The document discusses how evolutionary game theory can be used to model the development of case marking patterns in language through the interaction of speakers attempting to communicate effectively with minimal resources and hearers attempting to correctly understand utterances. It analyzes 16 possible case marking patterns and finds that only four systems involving differential treatment of arguments are evolutionarily stable strategies that persist over time.
This document provides definitions and examples of polygons, including regular and irregular polygons. It defines a polygon as a closed plane figure formed by three or more line segments. A regular polygon is one where all sides are congruent and all angles are congruent, while examples of irregular polygons do not meet these criteria. Specific polygons are defined by the number of sides, including triangles with 3 sides, quadrilaterals with 4 sides, pentagons with 5 sides, hexagons with 6 sides, and octagons with 8 sides.
This document is a worksheet about polygons for a 7th grade math class. It defines polygons as closed plane figures formed by three or more line segments. It defines regular polygons as those with all congruent sides and congruent angles. Examples of regular and irregular polygons are given for triangles, pentagons, hexagons, heptagons, and octagons. The student is to fill in the worksheet with the names and definitions of polygons.
This document discusses the metalogic concept of hypersyllogisms developed by D. Mourdoukhay-Boltovskoy in 1919-1926. Metalogic relates to classical logic similarly to how four-dimensional space relates to usual space, preserving laws of propositional logic but replacing class logic laws with more general ones. A hyperproposition relates not two but three terms - a species, genus, and hypergenus. Hyperclasses have two duals rather than one, and three operations rather than two. Hyperpropositions and their logic are explored through diagrams and their translation to predicate calculus and linkage to N. Vasiliev's imaginary logic.
This document discusses linguistic pragmatics and experiments testing theories of scalar implicatures. It describes experiments that tested whether scalar implicatures are derived in embedded contexts, and whether rates of implicature derivation differ between inference tasks and verification tasks. The experiments found lower rates of implicature derivation in embedded contexts compared to simple sentences, and higher rates with inference tasks than verification tasks. The results are discussed in relation to conventionalist theories of implicature derivation.
This document discusses an alternative approach to logic called the logic of acceptance and rejection (AR4). It begins by outlining three views on logic: logical absolutism, relativism, and relative charity. It then introduces AR4, which treats logic as involving questions, answers, and speech acts of assertion and rejection. Under AR4, a proposition can be answered by either asserting or rejecting it in response to the questions of whether it is the case and whether it is not the case. This moves beyond the traditional view of logic as only involving truth. The document outlines the components of AR4 and how it represents logic using a four-valued semantics involving acceptance and rejection.
This document provides definitions and examples of polygons, including regular and irregular polygons. It defines a polygon as a closed plane figure formed by three or more line segments. A regular polygon is one where all sides are congruent and all angles are congruent, while examples of irregular polygons do not meet these criteria. Specific polygons are defined by the number of sides, including triangles with 3 sides, quadrilaterals with 4 sides, pentagons with 5 sides, hexagons with 6 sides, and octagons with 8 sides.
This document is a worksheet about polygons for a 7th grade math class. It defines polygons as closed plane figures formed by three or more line segments. It defines regular polygons as those with all congruent sides and congruent angles. Examples of regular and irregular polygons are given for triangles, pentagons, hexagons, heptagons, and octagons. The student is to fill in the worksheet with the names and definitions of polygons.
This document discusses the metalogic concept of hypersyllogisms developed by D. Mourdoukhay-Boltovskoy in 1919-1926. Metalogic relates to classical logic similarly to how four-dimensional space relates to usual space, preserving laws of propositional logic but replacing class logic laws with more general ones. A hyperproposition relates not two but three terms - a species, genus, and hypergenus. Hyperclasses have two duals rather than one, and three operations rather than two. Hyperpropositions and their logic are explored through diagrams and their translation to predicate calculus and linkage to N. Vasiliev's imaginary logic.
This document discusses linguistic pragmatics and experiments testing theories of scalar implicatures. It describes experiments that tested whether scalar implicatures are derived in embedded contexts, and whether rates of implicature derivation differ between inference tasks and verification tasks. The experiments found lower rates of implicature derivation in embedded contexts compared to simple sentences, and higher rates with inference tasks than verification tasks. The results are discussed in relation to conventionalist theories of implicature derivation.
This document discusses an alternative approach to logic called the logic of acceptance and rejection (AR4). It begins by outlining three views on logic: logical absolutism, relativism, and relative charity. It then introduces AR4, which treats logic as involving questions, answers, and speech acts of assertion and rejection. Under AR4, a proposition can be answered by either asserting or rejecting it in response to the questions of whether it is the case and whether it is not the case. This moves beyond the traditional view of logic as only involving truth. The document outlines the components of AR4 and how it represents logic using a four-valued semantics involving acceptance and rejection.
Building game theoretic models of conversationsform_phil
This document proposes game-theoretic models of conversations by representing them as sequences of speech acts and physical acts performed by players. Previous models are inadequate because they only consider small parts of conversations or have other limitations. The proposed models view a conversation as developing along a subgame perfect equilibrium path through backwards induction. Both perfect and incomplete information models are suggested to more fully capture conversations using tools from game theory. Weaknesses include not directly addressing utterance understanding and assuming discrete time.
This document provides an introduction to modern linguistic pragmatics. It discusses neo-Gricean theories of scalar implicatures and the maxims of Horn and Levinson. Scalar implicatures are seen as central to neo-Griceanism and are experimentally testable, though there is no single theory. Alternatives include relevance, substitutability, monotonicity, symmetry problems, and whether alternatives are context-dependent or default. The literature discussed includes works by Chierchia, Fox, Gazdar, Geurts, Hirschberg, Horn, Katzir, and others.
The document discusses Lawvere's development of categorical logic and its relationship to Hegelian dialectics. It provides context on Lawvere's philosophical motivations for pursuing objectivity in logic through categorical logic. Specifically, it discusses Lawvere's view that adjoint functors can express Hegelian notions of dialectical contradiction, and his goal of grounding logic ontologically without restoring dogmatism. The document also summarizes some of the key concepts in Lawvere's Elementary Theory of the Category of Sets, which laid the foundation for categorical logic without relying on set-membership.
O documento fornece informações sobre filmes clássicos e suas músicas temáticas icônicas, incluindo dados técnicos e sinopses. É apresentado em formato de slideshow, permitindo que o leitor navegue entre as entradas de filme e obtenha mais detalhes sobre cada um.
La contaminación está deteriorando nuestro entorno y es un problema evidente. Nuestra actitud y acciones son determinantes para reducir el impacto ambiental. Debemos esforzarnos por cuidar el medio ambiente.
O documento discute as demarcações de terras indígenas em Ilhéus, Una e Buerarema na Bahia e seus impactos negativos. A demarcação ameaça desalojar mais de 12.000 pessoas e causar insegurança jurídica e falta de paz social devido às invasões violentas de terras por grupos indígenas. É necessária uma solução que evite mais conflitos e miséria na região.
Design for Development (D4D), ou Design para Desenvolvimento Humano, é uma área que estuda como a prática do design pode impactar populações ainda limitadas no cenário sócio-economico mundial.
O documento discute o projeto político de Marina Silva e seu novo partido "REDE Sustentabilidade", argumentando que ele promove uma agenda globalista e supranacional em detrimento da soberania nacional brasileira. Apresenta Marina como uma figura influente entre ambientalistas e globalistas, mas questiona se seu discurso de mudança é genuíno ou se faz parte de uma estratégia leninista para implementar gradualmente uma agenda de esquerda.
This document presents an epistemic taxonomy of assertions based on elements of epistemic and doxastic logic. It discusses types of assertions and their theoretical difficulties, elements of epistemic/doxastic models including possible worlds, relations, and truth conditions, and provides examples to illustrate concepts like an agent's knowledge, lack of knowledge, questioning, and common belief. The goal is to develop a framework to categorize assertions based on speakers' and hearers' epistemic attitudes.
This document discusses the development of modal logic systems that incorporate notions of logical accessibility and inaccessibility between possible worlds. It proposes operators to represent logical necessity (Ω), necessity in a sense (), logical inaccessibility (), and inaccessibility in a sense (). It explores properties like seriality and duality between these operators. It also discusses Cocchiarella's condition on modal semantics, transcendental necessity vs. transcendency, forbidding redoubling inaccessibility in a sense, and the need for ontological analysis of quantified modal logics.
Building game theoretic models of conversationsform_phil
This document proposes game-theoretic models of conversations by representing them as sequences of speech acts and physical acts performed by players. Previous models are inadequate because they only consider small parts of conversations or have other limitations. The proposed models view a conversation as developing along a subgame perfect equilibrium path through backwards induction. Both perfect and incomplete information models are suggested to more fully capture conversations using tools from game theory. Weaknesses include not directly addressing utterance understanding and assuming discrete time.
This document provides an introduction to modern linguistic pragmatics. It discusses neo-Gricean theories of scalar implicatures and the maxims of Horn and Levinson. Scalar implicatures are seen as central to neo-Griceanism and are experimentally testable, though there is no single theory. Alternatives include relevance, substitutability, monotonicity, symmetry problems, and whether alternatives are context-dependent or default. The literature discussed includes works by Chierchia, Fox, Gazdar, Geurts, Hirschberg, Horn, Katzir, and others.
The document discusses Lawvere's development of categorical logic and its relationship to Hegelian dialectics. It provides context on Lawvere's philosophical motivations for pursuing objectivity in logic through categorical logic. Specifically, it discusses Lawvere's view that adjoint functors can express Hegelian notions of dialectical contradiction, and his goal of grounding logic ontologically without restoring dogmatism. The document also summarizes some of the key concepts in Lawvere's Elementary Theory of the Category of Sets, which laid the foundation for categorical logic without relying on set-membership.
O documento fornece informações sobre filmes clássicos e suas músicas temáticas icônicas, incluindo dados técnicos e sinopses. É apresentado em formato de slideshow, permitindo que o leitor navegue entre as entradas de filme e obtenha mais detalhes sobre cada um.
La contaminación está deteriorando nuestro entorno y es un problema evidente. Nuestra actitud y acciones son determinantes para reducir el impacto ambiental. Debemos esforzarnos por cuidar el medio ambiente.
O documento discute as demarcações de terras indígenas em Ilhéus, Una e Buerarema na Bahia e seus impactos negativos. A demarcação ameaça desalojar mais de 12.000 pessoas e causar insegurança jurídica e falta de paz social devido às invasões violentas de terras por grupos indígenas. É necessária uma solução que evite mais conflitos e miséria na região.
Design for Development (D4D), ou Design para Desenvolvimento Humano, é uma área que estuda como a prática do design pode impactar populações ainda limitadas no cenário sócio-economico mundial.
O documento discute o projeto político de Marina Silva e seu novo partido "REDE Sustentabilidade", argumentando que ele promove uma agenda globalista e supranacional em detrimento da soberania nacional brasileira. Apresenta Marina como uma figura influente entre ambientalistas e globalistas, mas questiona se seu discurso de mudança é genuíno ou se faz parte de uma estratégia leninista para implementar gradualmente uma agenda de esquerda.
This document presents an epistemic taxonomy of assertions based on elements of epistemic and doxastic logic. It discusses types of assertions and their theoretical difficulties, elements of epistemic/doxastic models including possible worlds, relations, and truth conditions, and provides examples to illustrate concepts like an agent's knowledge, lack of knowledge, questioning, and common belief. The goal is to develop a framework to categorize assertions based on speakers' and hearers' epistemic attitudes.
This document discusses the development of modal logic systems that incorporate notions of logical accessibility and inaccessibility between possible worlds. It proposes operators to represent logical necessity (Ω), necessity in a sense (), logical inaccessibility (), and inaccessibility in a sense (). It explores properties like seriality and duality between these operators. It also discusses Cocchiarella's condition on modal semantics, transcendental necessity vs. transcendency, forbidding redoubling inaccessibility in a sense, and the need for ontological analysis of quantified modal logics.
This document discusses iterative verbs in modal logic. It defines iterative verbs as those that can apply repeatedly to oneself, unlike verbs of repeated physical actions. It examines how different modal logics, like S4 and S5, treat iterative concepts. Some key points made:
- Iterative verbs include believe, know, doubt, want, which are propositional attitudes.
- Epistemic logic's theorem of positive introspection is that if one knows p, they know they know p.
- Boulic logic examines desires to desire something.
- Grammatical distinctions between indicative/factive vs. subjunctive/hypothetical usages and use of "that" vs. "whether".
This document summarizes the results of 4 experiments on children's understanding of scalar implicatures. Experiment 1 found that 7-year-olds were more likely than adults to accept logically true but pragmatically misleading statements. Experiment 2 found that additional training increased children's rejection of such statements. Experiment 3 found this effect did not persist without retraining. Experiment 4 found that providing rich contextual information allowed children to perform similarly to adults.
2. CONSIDER all possible case marking types that
only use case splits induced by the contrast
between pronouns and full NPs
THE MAIN FUNCTION OF CASE MARKING is to
disambiguate: enable the hearer to identify the
argument roles A (agent, the transitive subject)
and O (the direct object)
3. SPEAKER wants to disambiguate and use as few
case morphemes as possible
SPEAKER STRATEGY:
any function S from M(eaning) to F(orm)
HEARER wants to correctly understand the
utterance
HEARER STRATEGY:
any function H from F(orm) to M(eaning)
6. WE ARE DEALING with elementary transitive
clauses: two NPs, A(gent) and O(bject), both
may be either p(ronoun) or n(oun)
NATURE chooses the word order A-O and O-A
with a 50% probability each. Furthermore
nature specifies which of the two NPs is A and
which is O, and whether they are n or p
11. HEARER always interprets e -> A and a -> O
AMBIGIOUS clause types:
p/z – p/z
n/z – n/z
p/z – n/z
n/z – p/z
12. HEARER strategies only differ with respect to the
meaning they assign to 3. and 4.
1. p/z – p/z (not relevant: the same payoff)
2. n/z – n/z (not relevant: the same payoff)
3. p/z – n/z
4. n/z – p/z
-> 4 possible strategies: AA AO OA OO
14. FOR small values of k
zzaz/AO zzaz/OA zzaz/OO zzaz/AA
zzza/AO zzza/OA zzza/OO zzza/AA
eezz/AO eezz/OA eezz/OO eezz/AA
zzzz/AO zzzz/OA zzzz/OO zzzz/AA
zzaa/AO zzaa/OA zzaa/OO zzaa/AA
zeaz/AO zeaz/OA zeaz/OO zeaz/AA
zezz/AO zezz/OA zezz/OO zezz/AA
ezzz/AO ezzz/OA ezzz/OO ezzz/AA
*strict NE *non-strict NE
15. FOR larger values of k
zzaz/AO zzaz/OA zzaz/OO zzaz/AA
zzza/AO zzza/OA zzza/OO zzza/AA
eezz/AO eezz/OA eezz/OO eezz/AA
zzzz/AO zzzz/OA zzzz/OO zzzz/AA
zzaa/AO zzaa/OA zzaa/OO zzaa/AA
zeaz/AO zeaz/OA zeaz/OO zeaz/AA
zezz/AO zezz/OA zezz/OO zezz/AA
ezzz/AO ezzz/OA ezzz/OO ezzz/AA
*strict NE
16. FOR larger values of k
zzaz/AO zzaz/OA zzaz/OO zzaz/AA
zzza/AO zzza/OA zzza/OO zzza/AA
eezz/AO eezz/OA eezz/OO eezz/AA
zzzz/AO zzzz/OA zzzz/OO zzzz/AA
zzaa/AO zzaa/OA zzaa/OO zzaa/AA
zeaz/AO zeaz/OA zeaz/OO zeaz/AA
zezz/AO zezz/OA zezz/OO zezz/AA
ezzz/AO ezzz/OA ezzz/OO ezzz/AA
*strict NE
17. FOR very large values of k
zzaz/AO zzaz/OA zzaz/OO zzaz/AA
zzza/AO zzza/OA zzza/OO zzza/AA
eezz/AO eezz/OA eezz/OO eezz/AA
zzzz/AO zzzz/OA zzzz/OO zzzz/AA
zzaa/AO zzaa/OA zzaa/OO zzaa/AA
zeaz/AO zeaz/OA zeaz/OO zeaz/AA
zezz/AO zezz/OA zezz/OO zezz/AA
ezzz/AO ezzz/OA ezzz/OO ezzz/AA
*strict NE
18. THE SYSTEMS that very excluded are
typologically unattested or at least very rare
EIGHT SYSTEMS that give rise to an NE in some
configuration are present
zzaz English zzza Nganasan (only!)
zezz Adyghe ezzz Wakhi (only!)
zeaz Dyrbal eezz Basque (rare)
zzzz Bantu zzaa (rare)
19. EVOLUTIONARY Game Theory (EGT):
populations of players that are programmed for
a certain strategy
PLAYERS replicate and pass on their strategy to
their offsprings
But grammars are not transmitted via genetic
but via cultural inheritance
replicator dynamics -> imitation dynamics
20. IMITATION DYNAMICS:
Players are not mortal and have no offsprings
The probability that a certain strategy is imitated
is positively correlated to the gain in average
utility -> successful strategies will tend to
spread, unsuccessful will die out
A strategy pair is evolutionary stable
iff it is a Strict Nash Equilibrium
21. The NEs using a pure case marking strategy
(zzaa, eezz) are never strict -> not stable
zzza/OA and ezzz/OA each coexist with a well-
attested SNE, that have higher average utility
-> only four strategies are evolutionary stable:
split ergativity, differential subject marking,
differential object marking, and absence of case
marking;
exceptions should be diachronicaly unstable