govern
ment power, particularly through the device of the separation of powers.
N
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900):
German philosopher. A professor of Greek at Basel by the age of 25, Nietzsche beca
me increasingly interested in the ideas of Schopenhauer (1788–1860) and the music
of Wagner (1813–83). Growing illness and insanity after 1889 brought him under the
control of his sister Elizabeth, who edited and distorted his writings. Nietzsche's com
plex and ambitious work stressed the importance of will, especially the 'will to power',
and it anticipated modern existentialism in emphasizing that people create their own
worlds and make their own values. He attacked conventional values based on God,
truth and morality, and sought to replace these with new values and a new ideal of th
e human person. His best known writings include Thus Spake Zarathustra (1883/84),
Beyond Good and Evil (1886) and On the Genealogy of Morals (1887).
Robert Nozick (1938–2002):
US academic and political philosopher. Nozick's major work, Anarchy, State and Uto
pia (1974), had a profound influence on New Right theories and beliefs. He develope
d a form of libertarianism that was close to Locke's and clearly influenced by ninetee
nth-century US individualists such as Spooner (1808–87) and Tucker (1854–1939).
He argued that property rights should be strictly upheld, provided that wealth has be
en justly acquired in the first place, or has been justly transferred from one person to
another. This position means support for minimal government and minimal taxation,
and undermines the case for welfare and redistribution. Nozick's rights-based theory
of justice was developed in response to the ideas of John Rawls (see p. 45). In later l
ife, Nozick modified his extreme libertarianism.
O
Michael Oakeshott (1901–90):
UK political philosopher. Oakeshott was a professor of political science at the Londo
n School of Economics from 1951 until his retirement in 1968. His collection of essay

16. s Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays (1962) and his more systematic work of p
olitical philosophy On Human Conduct (1975) are often seen as major contributions t
o conservative traditionalism. By highlighting the importance of civil association and i
nsisting on the limited province of politics, he also developed themes closely associa
ted with liberal thought. Though often seen as an advocate of a non-ideological style
of politics, in line with the ideas of Edmund Burke (see p. 36), Oakeshott influenced
many of the thinkers of the New Right.
P
Thomas Paine (1737–1809):
UK-born writer and revolutionary. Paine was brought up in a Quaker family and spen
t his early years as an undistinguished artisan. He went to America in 1774 and foug
ht for the colonists in the War of Independence. He returned to England in 1789, but,
after being indicted for treason, fled to France as a supporter of the republican caus
e, where he narrowly escaped the guillotine during the Terror. Paine's radicalism fus
ed a commitment to political liberty with a deep faith in popular sovereignty, providing
inspiration for both liberal republicanism and socialist egalitarianism. He was an imp
ortant figure in revolutionary politics in the USA, the UK and France. His most import
ant writings include Common Sense ([1776] 1987), The Rights of Man (1791/92) and
The Age of Reason (1794).
Plato (427–347 bce):
Greek philosopher. Plato was born of an aristocratic family. He became a follower of
Socrates, who is the principal figure in his ethical and philosophical dialogues. After
Socrates' death in 399 bce, Plato founded his own academy in order to train the new
Athenian ruling class. Plato taught that the material world consists of imperfect copie
s of abstract and eternal 'ideas'. His political philosophy, expounded in The Republic
and The Laws, is an attempt to describe the ideal state in terms of a theory of justice.
Both works are decidedly authoritarian and pay no attention to individual liberty, beli
eving that power should be vested in the hands of an educated elite, the philosopher
kings. He was therefore a firm critic of democracy. Plato's work has exerted wide infl
uence on Christianity and on European culture in general.

17. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–65):
French anarchist. A largely self-educated printer, Proudhon was drawn into radical p
olitics in Lyons before settling in Paris in 1847. As a member of the 1848 Constituent
Assembly, Proudhon famously voted against the constitution 'because it was a const
itution'. He was later imprisoned for three years, after which, disillusioned with active
politics, he concentrated on writing and theorizing. His best-known work, What is Pro
perty? ([1840] 1970), developed the first systematic argument for anarchism, based
on the 'mutualist' principle; it also contained the famous dictum 'property is theft'. In T
he Federal Principle (1863), Proudhon modified his anarchism by acknowledging the
need for a minimal state to 'set things in motion' (although by 'federal' he meant a po
litical compact between self-governing communities – in effect, confederalism).
Robert D. Putnam (born 1941):
US political scientist and social commentator. Putnam's work has revived interest in
civil society and focused attention on the importance of 'social capital': the social net
works in a society that build trust and cooperation and develop'the"I" into the "we"'. H
is most influential work, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Com
munity (2000), used the image of a man bowling alone, rather than in a team, to illust
rate the decline of community activity and political engagement in the USA. Amongst
the causes of this decline, Putnam identifies the growing influence of television, two-
career families and longer commutes. His other works include Making Democracy W
ork: Civic Traditions in Italy (1993).
R
John Rawls (1921–2002):
US academic and political philosopher. His major work, A Theory of Justice (1970), i
s regarded as the most important work of political philosophy written in English since
World War II. It has influenced modern liberals and social democrats alike. Rawls pro
posed a theory of 'justice as fairness' that is based on the belief that social inequality
can be justified only if it is of benefit to the least advantaged. This presumption in fav
our of equality is rooted in Rawls' belief that most people, deprived of knowledge abo

18. ut their own talents and abilities, would choose to live in an egalitarian society, rather
than an inegalitarian one. As, for most people, the fear of being poor outweighs the
desire to be rich, redistribution and welfare can be defended on grounds of fairness.
Rawls' other works include Political Liberalism (1993) and The Laws of People (1999
).
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–78):
Geneva-born French moral and political philosopher, perhaps the principal intellectu
al influence upon the French Revolution. Rousseau was entirely self-taught. He mov
ed to Paris in 1742, and became an intimate of leading members of the French Enlig
htenment, especially Diderot. His writings, ranging over education, the arts, science,
literature and philosophy, reflect a deep belief in the goodness of 'natural man' and t
he corruption of 'social man'. Rousseau's political teaching, summarized in Émile (
1762) and developed in The Social Contract ([1762] 1913), advocates a radical form
of democracy that has influenced liberal, socialist, anarchist and, some would argue,
fascist thought. His autobiography, Confessions (1770), examines his life with remar
kable candour and demonstrates a willingness to expose weaknesses.
Edward Said (1935–2003):
A Jerusalem-born US academic and literary critic, Said was a leading literary critic, a
prominent advocate of the Palestinian cause and a founding figure of postcolonial th
eory. From the 1970s onwards, he developed a humanist critique of the western Enli
ghtenment that uncovered its links to colonialism and highlighted 'narratives of oppre
ssion', cultural and ideological biases that disempowered colonized peoples by repre
senting them as the non-western 'other'. He is best known for the notion of 'orientalis
m', which operated through a 'subtle and persistent Eurocentric prejudice against Ara
bo-Islamic peoples and culture'. His key texts include Orientalism (1978) and Culture
and Imperialism (1993).
E. F. Schumacher (1911–77):
German-born UK economist and environmental theorist. 'Fritz' Schumacher moved t
o the UK in 1930 as an Oxford Rhodes scholar. He went on to gain practical experie
nce in business, farming and journalism before re-entering academic life. He was an
economic advisor to the British Control Commission in Germany (1946–50) and the

19. UK National Coal Board (1950–70). His seminal Small is Beautiful: A Study of Econo
mics as if People Mattered (1973) championed the cause of human-scale production
, and advanced a 'Buddhist' economic philosophy (economics 'as if people mattered')
that stresses the importance of morality and 'right livelihood'. Schumacher founded t
he Intermediate Technology Development Group to help spread his ideas.
Joseph Schumpeter (1883–1950):
Moravian-born US economist and sociologist. Following an early academic career an
d a brief spell as Minister of Finance in post-First-World-War Austria, Schumpeter be
came professor of economics at Harvard University in 1932. His economic thought, d
eveloped in Theory of Economic Development (1912) and Business Cycles (1939), c
entred on the long-term dynamics of the capitalist system and in particular the role of
'risk-loving' entrepreneurs. In Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (1942), Schump
eter drew on economic, sociological and political theories to advance the famous con
tention that western capitalism was, impelled by its very success, evolving into a for
m of socialism.
Adam Smith (1723–90):
Scottish economist and philosopher, usually seen as the founder of the 'Dismal Scie
nce'. After holding the chair of logic and then moral philosophy at Glasgow University
, Smith became tutor to the Duke of Buccleuch, which enabled him to visit France an
d Geneva, and to develop his economic theories. The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1
759) developed a theory of motivation that tried to reconcile human self-interestedne
ss with an unregulated social order. Smith's most famous work, The Wealth of Nation
s ([1776] 1930), was the first systematic attempt to explain the workings of the econo
my in market terms, emphasizing the importance of the division of labour. Though he
is often seen as a free-market theorist, Smith was nevertheless also aware of the li
mitations of the market.
T
Leon Trotsky (1879–1940):
Russian Marxist political thinker and revolutionary. An early critic of Lenin's theory of
the party and the leader of the 1905 St Petersburg Soviet, Trotsky joined the Bolshev

20. iks in 1917, becoming Commissar for Foreign Affairs and, later, Commissar for War.
Isolated and out-manoeuvred after Lenin's death in 1924, he was banished from the
USSR in 1929, and assassinated in Mexico in 1940 on the instructions of Stalin. Trot
sky's theoretical contribution to Marxism consists of his theory of 'permanent revoluti
on', his consistent support for internationalism, and his analysis of Stalinism as a for
m of 'bureaucratic degeneration'. His major writings include Results and Prospects (1
906), History of the Russian Revolution (1931) and The Revolution Betrayed (1937).
W
Kenneth Waltz (born 1924):
US international relations theorist. Waltz's initial contribution to international relations
, outlined in Man, the State, and War (1959), adopted a conventional realist approac
h and remains the basic starting point for the study of war. His Theory of Internationa
l Politics (1979) was the most influential book of international relations theory of its g
eneration. Ignoring human nature and the ethics of statecraft, Waltz used system the
ory to explain how international anarchy effectively determines the actions of states,
with change in the international system occurring through changes in the distribution
of capabilities between and amongst states. Waltz's analysis was closely associated
with the Cold War, and the belief that bipolarity provides a better guarantee of peace
and security than does multipolarity.
Max Weber (1864–1920):
German political economist and sociologist. Following a breakdown in 1898, Weber
withdrew from academic teaching, but he continued to write and research until the en
d of his life. He was one of the founders of modern sociology, and he championed a
scientific and value-free approach to scholarship. He also highlighted the importance
to social action of meaning and consciousness. Weber's interests ranged from socia
l stratification, law, power and organization to religion. He is best known for the thesi
s that the Protestant ethic encourages the development of capitalism, and for his ana
lysis of bureaucracy. Weber's most influential works include The Protestant Ethic and
the Spirit of Capitalism (1902), The Sociology of Religion (1920) and Economy and
Society (1922).

21. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–97):
UK social theorist and feminist. Deeply influenced by the democratic radicalism of Ro
usseau, Wollstonecraft developed the first systematic feminist critique some 50 year
s before the emergence of the female-suffrage movement. Her most important work,
A Vindication of the Rights of Women ([1792] 1985), was influenced by Lockean liber
alism, and it stressed the equal rights of women, especially the right to education, on
the basis of the notion of 'personhood'. However, the work developed a more compl
ex analysis of womanhood itself that is relevant to the concerns of contemporary fem
inism. Wollstonecraft was married to the anarchist William Godwin, and she was the
mother of Mary Shelley, the author of Frankenstein.
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