Kate Robson Dissertation

Emma Kate Robson
N00110709
The Redundancy of Feminism?
A Qualitative Analysis of Young Women’s Perceptions of
Post-Feminism
Internal Supervisor: Dr. Carol MacKeogh
BA in English, Media and Cultural Studies.
Date of submission: 14 April 2015.
Faculty of Enterprise and Humanities
Institute of Art, Design and Technology, Dun Laoghaire.

Abstract
Post-feminism is a highly ambiguous term. Subject to severe negative critique by second
wave feminists, post-feminists in academic circles are looked upon with distain. Post-
feminism supposedly signifies an era of shallow women who believe that in an age of
gender equality they may use their bodies to get ahead in life.
Literature refers to post-feminism as proliferating within the categories of white,
western educated, middle to upper class young women in contemporary society since the
early 1990s.1
Personally, falling into the criteria of the post-feminist I feel that many of
the accusations made by critics may be too general and unjust. With regard to academic
critique into the area, there seems to be a great lack of empirical evidence accompanying
the theories laid out.
Thus it seems the area of post-feminism is ripe for investigation. Such a study will,
therefore, be conducted through the qualitative analysis form of focus groups. It will aim
to shed some new light on the current perceptions of feminism in young women today,
and, also, see if post-feminism truly does proliferate in twenty-first century Ireland.
1
Diane Negra, What a Girl Wants? Fantasizing the Reclamation of self in Postfeminism (Oxon,
Routledge, 2009), pp. 10-90.
Angela McRobbie, The Aftermath of Feminism (London: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2009), p.1.

Table of Contents
Introduction.....................................................................................................................1
Chapter One – Literature Review - The Current Standing of Post-feminist
Critique............................................................................................................................5
Chapter Two - Method and Methodology..................................................................15
2.1 Researching Research.........................................................................................15
2.2 Practical Application of Research Method.......................................................19
Chapter Three - Analysis .............................................................................................24
3.1 Analysis Introduction......................................................................................24
3.2 Analysis of Central Questions............................................................................27
3.2 A Discussion of Analysis in Relation to the Literature Review. .....................40
Conclusion .....................................................................................................................43
Appendices..................................................................................................................A. 1
Appendix ‘A’ - Question Guide- Prior to Focus Group Dry Run. ....................A. 1
Appendix ‘B’ - Final Draft of Question Guide. ................................................... B. 1
Appendix ‘C’ - College Ethics Form ....................................................................C. 1
Appendix ‘D’ - Participant Ethics Form..............................................................D. 1
Appendix ‘E’ – Notation System........................................................................... E. 1
Appendix ‘F’ - Focus group ‘A’ transcript...........................................................F. 1
Appendix ‘G’ - Focus group ‘B’ transcript. ........................................................G. 1
Bibliography..................................................................................................................94

Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr.
Carol MacKeogh, for the patient guidance and valuable suggestions she provided during
the development. Her willingness to give her time so generously was deeply appreciated.
I would also like to thank my family for their continuing love, encouragement and
support given to me throughout my studies. In particular I would like to thank my niece
for inspiring my interest in the area of post-feminism.
Lastly, I would like to thank the participants who gave up there time and gave
invaluable empirical insight without which my dissertation would not have happened.

Declaration
I hereby declare that this project represents my own original work and has not been
submitted, in whole or in part, by me or another person, for the purpose of obtaining any
other credit/grade. I agree that this project may be made available by the College to
future students.
Signature:

1
Introduction
The term feminism was originally used in political and academic circles as a signifier for
an equality movement of the sexes. However, over time it has become a highly
problematical term. The currency of the term feminism has evolved and now circulates
on a colloquial level as well as at a political and academic one. Within the twenty-first
century the media is key in the circulation of ideas and it is here where many impressions
of feminism are constructed and consumed by the general public. This has led to
feminism being a highly ambiguous term with the connotations varying throughout
society. To some the label of feminist would be construed as a compliment, however, in
recent decades the label has become an insult and dirty word to many. Time magazine, in
a poll of words that should be banned in 2015, included feminism in the short list.2
Although an apology was issued stating they only wished to ‘invite debate’, it shows the
deep ideological rupture with regard to the term feminism in contemporary times.3
Thus,
even those who claim to be feminists, are highly aware of oppositional ideologies which
will attach the label of man hater to those individuals. The concept is, therefore, in current
times, a highly questionable one.
According to the Oxford dictionary, feminism, in its most basic form, is defined
as 'The advocacy of women’s rights on the ground of the equality of the sexes'.4
In 1792
Mary Wollstonecraft wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in response to Charles
Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord's report on female education. She wrote that women
should not be confined to education of the domestic sphere. Her work is commonly
2
Katy Steinmetz, ‘Which Word Should Be Banned in 2015?’, Time Magazine ( Nov. 2014) <
http://time.com/3576870/worst-words-poll-2014/ > [accessed 20 Jan 2015].
3
Steinmetz.
4 ‘
Feminism’, Oxford Dictionary.com (2014)
<http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/feminism > [accessed Oct. 2014].

2
thought to be the primary contributor to the theory that became known as feminism.
However, '[t]he feminist literary criticism of today is the direct product of the 'woman's
movement' of the 1960s’, namely second wave feminism.5
Their central concerns were
with regard to the 'conditioning' and 'socialisation' which underpins the role of woman.6
The sentiment of second wave feminism continued, quite successfully, for three decades
before a new phenomenon, known as postfeminism or post-feminism, is said to have
come into being in the 1990s. Particularly ambiguous and unconfirmed terms in
themselves, the current uncertainty with regard to feminism further confuses the attempt
at specificity. I will set out simplified definitions for the sake of coherency throughout
this project. Although both terms refer to the same category of woman, the inclusion or
exclusion of the hyphen delivers alternating meanings. Postfeminism, birthed by second
wave feminists indicates that the need for feminism is ongoing. However, post-feminism,
naturalised within popular discourse, in its literal sense means the end of feminism. The
inclusion of a hyphen concluding that feminism is a thing of the past, it signifies that
equality has been achieved. I will from here out occupy the ‘naturalised’ position, but,
note the problematic nature of the term by referring to it as post-feminism.
Many second wave feminist theorists today focus on a critique of young women,
referring to them as post-feminists. A primarily academic notion, these theorists both
create and critique post-feminism. Their arguments pay particular attention to the turn
away from feminism in a society which celebrates the re-instalment of stereotypical
female gender roles or ‘truths’.7
This may involve embracing categories such as slut,
consumer and poseur. Although there has been much critique regarding post-feminism it
5
Peter Barry, Beginning Theory (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995), p.121.
6
Barry, p.122.
7
Negra, p.2.

3
seems much of this may be based on purely theoretical levels. In my knowledge of
feminism, based on college teachings, it seems that much of the critique of post-feminism
appears harsh and provides little empirical evidence.
It is said that post-feminism proliferates within western society. With specificity
placed on white, middle to upper class and well educated young women. It might be said
then that I personally may be labelled as a post-feminist. Perhaps my college education
on the matter does give me an understanding of feminism beyond that of the average
woman in my position. However, it is from here that I established an interest in post-
feminism and developed feelings of indignation at the accusations that post-feminism,
and, perhaps, I personally, disregard notions of equality and place an emphasis instead
upon bodily appeal and 'to-be-looked-at-ness'. 8
Yet in saying this, a discussion with my
nine-year old niece revealed to me that she wants to be like singer Rihanna. A woman
who notoriously uses nudity for publicity. I, therefore, feel torn in my feelings towards
the accuracy of the accusations made by second wave feminists, is it postfeminism, where
feminism is still necessary, as they suggest? Is it post-feminism where one may focus on
the individual self not a community fighting for equality? Or, is it possible to make the
issue this black and white at all?
Although I do understand both feminism’s aims and objectives and their critique
of what they term post-feminism, I feel that the area needs more work conducted to truly
understand the phenomenon. This project, as a result, proposes to, if only on a small scale,
provide further insight and understanding into post-feminism and those who fall under its
identity markers. This will be done by conducting qualitative research, specifically focus
8
Andi Zeisler, Feminism and Pop Culture (California: Seal Press, 2008), p.8.

4
groups, to gain clear empirical insight into young women who fit the post-feminist criteria
laid out by second wave feminists.
The key motives of investigating the idea of post-feminism come from, firstly, the
apparent lack of tangible evidence provided in critiques of the area. Secondly, my slight
indignation at being labelled as such a, perhaps, superficial being who disregards the need
for equality.9
This research project, therefore, moves forward by investigating whether
there is a shortage of empirical evidence for the harsh accusations made by second wave
feminists? Would there be any justification for such a lack of research? Can this research
provide a new insight into the matter? Do young women actually fit the theorists’ models?
What stance do they have with regard to gender politics? How do they relate to current
gender structures and media structures? Is there a presence of feminist or post-feminist
teaching in general education? Do all young women, like my niece, admire someone who
capitalises off her body? And, ultimately, does the label of post-feminism fit? While the
number of participants in the research is small and does not permit generalisation, the
findings resulting from such questions can begin to tease out these ideas and the status of
post-feminism within Irish culture.
When attempting to type postfeminism into Microsoft Word the word is marked
as incorrect. However, post-feminism is deemed correct. This shows the current ideology
of western society to, perhaps, be concurring with a naturalised disregard of feminism.
However, it will not be until concluding that I will place my verdict on which grammatical
way I believe it should be spelled, or, if, indeed, either term is fully appropriate.
9
Negra, p. 2

5
Chapter One – Literature Review - The Current Standing of
Post-feminist Critique
In order to gain a firmer understanding of post-feminism, the concept will be explored
through a broad range of critical literature. The theorists examined here may be seen as
primarily second wave feminists, or, are well versed in second wave feminist theory.
These ideas are rooted in achieving equality of the sexes. Most literature present in the
area stands in opposition to post-feminism. Tracing through the central ideas that occur
throughout this body of work will serve to give an insight into the current state of research
and critique regarding post-feminism. Investigating what each theorist brings forward and
the manner in which they concur.
As a starting point, I have selected Interrogating post-feminism by Tasker and
Negra as it was the prescribed post-feminism text within my college course. It appears, to
me, to hold a very negative view of post-feminism and is written in quite a polemic
manner. They categorise post-feminism as a backlash against its feminist predecessors.
The post-feminist movement, according to Tasker and Negra, has stemmed from the
media's implied redundancy of feminism.10
Fuelled through magazines, cinema and
popular music there is an obsession with youth and a popularising of the idea that
fulfilment can be gained through 'empowerment'.11
An empowerment that seems to
revolve around the idea of, perhaps, the have it all woman. As many writers point out in
their work, there is no concrete definition for the term post-feminism. There are, however,
certain areas on which many critics agree. This view of post-feminism as a backlash
against its predecessors re-occurs throughout post-feminist critique. Tasker and Negra in
10
Interrogating post-feminism, ed. by Yvonne Tasker and Diane Negra (USA: Duke University Press,
2007), p.1.
11
Tasker and Negra, pp. 1-5.

6
their writing appear to be placing a great amount of blame upon the media’s role in the
proliferation of post-feminism.
This notion of the media being to blame is also taken up by critic Rosalind Gill.12
She also believes that central to post-feminism is a sense of empowerment. She locates
this empowerment as a superficial or ‘makeover paradigm’ generated through media
discourse.13
Gill also notes the difficulty there is in defining a set of specific
characteristics within post-feminism. Although Gill fails to give a strict definition to the
term post-feminism, she highlights what she believes to be the central facet of post-
feminism. She categorises it as a sensibility of femininity and the body involving self-
surveillance and empowerment.14
It may be argued then that women having developed a
strong awareness of what is expected of them with regard to their bodies.
Angela McRobbie, is yet another critic that notes the difficulty she has in defining
post-feminism. However, unlike Tasker and Negra, she believes that it is not merely a
backlash, but has been instilled within contemporary society at an institutional level.15
She writes of a new sexual contract for the females of the western world. Within this
contract, they must ‘make good use of the opportunity to work, to gain qualifications, to
control fertility and to earn enough money to participate in the consumer culture’.16
This
sexual contract is instilled within women at an educational level, where, given the open
mind set of the students, it will yield the most effective results.17
McRobbie further
expands on this idea by stating that within educational spheres there are also aggressive
policies by which feminism is eradicated and seen as a thing of the past.18
The notion,
12
Rosalind Gill, 'Postfeminist media culture: elements of a sensibility', European journal of cultural
studies, 10.2, (2007), 147-166. (p. 5) < http://eprints.lse.ac.uk > [accessed 25 February 2014].
13
Gill, p.3.
14
Gill, p. 3
15
McRobbie, p.1.
16
McRobbie, p. 54.
17
McRobbie, pp. 72-75.
18
McRobbie, p. 76.

7
illustrated in McRobbie’s work, that the institution of education is the hub of post-
feminism, highlights that it is the youth of society who are central to the phenomenon,
and, in completing education, are bringing it into the work place and later life.
This idea of the instillation of post-feminism at an institutional level can also be
detected in Nina Power's book The One Dimensional Woman. Here, this idea is illustrated
through her selection of American high profile politician, Sarah Palin, as a subject whom,
as she quotes from Alain Miller, 'represents a certain kind of ''post-feminist'' woman', one
that understands the phallus as merely a ‘semblance’.19
Power documents how Palin is
often described as a 'pitbull in lipstick' due to the fact she has managed to avoid the
traditionally female dichotomies of 'mother/politician, attractive/ successful [. . .] by
embodying both sides of each at once'.20
It may be concluded, therefore, that she is the
embodiment of the notion of the 'empowered woman'. The term which continues to crop
up as this investigation unfolds. For Power the ‘empowered woman’ is a woman who has
it all, as with Palin, 'women want to be her, many men [. . .] want to have sex with her'.21
Power also stresses the importance of the body in her work. Post-feminism is an age in
which the notion of the ‘walking c.v’ has proliferated, women essentially 'sell
themselves', their body and aesthetic qualities being central in their employability.22
Her
stance as a second wave feminist sees her, as with many others from the same origin,
condemning post-feminism and viewing it as a negative. In her words, in a post-feminist
society, 'you are your breasts'.23
In Diane Negra’s What a Girl Wants? she states that post-feminism 'trades on a
notion of feminism as rigid’, in contrast with this she highlights how post-feminism
19
Nina Power, One Dimensional Woman (Hants.: O Books, 2009), p. 7.
20
Power, p. 8.
21
Power, p. 9.
22
Power, p. 23.
23
Power, p. 24.

8
‘offers the pleasure and comfort of (re)claiming an identity uncomplicated by gender
politics'.24
She also concurs with the idea that post-feminism is a 'backlash' against
second wave feminism.25
For Negra, post-feminism places feminism as being something
of the past, irrelevant in contemporary culture and practices. Today, there has instead
been a turn to a commodity driven achievement of self.26
Negra also addresses the issue
where by post-feminist 'culture revived the “truths”' of femininity. 27
Creating a society
that claims and often celebrates their stigmatisation as bitches and gold-diggers.28
The notion of youth is also highlighted, Negra points out that, within post-
feminism, there appears to be a breakdown between girlhood and womanhood. Here,
similar to Power’s previously mentioned idea of the walking c.v, women bring forward
girlish qualities to adulthood in order to be both successful and desirable.29
Adhering to
this 'generalized sense of appearance', Negra believes, is based around the re-proliferation
of discrimination in post-feminist culture.30
Thus, she believes post-feminists embrace the
gender stereotype of women as superficial; which second wave feminists have fought
against.
Negra's work seems to stick to the general consensus laid out by the previously
mentioned second wave feminists. She, like many others, sees post-feminism as
proliferating within the context of 'white females'.31
She also points out that post-feminism
'flourishes under the conditions of private wealth'.32
These categories, alongside the
importance of educational hubs, highlight where the proliferation of post-feminism may
24
Negra, p.2.
25
Negra, p.4.
26
Negra, p. 4.
27
Negra,p. 12.
28
Negra,p. 12.
29
Negra, pp. 12-14.
30
Negra, p. 90.
31
Negra, p. 10.
32
Negra, p. 91.

9
occur. These theorists have so far held strong opposition to post-feminism. They seem to
believe that young women today have no interest in continuing a fight for equality. In
spelling post-feminism without a hyphen, they are, thus, pointing to the continued need
for feminism in contrast to post-feminism where it is deemed redundant.
There are an abundance of critical texts regarding post-feminism, however, most
are written by those who come out of an age of second wave feminism. It is clear, through
the polemic nature of their speech and the lack of empirical evidence that they come from
a very specific mind set. It is harder to find younger theorists who have critiqued post-
feminism. However, there are some more contemporary texts and theorists who although
well versed in second wave feminism do not stand in severe opposition to post-feminism.
These exceptions include Andi Zeisler and her 2008 text Feminism and Pop
Culture. Zeisler was in her early twenties in the early 1990s which is often identified as
when post-feminism commenced. For Zeisler, feminism and post-feminism are inherently
linked with popular culture and the rhetoric it employs. In its most basic sense, popular
culture 'is any cultural product that has a mass audience' and is available to anyone with
enough money to access it.33
When investigating the relationship between popular culture and feminism Zeisler
points out that popular culture has loosened the divide between high and low culture.34
This may be linked with Negra's idea, previously outlined, that there has been acceptance
and even a celebration of previously low brow female labelling. Formally derogatory
terms have been naturalised in popular culture. Also, within advertising woman are the
'focus' dictated by 'the male gaze'.35
This serves to highlight the importance of popular
culture and in propelling the idea of post-feminism. It serves as a mediator between
33
Zeisler, pp.1-2.
34
Zeisler, p.4.
35
Zeisler, pp.4-7.

10
instilled patriarchal ideologies and young women.
Zeisler is not so rigid in her ideas about why post-feminism came into being as
she provides the reader with two versions. It could be described, in unity with critics
previously cited, that within post-feminism 'the overall affect is grotesquely distorted to
maximise its worst features'. 36
However, on a more positive note it may alternatively be
described, 'as a funhouse-mirror view' of second wave feminism.37
Zeisler, thus, seems
to break down the positive/negative divide between postfeminism and post-feminism, by
indicating that young women may not be viewed in black and white terms.
Zeisler points out that post-feminism was encouraged and developed most
significantly within the facets of television, advertisement and music. Zeisler crudely puts
it that you often now have women talk about 'fucking men rather than being fucked'.38
She also states that within post-feminism, there is a celebration of 'single women's
economic independence’.39
She believes that within post-feminism, money is
everything.40
She backs this up by giving examples of how the wealth of the likes of Julia
Roberts and Oprah Winfrey became central in media publications, basically, wealth
became a 'shorthand for their power'.41
This 'success' reflects across all popular culture,
including the likes of advertising. Here the 'new “badass”' category of advertisement
came into being whereby the 'language of liberation' has been capitalised upon.42
The
products advertised were to become simulations of independence, 'trinkets that
“celebrated” their independence'.43
Lastly then is the outlet of music and most notable
within post-feminism is the Spice Girls.44
A group with the mantra 'girl power' and who
36
Zeisler, p. 14.
37
Zeisler, p. 14.
38
Zeisler, p. 90.
39
Zeisler, pp.100-101.
40
Zeisler, p.101.
41
Zeisler, p.101.
42
Zeisler, pp. 102-104.
43
Zeisler, p.104.
44
Zeisler, p.107.

11
wore 'push-up bras and hot pants', women who sang about the surface issues of the
male/female divide but failed to look at why.45
They were the 'empowered woman'
exemplified, a dilution of feminism that could sell and be harnessed by popular culture.46
However, Zeisler notes that this 'girl power' was not a wholly negative move in the field
of feminism as it was brought to light that children exposed to the Spice Girls 'often
believes in themselves [... more than] young women'.47
Within the work of Andi Zeisler we see a more neutral stance taken towards post-
feminism. Unlike others previously mentioned, who locate their critique purely within a
second wave feminist point of view, she does not completely disregard post-feminism as
completely countering the work of second wave feminists. Zeisler also uses some basic
examples to illustrate her work which are rarely found within the work of second wave
feminism with regard to post-feminism. From her work, it is clear that the role of popular
culture and in particular female music icons are central in the proliferation of post-
feminism.
Jacki Willson is another theorist who, although, well versed in the critical work
of second wave feminism, offers a more neutral appraisal of post-feminism. She does this
successfully by including examples of successful post-feminist women and admitting that
the labelling of the post-feminism generation as those who 'disregard and disrespect' the
work and achievements of second wave feminists is, essentially, a crude over-
exaggeration.48
Like many of the theorists mentioned already, Willson seems to believe
that the notion of 'empowerment' is a central concept within post-feminism and within
The Happy Stripper she holds up a magnifying glass to this notion of empowerment, with
45
Zeisler, pp.107-108.g
46
Zeisler. p.108.
47
Zeisler, p. 109.
48
Jacki Willson, The Happy Stripper: Pleasures and Politics of the New Burlesque (New York: I.B.
Tauris and co, 2008), p.9.

12
specificity placed on the work place.49
Her views seem to somewhat mirror those of
Power in that the body is a central facet for women in contemporary society. Also similar
to Negra's theory of women reclaiming derogatory and weak characteristics within
contemporary society, Willson says many 'feminine' qualities have been 'inverted to
suggest [. . .] business strengths rather than womanly weaknesses'.50
She explains how, in
the past, the combination of 'femininity' and 'business' were not seen as 'compatible
bedfellows' and if they did share a bed it was purely on a 'prostitution' basis.51
However,
Willson points out that society has evolved and that feminine traits which were 'formally
seen as oppressive and restrictive' have become advantageous.52
Examples such as
Madonna and Dita Von Teese are given to provide evidence of such a shift. Her work
suggests that a breakdown between labor and popular culture has occurred. Although her
work focuses on the burlesque element, Willson states that what was once confined to the
darkened room is now encompassed in a 'new burgeoning model of womanhood'.53
The
post-feminist work environment, therefore, has ultimately become a 'marketplace that
promotes the idea of the “bad” girl who needs to dress sexily' as well as being a
'successful, astute business woman'.54
This marketplace can be contrasted with the more traditional model put forward
by second wave French feminist, Luce Irigaray. In 1977 she published This Sex Which is
Not One, a critique of women being mere objects within the marketplace. This societal
marketplace, which formed the basis of much second wave feminist unrest, functioned
on the 'exchange of women'.55
They are encouraged to be passive as both market
49
Willson, p. 10.
50
Willson, p. 83.
51
Willson, pp. 88-89.
52
Willson, p. 94.
53
Willson, p. 79.
54
Willson, p. 94.
55
Luce Irigaray, This Sex Which is Not One, trans. by Catherine Porter (New York: Cornell University
Press, 1985), p. 170.

13
commodities and market consumers. Consumerism and superficiality driving their
success as an asset to a man. Women are reduced to the status of wife, daughter or sister
and maintain exchange value 'only in that they serve as the possibility of, and potential
benefit in, relations among men'.56
Within Irigaray's model of the marketplace, men and popular culture controlled
women. The women were, essentially, pawns. However, within post-feminism something
similar to the post-colonial theory of 'adopt, adapt, adept' seems to have occurred.57
Willson's post-feminist presentation of the marketplace, seems to correspond with the
'adept' phase of this theory. In women accepting the roles placed upon them a sort of
hybridity has occurred. Women still encompass many of these so called 'desirable' traits,
however, perhaps it could be said that these have merged with residue of second wave
feminism. Instead of occupying one side of the binary of career success versus
object/consumer, women have found a way to occupy both. A breakdown seems to have
occurred between labor and popular culture. Thus, resulting in a marketplace in which
women now occupy a higher subject position than originally attributed to them. A
palimpsest effect of sorts has thus occurred.
Willson’s work provides an insight into how the body and concepts of femininity
may positively play a role within the work place. She opens up the negative connotations
that stem from second wave feminist critiques regarding women’s contemporary role
within the workplace and popular culture. Questions, therefore, appear that need to be
addressed; does the body play a central role in popular culture and the lives of young
women? And is this always a negative thing?
Zeisler and Willson are theorists who see some hope and positives for post-
56
Irigaray, p. 172.
57
Barry, 196.

14
feminism. However, similar to the more negative critique laid out, they provide little
empirical evidence for their claims. Although they serve to break down the distinction of
post-feminism holding purely negative connotations, they also further illustrate the need
for empirical research into the area.
In conclusion, through the investigation of these texts, there are several points to
be made. Firstly, is to point out that post-feminism appears to be a particularly ambiguous
term. With some of the older publications positioning it as merely a ‘backlash’ against
the work of second wave feminists, while later ones admitting that this idea may be a bit
harsh. Secondly, although there seems to be an absence in definition of the notion itself,
there appears to be precision with regard to pinpointing where post-feminism proliferates.
It seems to thrive most certainly amongst females within western society, but more
specifically, within the educated white females of middle and upper classes. Thirdly,
there are some areas which seem to re-occur throughout all the texts examined here, most
predominant are the importance of the role of popular culture within post-feminism, and,
the escalation of the notion of ‘the empowered woman’.
Lastly, and the main concept that has justified the creation of this dissertation, is
the issue of evidence. Within these texts there is an abundance of theory, however, there
is an extreme lack of empirical research demonstrated. The limited evidence of a
spattering of advertisements and a select few examples does not justify the grand claims
being made across the critiques of post-feminism. Therefore, it may be said that there is
a void regarding empirical research within the work of second wave feminists and general
criticisms of post-feminism. Forcing questions of validity to arise thus poses an
opportunity for research to be done within a relatively unexplored field; post-feminism.

15
Chapter Two - Method and Methodology
This chapter will outline both the current state of feminist research. It will also illustrate
the practical application of my chosen methodology.
2.1 Researching Research
As has been already established, a central issue with the notion of post-feminism is the
clear lack of empirical research. This chapter seeks to outline the possible reasons for the
shortage of research within the critiques of post-feminism. It also looks to identify
methods which are suitable for such research.
Prior to second wave feminism, during the rule of quantitative research, Ann
Oakley claimed that within both life and sociology ‘women as a social group are
invisible’.58
An influential figure in the field of feminist research she appears to have
dismissed sociology as being dictated by patriarchy and placing sociology as a purely
male orientated field. Her work also states that ‘“objectivity”’ has resulted in the
proliferation of a patriarchal narrative.59
An objectivity which ‘may reduce many obvious
biases, but [. . .] do not seem to have affected [. . .] sexism’.60
For Oakley then, it seems
objectivity is useless as it is based on the Eurocentric man and denies the point of view
of others. Dominant quantitative forms of research, therefore, recreated patriarchy.
Nicole Westmarland also writes of objectivity, outlining the problems feminist
researchers have identified with regard to objectivity and quantitative methods.61
She
states that ‘knowledge has traditionally been measured by how objective it is deemed to
58
Ann Oakley, The Ann Oakley Reader: Gender, Women and Social Science (Bristol: Policy Press,
2005), p. 189. Google book.
59
Oakley, p. 189.
60
Oakley, p. 189.
61
Nicole Westmarland, 'The Quantitative/Qualitative Debate and Feminist Research: A Subjective View
of Objectivity', Qualitative Social Research , 2.1, (2001), 1-28, in Different Approaches for Inter-Relating
Qualitative and Quantitative Method < http://www.qualitative-research.net/ > [accessed 29 December
2014].

16
be’ and if it was deemed subjective it would be classified as ‘“untrue”’.62
However,
Westmarland states that quantitative research, like qualitative research, ‘is interpreted and
often manipulated’.63
This points out the inability of achieving objectivity in any kind of
research. According to Westmarland, many feminists view quantitative methods as crude
and their attempt at impartiality make ‘participants feel uncomfortable with the
researcher’.64
She continues by outlining the advantages feminists associate with
qualitative methods. Primarily, through a positivist approach that they aim to achieve
‘validity, rather than objectivity’.65
Authority of knowledge would, therefore, be found
through words not statistics, interviews and not surveys. However, she warns that using
only qualitative methods in feminist research ‘simply reinforces traditional
dichotomies’.66
Researching women, therefore, should not automatically rule out
quantitative methods.
Similar to Westmarland’s idea that there is no one perfect method for feminist
research, Marjorie L. DeVault talks of a liberating method, leaving researchers free to
resist ‘routine practices’.67
She insists that feminist ideologies and methods should be
ambiguous ‘that answers to questions should fit with the contours of women’s lives’.68
This suggests feminist research should be based on lived experience rather than a strict
research method. DeVault traces the major shift in research methods with regard to
feminist research to the second wave feminist movement in the 1960s where they began
to think ‘skeptically about existing research methods’. There seems to have been a turn
away from identifying surface problems and instead conducting an ‘“excavation”’ into
62
Westmarland, p. 6.
63
Westmarland, p.6.
64
Westmarland, pp 6-12.
65
Westmarland, p. 21.
66
Westmarland, p. 17.
67
Marjorie L. DeVault, Liberating Method: Feminism and Social Research (Philadelphia: Temple
University Press, 1999), p. 1. Google book.
68
DeVault, p. 23.

17
the lives of women. 69
According to DeVault, feminist methods tend ‘to subvert the notion
of objectivity’.70
In situ with Westmarland’s ideas, they indicate a shift toward positivist
research. Positive research, however, is something that many feminists have also rejected
as it is based on the idea that the researcher can accurately interpret the information and
make general assumptions. Yet, DeVault’s ideas seem to point out the need for action in
research and suggests that positivism in association with qualitative methods may be the
answer. However, she also indicates that the researcher should attempt a level of
objectivity.71
It is important to note the significance of the dates DeVault sets forward with
regard to radical changes in research methods. She notes that, although, feminist
researchers began moving towards more suitable methods in the 1960s, such research
remained uncommon until the 1980s.72
Thus, giving an insight into why there appears to
be a lack of evidence from second wave feminists with regard to post-feminism. It seems
research was not common practice for many second wave feminists during their time of
academic development.
(Re)searching Women is a book which gives another possible reason for this lack
of empirical evidence. It suggests that it may be due to the fact that many feminist
theorists are writing from a time of doubt regarding qualitative research.73
Firstly, that it
is labelled 'feminist' research sets up a binary between feminists and non-feminists, those
not identifying with the term turn away from such research.74
Secondly, that from the
1970s through to the 1990s qualitative research did not receive much economic funding.75
69
DeVault, p. 30.
70
DeVault, p. 38.
71
DeVault, p. 59.
72
DeVault, p. 28.
73 (
Re)searching Women, ed by. Anne Byrne & Ronit Lentin (Dublin: Institute of Public Administration,
2000). Google book.
74
Byrne, p. 2.
75
Byrne, p. 15.

18
Lastly, the editors, in carrying out research for the book itself, found ' a respondent
observed that in identifying herself as a feminist researcher [her work. . .] would not be
considered as legitimate scholarship'. 76
In the world of academia the feminist is
stigmatised.
Stanley and Wise also see the social sciences as ‘sexist’.77
They believe social
science is distorting ‘the experiences of women’ and creating a unitary view of woman.78
In placing women in parameters outlined by and designed for men, women’s vast
experience is flattened out into a single narrative. Although Stanley and Wise criticize
the social sciences for their patriarchal values they also seem to criticize those feminists
who seem to withdraw themselves from research altogether. They claim many feminists
fail ‘to examine critically the relationship between theory and research’.79
These feminists
serve in the proliferation of what Stanley and Wise refer to as ‘[g]rand theory’.80
Grand
theory appears to involve a disregard for research and supposes a unified female
experience. This, however, sounds quite similar to the suppression placed upon women
by patriarchal social sciences. This irony is noted by Stanley and Wise who suggest the
impossibility of a static female identity. They state that the female experience ‘will
inevitably change’ from person to person.81
This suggests that, perhaps, post-feminism is
more of an open category than most critics state.
Stanley and Wise suggest a very useful way in which feminism may regain
credibility. They state that ‘through doing feminist consciousness that we can really
76
Byrne, p. 21.
77
Liz Stanley and Sue Wise, Breaking Out Again: Feminist Ontology and Epistemology (London:
Routledge, 1993), p.26. Ebrary.
78
Stanley, pp. 3-27.
79
Stanley, p. 58.
80
Stanley, p. 44.
81
Stanley, p. 123.

19
understand its dimensions, content and parameters’.82
They propose that there must be a
return to the investigation of female experience, giving it sufficient merit.
In conclusion, each text examined here sets out reasons that may be designated to
an understanding into why there is a void in post-feminist critique. The heart of these
explanations revolves around the fulcrum of the quantitative/qualitative debate. There
appears to be a general consensus that traditional research methods have been saturated
in patriarchy. The primary problem for feminist research seems to be in finding a suitable
alternative to the quantitative methods associated with social science. If feminism were
to fully embrace the qualitative methods they only serve to add to the already instilled
binary of male and female knowledge. They also run the risk of a lack of academic
credibility and, as a result, funding. Perhaps though, the key finding may be that feminist
research did not start to proliferate until the 1980s. This meaning that the grand theory of
the 1960s may have been what second wave feminists were most familiar with. Perhaps,
then they knew no better.
This idea of grand theory appears to be reoccurring within the critique of post-
feminism, perhaps this is because it was common practice for second wave feminists.
Although, this may possibly explain the popular negation of empirical research regarding
post-feminism it cannot, however, I feel, be excused in the current climate of academic
knowledge.
2.2 Practical Application of Research Method
This section will outline the practical elements I undertook in selecting and applying a
research method to my project.
82
Stanley, p. 132.

20
Selection of Method/Methodology
In an ideal scenario I would have undertook a mixed method research project
involving both qualitative and quantitative methods, however, there were certain
restraints that needed to be kept in mind. These included: Time, monitory, ethical and
practical issues.
Taking these issues into consideration I decided to conduct my research using the
method typically associated with feminist research, that of a qualitative analysis.
However, I will add reflexive qualities to my analysis, and draw influence from positivist
approaches. In selecting a qualitative approach the method of focus groups seemed the
most practical as it allowed me to gain a broad range of epistemological opinions within
a short time. There would be two focus groups of four women.
Recruitment
Given the supposed criteria for where post-feminism proliferates; white,
middle/upper class and western, there are those who more ideally fit into the categories
of post-feminism. Also due to the importance of free flowing discussion I decided to use
personal connections in recruiting to encourage a relaxed environment. However, I
avoided close friends or humanities students as they would have a heightened awareness
of my project/subject.
Having attended a boarding school I feel many of my acquaintances may be
labeled post-feminists as such a school generally holds upper class connotations. Using
Facebook I got in contact with such women. Everyone was initially very enthusiastic.
However, it proved very hard to get them to commit to a date. In the end the eighteen

21
year-old woman with whom I was most acquainted offered the services of her college
housemates. A similar thing happened within the older group.
Although not the scenario I had originally envisaged, these women also hold a
common societal position which reflects upon the theoretical characteristics of post-
feminism laid out in the literature. The fact that I knew one member of each group prior
to conducting the interviews seemed to benefit the flow of the focus group as they assisted
greatly in creating a comfortable environment. They did this, in both groups, by
introducing me prior to the focus group and taking a primary role in the first few minutes
of conversation.
Selection of Questions
Research indicated that the conversation should be based around the female experience.
Also the questions should be more of a guide than a strict structure. The idea being that
the loose structure will allow for participants to speak freely.
Over several drafts, I devolved a question guide which I felt comfortable with.83
It was broken into the segments commencing with me, the researcher, stating that these
would be strictly their views and opinions and that there would be no right or wrong
answers. In a bid to create a friendly environment, I asked a question which I answered
before asking each participant in turn to so do. From here the guide developed through
the stages before reaching the ones most central to my research project. This process,
inspired by the book Successful Qualitative Research, aimed to allow an organic
unfurling of conversation.84
83
Please see appendix ‘A’.
84
Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke, Successful Qualitative Research: A Practical Guide for Beginners
(London: SAGE, 2013), pp.117-120.

22
It was through prompts and contemporary examples within popular culture that I
intended to guide the focus group and build theories.
Dry run
Here I discovered the difficulty the researcher may have in removing their personal
views and opinions. I also decided that a loose time-frame of up to one hour should be
used. With regard to the questions more colloquial language and some more prompts
were needed.85
I, therefore added as many generic prompts to my question list as
possible and on the days of each focus group I trolled through social media to find up to
date, relevant prompts and popular culture examples.
Ethical Procedure
In filling out an ethics form distributed by the college, it became clear that there
are many restrictions in place for an undergraduate research project.86
Age limitations
were my primary concern. Therefore, within the two focus groups, one would focus on
eighteen year-olds and the other on twenty-one year-olds.
I then created an ethical consent form for participants to sign.87
It sought to
equalise the power relationship and reiterate their position as anonymous volunteers.
85
Please see appendix ‘B’.
86
Please see appendix ‘C’.
87
Please see appendix ‘D’.

23
Conducting the Focus Groups
Each focus group participant was informed why this research was being carried out and
each was issued an ethical consent form and I stressed the key factors of it vocally as well
illustrating I would be using my laptop as a recording device.
The focus group containing eighteen year-olds (focus group A) was carried out in
the sitting room of the house in which they resided. There was a fire and we sat in a semi-
circle around the fire eating the Cadbury’s Roses I brought with me. It was very
comfortable and discussion was animated and lively.
The focus group containing twenty to twenty-two year olds (focus group B) was
conducted under quite different circumstances. Having not confirmed a date for us to
meet a participant of focus group B texted me and informed me that they would all be
together the following evening prior to a night out.
We conducted the focus group within the kitchen of one of the participants.
Although each greeted me with enthusiasm the entire discussion felt rushed. The
discussion barely reached the fort-five minute marker and everyone seemed a little
uncomfortable. However, all the relevant questions were asked and answered.
Post-Focus Group
After each focus group I took some notes on the layout and any factors I felt important to
the analysis.
The following day I took some further notes on issues or areas that had stayed
with me and that I believed were relevant upon further reflection.

24
Chapter Three - Analysis
This chapter will focus on all elements of analysis involved in my research into young
women’s perspectives regarding post-feminism. For clarity please find my notation
system listed in appendix ‘E’.88
3.1 Analysis Introduction
As with any research there are both advantages and disadvantages with every method. I,
therefore, bearing in mind restrictions, created what I believe to be a suitable approach
for investigating post-feminism and attempting to reach empirically based results.
Selecting a qualitative method seemed logical as it is the method most associated
with feminist research. I also believed it to be relevant to my investigation of post-
feminism as it is based on constructivism. Unlike quantitative methods, it does not serve
to merely test ideas but to generate them. This seemed highly applicable to an area which
has a blatant lack of research accompanying the theory on it. This is because a key feature
of qualitative analysis is opening up discussion to a deep and personal level. Thus, this
research would not attempt to merely test the soundness of post-feminist critique, but also,
generate new ideas of post-feminism founded on empirical evidence.
Although qualitative methods are generally associated with the constructivist idea
that there are no inherent truths, I feel it necessary to draw on positivism within this
analysis. Positivism, is the suggestion that there are inherent certainties and it is often
viewed as an essentialist method, however, I belief it is a necessary step in developing
post-feminist understanding. Although this analysis focuses on a very limited sample in
which participants and researcher share both class and nationality and may not be
88
Please see appendix ‘E’, p. E. 1.

25
generalised to a great extent, it is still empirical research which goes beyond most post-
feminist critique. Providing, to at least some level, a new platform for post-feminist
understanding.
The selection of focus groups went beyond mere practical elements as they also
possess research advantages for my analysis. The fact that they would be based on
conversation at a peer level would develop a comfortable environment. The equality of
such a relationship would encourage participants to feel at ease in the focus group
scenario. While not personally being friends with any of the participants meant that they
would have less of an agenda to help me. Although not typically associated with
qualitative methods, this would help bring a level of objectivity to the analysis. Stemming
from my investigation into feminist research it became clear that method hybridity is
central in generating more reliable results, bringing about my decision to aspire to this at
some level within my project.
Trying to generate a certain level of objectivity involved reflection at every level
of research conduction. Judi Marshal talks about the importance of ‘inner and outer arcs
of attention’ in research. 89
The researcher should, at all times, have ‘self-awareness’, be
aware of themselves, their thoughts and their actions.90
This is the inner arc and in
conducting the focus groups, I found this very useful. It was often difficult to remove my
views, avoid projecting my own ideas and also to regulate my language so as not to lead
or influence the answers of the participants. However, to be successful in research one
must also turn to the outer arc of attention. Meaning that, to truly learn something, the
researcher must engage ‘with other people’.91
This, Marshal believes, leaves the
89
Judi Marshall, 'Self-reflective Inquiry Practices', in The SAGE Handbook of Action Research, ed. by
Peter Reason and Hilary Bradbury(London: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2001), pp. 433- 439 (p. 433).
90
Marshal, p. 433.
91
Marshal, p. 434.

26
researcher in a constant state of moving between action and reflection and being active
and receptive.92
These provided my basis for many aspects of my research. For example,
in each focus group I had to gauge the tone and language of the group and alter the
wording of questions accordingly. This seemed to have gone well as although I did not
always stick to the exact questions I had laid out, the issues were raised or addressed in
one way or another. For example:
‘How often do you interact with these elements of popular culture’.93
Below is how the question became altered within focus group A.
‘Int: So they are all elements of pop culture so then how often do you interact
with them (.) I mean would it be hourly you check Facebook and stuff or (.)’94
This ambiguity of the question also illustrates the fact that the questions I had
prepared served as a mere guide. This allowed for impromptu action to alter and change
questions if conversation went in a way I had not been expecting. A key feature of
qualitative analysis is that the interview has a relatively low level of structure encouraging
participants to open up at a personal and experience based level.
On reflecting upon the experiences of carrying out the focus groups my eyes were
opened to both the complexity of conducting good qualitative research and the
importance of empirical evidence in forming a basis for theory. I thus concur with
Marshal’s idea that a researcher is constantly moving between ‘project planning,
encounter and communication’ continually ‘thinking and making sense’ of things within
the inner and outer arcs of attention.95
92
Marshal, pp. 433 - 435.
93
Please see appendix ‘B’, p. B. 1.
94
Please see appendix ‘F’, p. F. 4.
95
Marshal, pp. 433-435.

27
3.2 Analysis of Central Questions
This section will examine the focus groups through thematic analysis which ultimately
deals with the most interesting points of discovery made throughout my two focus groups.
Can you try and define the term ‘popular culture’?
Following my study of post-feminist critique, specifically the ideas of Andi Zeisler in
Feminism and Pop Culture, it became clear that popular culture was a key player in both
creating and maintaining the ideas of post-feminism. Theory indicates that post-feminists
are, perhaps, obsessed with popular culture.96
It was therefore interesting to develop an
understanding into the participant’s understanding of popular culture.
In the interviews there was initial difficulty in finding a suitable definition,
however, after initial trepidation, a member of focus group B supplied the definition of it
being
‘The norms of society’ (Gia).97
What proceeded from this kind of definition, within both groups, is the importance of
popular culture and in particular the internet in popular culture with Grace in focus group
A stating that
‘yeah internet is deffo popular culture’.98
None of the participants appeared to have an issue with the term, meaning that it
must be in general circulation. However, it is in pinning down an exact definition that the
96
Zeisler, pp.1-2.
97
Please see appendix ‘G’, p. G. 2.
98

28
participants struggled with, they instead found it easier to give examples of what they
believe to be popular culture. In both groups Facebook is confirmed as a central factor of
popular culture for these young women. All members of each group admitting that
Facebook is a central part of their daily lives. With many stating that they check it as
soon as they wake up in the morning and agreeing with the members from each group
that put forward that Facebook would be checked ‘hourly anyways’.99
Perhaps a little
shocking is that members of focus group A also agreed that they believe Facebook is a
sufficient source of world news with Mary stating
‘Yeah I’d never go out and buy a newspaper’.100
Prior to the focus groups I had considered the importance of Facebook in the lives
of young women as it is important to me. This notion was confirmed to also be true of
these women. It thus seems that in accordance to theory on post-feminism, such as Zeisler,
that these women hold popular culture to be highly important within their day to day
lives.
What do you feel your own role/or that of people around you is within popular culture?
Literature regarding post-feminism from second wave theorists’ such as Tasker and Negra
puts forward the idea that post-feminists, have essentially been brain washed by popular
culture into fulfilling the role of the consumer.101
Posing a question to investigate this
idea sparked a bit of debate between participants with members of focus group B
99
100
101

29
becoming quiet passionate. Gia believed that she does not possess a role within popular
culture, however, Dee argued that Gia in fact does,
‘Come on you totally buy into popular culture you with your oh look at this and
everyone knows this and oh I want that’102
This resolved with Gia agreeing that maybe she does but they both confirm that it is
ambivalent consumption.
‘Yeah but it’s innocent enough I don’t really realise I’m doing it’103
And Dee agreeing and stating that it is more so a spectator sport.
‘Yeah I’m not involved in it like making it I’m just on the side lines watching
it’104
Interestingly, Group A concurred with the conclusion reached by Gia and Dee,
that they consume popular culture, without any debate.
‘Grace: Yeah I just kinda sit back and like let it happen
Mary: Yeah I’m like aware of it but (…)
Int: you’re ‘aware of it’
Mary: Yeah like you don’t actually stop and think about it like (.) you don’t (.
. .)’.105
This, makes an interesting point as it gives an insight into the way in which these
women interact with popular culture. Within the interview most participants, even before
102
103
Please see appendix ‘G’ p. G. 1.
104
105

30
conversation developed, indicated that they are aware of their role as ambivalent
consumers of popular culture. In contrast with the literature, this result shows that these
women, who fit within the categories of post-feminists, are fully aware of their situation
and choose to continue the interaction. Yet the point remains that they do in fact note
their passivity, therefore, conforming to the norms of popular culture without much
debate or question.
What elements of your identity are important in forming your relationship with
popular culture?
It is suggested by second wave feminists such as Tasker and Negra that women are the
targets of a popular culture discourse that implies the redundancy of feminism and the
goal of the equality of the sexes.106
They indicate that popular discourse is naturalising
the drive for female consumerism as a method for empowerment. 107
Many second wave
feminists such as Tasker and Negra seem to blame popular culture for the supposed
culturally submissive young woman.
When addressing the idea of identity in popular culture there was initial confusion
at the question and I attempted to use the idea of advertising as a prompt. From here there
was preliminary defiance that outside influence might have a place within their
relationship with popular culture. Grace indicating that this relationship is based purely
on her own views and opinions,
‘What I agree with and what I don’t agree with is that an answer’.108
106
Interrogating post-feminism, ed. by Yvonne Tasker and Diane Negra (USA: Duke University Press,
2007), p.1.
107
108

31
Mary proceeded to reinsert this idea by adding that,
‘Well you obviously choose what you interact with no one forces you to sign up
or anything’.109
From the literature I had read in the area of post-feminism I had preconceived
notions of what kind of issues I was looking for when addressing this question. Primarily,
the issue of the relationship of gender and age within popular culture. However, focus
group A did not start a discussion on any of these areas so I was forced to ask bluntly
about aspects such as gender and age. This perhaps indicating that because I was the one
to put them in the agenda that these issues are not of primary importance to these
participants.
‘Mary: Em (.) I think women definitely do consume more but I think like (. . .)
mmm sorry like lads are buying into it more now like there definitely be more
women like older and younger in relation but I think now like one of our house
mates he definitely does more online shopping than I do ((Laughs)) em (.) so I
think it definitely is more female orientated but there is
Grace: ((In overlap)) I dunno I think it’s kind of it’s it’s equal now
Mary: Yeah but the age thing
Grace: ((In overlap)) well like not old men but young men yeah I think boys are
just (.)
Mary: Yeah boys our age are very into getting like their new trainers or
whatever’.110
109
110

32
Here they seem to be making the point that although age is traditionally a factor in the
relationships between people and popular culture, the binary between men and women in
relation to consumerism is breaking down. These participants indicate that the
relationship between men and popular culture and women and popular culture is
becoming more equal. The main example given within the focus group being the extent
to which men now buy their clothes online.
Focus group B, did as I had initially expected, addressing the issues of age and
gender straight away. They too agreed with the sentiments displayed in focus group A.
‘Deb: Yeah more and more men are getting into their looks these days
Dee: But I think it’s still definitely still aimed at women like women ads are all
over Facebook and stuff like that
Ellen: ((In overlap)) well no I think it’s definitely more aimed at men these days
[. . .]
Gia: Just their hair and their dress and stuff like that’.111
These participants appear to indicate that young men are starting to play the same
role in popular culture as young women. They seem to be implying that the sexes are
becoming equally targeted by popular culture. It thus seems, from the interviewing of
participants, that a kind of inversion of the feminist idea that women are victims of
popular culture has occurred. An equality seems to be emerging, or a perceived sense of
one. Not through women resisting the power from popular culture, but, in men investing
in a similar relationship with it.
111

33
What, in pop culture, is being a woman? / What are the expectations attached?
On addressing this question I expected, due to the research carried out on post-feminism,
that these young women’s central concerns would revolve around superficiality.
According to Nina Power the rise of post-feminism has brought with it the idea of the
walking c.v, here women essentially 'sell themselves' at the level of their visual
qualities.112
Both groups established the idea that life has changed for women, with focus
group B highlighting the idea that women are allowed make many more choices in life
and their success and happiness does not depend on men.
‘Dee: It’s like being independent (.) like they don’t need a man’.113
Dee also states,
‘I don’t think the ultimate goal in life is to get married anymore (.)’.114
Members of group A suggested alternative gaols for women of their situation.
Each member illustrated the importance of the career, at both the educational level and
the employment level.
‘Mary: Yeah definitely finish college get a job’.115
This is in contrast with the literature as here each member indicated the
importance of education and being independent from men in their success. Each of these
being areas which were central facets of second wave feminism. Also, interesting to note
112
Power, p. 23.
113
114
115

34
is that education and independence is valued above visual appeal. In reference to
Angelina Jolie, Gia states,
‘Yeah she is amazing (.) like she has a career family charity work and she is shit
hot’.116
Here, although visual appeal is mentioned, it is at the bottom of a list of attributes which
the participants seem to feel are of greater importance. This seems to resonate the views
of Jacki Willson who has suggested that the age of post-feminism allows 'femininity' and
'business' to be 'compatible bedfellows'. 117
Possibly, the age of post-feminism is not as
wholly superficial as many second wave feminists suggest. Thus breaking down the
opposition of positive and negative, postfeminism and post-feminism.
Is this then what the notion of the ‘empowered woman’ is or how do you perceive it?
In both focus groups this question seemed like a natural companion to asking them the
expectations they felt as women. Their answers overlapped greatly with those they had
given about what they feel is expected of them in life. A new word, that I think resonates
all the ideas put forward by all the women, was thrown in by Sal in group A, the word
‘Strong’.118
As an overlap of the previous question this strength appears, to the
participants, to be a strength of self, with emphasis on career drive and the power of the
individual woman.
116
117
Willson, pp. 88-89.
118

35
A further insight into the definition of what they thought the empowered woman
is was discovered when I asked them to give examples of who they feel these women are.
Group A centred around a comparison of Victoria Beckham, as an empowered woman,
‘Mary: Clothing lines perfume her own shops
Sal: Yeah all sorts like she was actually nominated or she won business woman
of the year yeah but she built it all up herself like’119
against Kim Kardashian, who’s success they attribute to the fact she uses her body as a
tool of power.
‘Sal: Victoria Beckham didn’t get her ass out for a bit of money’.120
This sentiment continued into focus group B where a debate formed that was a little
worrying for all involved. Although they all admitted that Kim Kardashian is famous for,
as Dee said, putting a picture of herself
‘naked across the whole internet’.121
Debate formed when Ellen started talking about younger women. She proposed
that although women her age don’t agree with Kim Kardashian, she has been normalised
into the lives of younger women who have grown up watching Keeping up with the
Kardashians.122
Although the issue was not fully resolved, it is very interesting to compare with
post-feminist critique. The views of these women contrasted greatly with the expectations
of second wave feminists, in that they put their careers above beauty. Thus putting post-
119
120
121
122

36
feminism into a more positive light than is common within critique. However, the results
of focus group B sheds what many participants found to be a worrying light on the matter.
They have noted the possibility of younger women becoming the body crazed, 'you are
your breasts' sort of women the literature has indicated these participants (post-feminists)
to be.123
Can you tell me what you understand by the term feminism?
This question was met with mixed answers and sentiment. There was one member of
each group that vocally expressed the negative connotations they related to feminists.
Grace of focus group A stated;
‘I dunno someone who hates men I don’t really know’.124
While Gia of group B simply replied with
‘Fucking women’.125
Having studied what second-wave feminists claim these women should think on the
matter I was not surprised to hear this backlash against feminism. Here, it appears, the
backlash is extremely gendered. They seem to believe that feminism is a pitting of the
sexes against one another. There is even outrage expressed at women whom they may
deem feminists, those who hate men.
123
Power, p. 24.
124
125

37
However, after some discussion the participants moved past their initial emotional
response and the women of each group developed definitions with which they felt more
comfortable.
‘Mary: Just yeah I learnt this the other day but yeah I think we should all have
equal rights and equal pay’.126
‘Dee: believes in the social and economic wellbeing of the sexes (.) something
like that’.127
These two statements seem relatively recently learnt showing perhaps that such issues
were not as salient in their youth. In drawing their definitions from recently learnt
understandings, it implies this empirical stance was not always there. I say recently learnt
as in the case of Mary she expresses the fact that she has only very recently learnt this
within college. In the case of Dee she is quoting a line from contemporary singer
Beyoncé. An anomaly in the context of post-feminist critique as the popular culture sector
is where anti-feminist sentiment is meant to stem.
What is very interesting to note is that even though the groups all conceded that
they were happy with the definition of equality, three out of the four women in group A
strongly disagreed with considering themselves feminists while Mary remained unsure
saying
‘Maybe but not in like a hate men way but I believe in equal rights’.128
These women do seem in a way to fit into the category of a backlash against
feminism, with the majority not wishing to associate with the word feminist and many
126
127
128

38
expressing a mild anger at the notion. However, it must be noted that although there
clearly seems to be a backlash against the popular notion of feminism, these women do
seem to believe in the core beliefs of feminism but do not choose to label it so.
Are you aware, or have an understanding of the notion of post-feminism? Is feminism
over?
The participants generally stated that they were not aware of the term post-feminist with
only one noting that they had even heard of the term. I thus gave a brief explanation of
the term and asked them if they thought feminism was over. Each again replied that no
they didn’t and, interestingly, also noted that they do not believe it should be either.
Gia from group B stating that it is
‘Because there are so many more issues to be dealt with coz like even all those
high paid jobs and all that in the economy are all men’.129
Members of group A also shared sentiments with Mary saying
‘Well I don’t think it’s over but I think it’s justified by like that it doesn’t need to
be as like out there as the sixties you know’.130
It is interesting that when they talk about feminism it is in reference to the 1960s. In
saying that the major objectives of feminism have been achieved they appear to label the
need for such a movement firmly as historical.
‘Mary: Yeah like the big things like votes for women and you know like women
can do these jobs and they don’t need to quit their jobs after they get married and
129
130

39
you know the big things aren’t there anymore so feminists wouldn’t have as much
to be vocal about anymore’.131
Members of group A went on to state that they think forms of protest are much
more subtle in contemporary times, but explain they think this because the larger issues
such as voting, marriage and work have been resolved. Their indication of being
conscious of contemporary forms of protest seem to indicate an awareness of the
continued need for feminism. However, they wouldn’t, in day-to-day practice, place the
label of feminism upon such issues and sentiment.
The most interesting thing, I feel, that came about in response to this question was
one member of group B redefining feminism for her group,
‘Deb: But your being so against men like it shouldn’t be men men men and like
women against men it should be rights in general’.132
Although this idea is central to the idea of feminism, none of the participants
associated this idea with feminism and the feminist. The idea of feminism then, perhaps
as the literature has stated, has in some way been tainted within contemporary society at
an institutional level.133
It is interesting to note the participants’ outcry against feminists in the last
question addressed in comparison to their response to this one. Here, they seem to believe
that feminism is not redundant but still an ever present factor in their lives. This feminism
though, stems from their definition of the importance of equality rather than the women
versus men agenda that they seem to associate with feminism. They also, interestingly,
stress the idea that although they do believe issues of equality are still present, it is now
131
132
133
McRobbie, p.1.

40
more so of an undertone as opposed to a narrative to live and fight for. There does then,
for these women at least, seem to be a rift between the idea of feminism and the feminist.
This issue of labelling seems central in the conflict between young women and feminism.
3.2 A Discussion of Analysis in Relation to the Literature Review.
Although I do recognise that this is only a sample of women who fit into the categories
of the post-feminist laid down in theory, many interesting comparisons have appeared
with regard to post-feminist critique. Within the context of the information I have
gathered it is clear that there are many breaches between theory and the empirically
learned experiences of these young women.
First perhaps, it should be pointed out that although there are moments of
disconnect between theory and this analysis there are also areas which do correlate.
Primarily, this can be seen in allocating popular culture as a key aspect within the lives
of young women. Post-feminist critique states that popular culture has had a central role
to play in creating the post-feminist mind set. A mind set laid out by Diane Negra as being
based on superficiality, consumption and a disregard for the goals of the feminists before
them.134
In the case of the interviews analysed here it seems that these women admit to
often falling into the role of ambivalent consumer and judges of beauty. However, they
are aware of their position. They note that on a day-to-day basis they do not see a problem
with consumption as they do not believe it impacts them at a deep level.
Literary critique has outlined the importance of the empowered woman or the
have-it-all woman in relation to post-feminism. Wealth, superficiality, consumerism and
134
Negra, p. 4.

41
sex are laid down as being central to the empowered woman.135
However, the idea of the
empowered woman seems to hold slightly different connotations for these young women.
Although both seem to concur at some level about the importance of economics, the
participants believe empowerment lies in strong independent women who have forged
their own careers through hard work and dedication rather than their beauty, consumerism
and their sex partner. On a comparison of Kim Kardashian and the likes of Victoria
Beckham and Angelina Jolie it can be seen that these participants have not engaged with
the notions of superficiality, sex and consumerism and as the central pillars for the have-
it-all woman. Although they do admit to consuming superficial popular culture they state
that their goals in life are not to find a man to take care of them but rather make their own
path and build a future with someone.
Literature regarding post-feminists places it as disregarding feminism and being
a backlash against the achievements of predecessors.136
Within the participants analysed
here not one openly identified as a feminist. However, as the interviews developed it
became clear that this disregard was primarily for the label of feminist. The connotations
of feminist as men haters seems to have tainted the idea of what feminism is. If one were
to have conducted a survey it would have been stated as fact that these women were post-
feminists due to their disregard and negative sentiments towards feminism. However,
qualitative analysis proved to be highly applicable in this instance as it picked up on
deeper sentiment.
Although it might be said that the post-feminist critics may have been right in their
claim that popular culture would create this backlash, this backlash, in the case of these
women, only runs skin deep. On further discussion it became clear that these women do
135
Zeisler, pp. 100-108.
136
Tasker and Negra, p. 1.

42
in fact believe in the goals of feminism, primarily the equality of the sexes. However,
they do not seem to accredit this idea to the notion of feminism.
This analysis highlights the fact that there seems to have be a disjuncture between
sign and meaning. The participants give the impression that ‘feminist’ has become a dirty
word. Yet, it seems the ideals associated with it have not. It thus seems these women are
not actively contributing to a backlash against the achievements of feminism and in fact,
appear to be feminists. However, they remain reluctant to associate with such a label.

43
Conclusion
Overall, I found the conducting of focus groups and the process associated with the
method enjoyable and rewarding. I have a new found admiration for qualitative
researchers and their ability to be able to encourage deep conversation, but, also, remain
passive in their emotional and personal input. In attempting to replicate their work, I have
developed new skills and learnt about my strengths, abilities and weaknesses while
gaining an insight into the views and opinions of my participants who fall into the
theoretical categories of the post-feminist.
In pinpointing a lack of empirical evidence with regard to post-feminism I
discovered many justifications. However, the point remains that within the twenty-first
century there is no solid defence for the second wave feminist’s critique of post-feminism.
In making generalisations and contributing to grand theory on the area, little critique goes
beyond the theoretical level. There can be no claim of empirical evidence regarding post-
feminism as almost no research has been conducted into post-feminist subjects. Although
I do accept that my research is very limited, it stems from the empirically learnt
experiences of those who fit the categories of post-feminism. Maybe this research can
partially fill the void of true understanding with regard to post-feminism.
I also feel this research has helped to better understand a personal predicament. A
predicament stemming from the fact that although I am well versed in second wave
feminism, I fit the tropes of post-feminism. Most post-feminist critique notes the
consumer driven nature of post-feminist society. I personally know this to be true as many
breaks I have taken from this project involve online store browsing. Those I interviewed
also indicated their participation in consumerism. However, the post-feminism critique
which places this emphasis on consumerism also notes that this consumerism involves

44
women passively taking on board and accepting the subject position placed on them. Thus
creating an unconscientious society as such. Although my participants indicated that to
some extent it is passive consumption, this theory is problematic. The participants seem
to believe that it is not complete inactive consumption, there is a conscious recognition
of culture which attempts to dictate their choice. They appear to accept their role as
consumer, as well as placing this role on the young men within their social circles. They
brought a level of critical awareness to my attention by indicating that they are aware of
gender divides and certain inequalities, however, they stress that they believe that men
often fall victim to issues of equality in the current climate.
In commencing this project I had an understanding that there were problems with
regard to the definitions of the words feminism, feminist, postfeminism and post-feminism.
As a result, what has come to light is that this is due to the ambiguity of such ideas. There
has been a clear rupture between signifier and signified. It is essentially a problem of
labels and labelling.
With regard to feminism and the feminist, the rift between contemporary society
and these words appears to have stemmed from ambiguous connotations. First there is
the academically learnt ideas of equality, however, these juxtapose with the more
colloquial connotations that circulate within popular culture such as ideas of feminists
being men haters. Ultimately, the result appears to be that young women blend the ideas
and are left with believing that feminism is the fight for women being equal to men, not
gender equality in general. The latter being more relatable and relevant to the current
climate.
The words postfeminism and post-feminism, I believe, have been slightly un-
problematised through this analysis. Although I do note that in order to conduct research

45
with regard to such terms I had to simplify and attach definitions to each word, I believe
this analysis clears up, to some extent, the issue of the use of the hyphen. The participants
here are defiantly anti-hyphen, this indicating the continued need for feminism. I say this
because while filling the categories of post-feminism laid out by second wave feminists,
they admit to being consumers of popular culture and generally would not wish to be
associated with feminism. They seem conscious of their consumerist position and
critically aware of the issues of gender equality still prevalent today. As well as admitting
their involvement in consumerism, they seem to be aware of the restrictions of their
identity within consumer capitalism. Their self-professed position serves in breaking
down the accusations made by second wave feminists that these women are participating
in a backlash against the feminist achievements. These accusations, therefore, seem
unjust and ill explored.
I say this even though the participants had issues with the words feminism and
feminist, on deeper discussion it seems this was where it ends; it is purely a problem with
the words. These woman still seem to believe gender equality is an issue in Ireland today
and reformative action should not cease. Thus it seems that it is labelling which is the
main cause of problems for feminism. Feminists cannot hope that they will be able to
reclaim feminism in the current climate. The word seems to have become too dirty. As a
result I believe that any way forward for the feminist movement must attempt to re-claim
the idea of the movement from the word itself. The movement needs re-appropriation to
deal with the current climate in which focus appears to be needed in gender equality with
less emphasis on women. The fem of feminism is placing clear emphasis on the plight of
the woman. However, in the twenty-first century there are many issues of gender equality
across the sexes. The feminist movement may seek to include such issues, however, the

46
message has become blurred through popular culture. Although the idea behind the
movement remains sound, the term seems redundant in twenty-first century Ireland.
In conclusion, I believe re-branding is necessary for the continuation of the ideals
behind feminism.

A. 1
Appendices
Appendix ‘A’ - Question Guide- Prior to Focus Group Dry Run.
 I am seeking your thoughts and opinions and there is no right or wrong answers.
 You are welcome to bring in examples, whether personal or otherwise.
 One at a time could you all please state your name and tell me, when you were
younger, what you wanted to be when you grew up? I go first.
Intro Qs:
 What comes to mind when I say the words ‘popular culture’?
 Do you feel you interact with popular culture?- daily, hourly, weekly..?
 What elements of popular culture do you think people interact with most?-
advertising(magazines, online, billboards, radio) – Online (twitter, facebook,
etc.) –Shopping (what kind of shops do people go to mostly?-high street, centres,
locals)
Transition Qs:
 What do you feel your own role/or that of people around you is within popular
culture? (passive, consumer, etc)
 What elements of your identity are important in forming your relationship with
pop culture? - Age, class, ethnicity, looks, gender?
 Give example of perhaps Kim Kardashian in pop culture, why does she command
such attention?
Key Questions:

A. 2
 So it might be said that gender is a key part of the interaction with pop culture? –
advertising space, shopping, how a photo is taken, pressure, role models
 What, in pop culture, in being a woman?- Our roles, what is expected, consumer?
Importance of looks
 Is this then what the notion of the ‘empowered woman’ is or how do you perceive
it?
 We talked of Kim K earlier, does she embody this ‘empowered woman’ notion?
–why? Why not? (rich, has a man, pretty, good body, has a baby, famous)
o If she isn’t who is? Brittany, beyonce, oprah, Jennifer lawrance
 Do you think the idea of the empowered woman is inherently linked with the
production of popular culture?- think about how and why you are aware of it?
Who are these empowered women?
Closing:
 Do you have any further thoughts on any area?
 Can you tell me if this is what you expected? Why/why not?
 Did anything new come to light that you perhaps hadn’t considered before of think
differently about now?

B. 1
Appendix ‘B’ - Final Draft of Question Guide.
 I am seeking your thoughts and opinions and there is no right or wrong answers.
 You are welcome to bring in examples, whether personal or otherwise.
 One at a time could you all please state your name and tell me, when you were
younger, were there female family members who you admired, or perhaps didn’t
and why- I go first.
Intro Qs:
 How do you feel you interact with the world at large? – what are your
connections? How do you find out your information? –online- news papers
 What elements of popular culture do you think people interact with most?-
advertising(magazines, online, billboards, radio) – Online (twitter, facebook,
etc.) –Shopping (what kind of shops do people go to mostly?-high street, centres,
locals)
 How often do you interact with these elements of popular culture?- daily, hourly,
weekly..?
 Can you try and define the term ‘popular culture’?
Transition Qs:
 What do you feel your own role/or that of people around you is within popular
culture? (passive, consumer, etc)
 What elements of your identity are important in forming your relationship with
pop culture? - Age, class, ethnicity, looks, gender?
 Have you ever thought, or had to categorise, your ethnicity? - how would you?

B. 2
 Do you feel class differences are obvious in your life? – how would you identify
yourself within this system?
 Give example of perhaps Kim Kardashian in pop culture, why does she command
such attention?
Key Questions:
 So it might be said that gender is a key part of the interaction with pop culture? –
advertising space, shopping, how a photo is taken, pressure, role models
 What, in pop culture, in being a woman?- Our roles, what is expected, consumer?
Importance of looks
 Is this then what the notion of the ‘empowered woman’ is or how do you perceive
it?
 We talked of Kim K earlier, does she embody this ‘empowered woman’ notion?
–why? Why not? (rich, has a man, pretty, good body, has a baby, famous)
o If she isn’t who is? Brittany, beyonce, oprah, Jennifer lawrance,
Angelina Jolie etc.
 Do you think the idea of the empowered woman is inherently linked with the
production of popular culture?- think about how and why you are aware of it?
Who are these empowered women?
Closing:
 Can you tell me what you understand by the term feminism? -equality
 Are you aware, or have an understanding of the notion of post-feminism?
 Post-feminism is said to have come in to being in the 1990’s (Spice Girls) - often
described as a backlash against feminism – empowered woman etc.

B. 3
There is dispute over post-feminism, whether feminism is in fact over with or not.
–has it fulfilled its goal of equality.
 Do you feel feminism is over? – why?/ why not?
 Do you have any further thoughts on any area?
 Can you tell me if this is what you expected? Why/why not?
 Did anything new come to light that you perhaps hadn’t considered before of think
differently about now?

C. 1
Appendix ‘C’ - College Ethics Form

D. 1
Appendix ‘D’ - Participant Ethics Form.
Dear Participant,
I am a final year English, Media and Cultural Studies student at the Dun Laoghaire
Institute of Art Design and Technology (IADT). I require, for the purpose of my research,
the application of a focus group, to commence on __________. I am looking for willing
participants to take part in this study.
The aim of this focus group will be to discuss young women in Ireland today. It will have
4 members and will explore various areas relevant to my project. The session should last
between forty-five minutes to one hour.
You will be asked to give your permission for the interview to be audio recorded. These
recording will be typed up on a computer. However, all information collected will be
completely anonymous and confidential. The records from the interview will only be seen
in full by me the researcher. Short quotes may be extracted and copied into the final
report, but no person will be identified as being the origin of the quote.
Please note; your participation in the study is completely voluntary, you do not have to
answer any question you do not wish to and you may leave at any time. If for any reason
you wish to withdraw from the study your contributions will be immediately withdrawn.
You are free to ask the researcher any questions pertinent to the study prior to, during, or
after the focus group session.
Your consent
I have received an explanation of the study and agree to participate. I understand that my
participation in this study is completely voluntary
______________________ _______________________ _____________
Name-Print Name-Signature Date
I agree for the focus group to be recorded
_______________________ ________________________ ______________
Name-Print Name-Signature Date

E. 1
Appendix ‘E’ – Notation System
Please note that within the focus group transcripts non-verbal utterances and colloquial
terms have been spelled phonetically. Punctuation has also been excluded as to avoid
misinterpretation of participants intended meanings.
Notation Feature
Gen General Reaction
. . . Some Words Missing
(. . .) Long Pause
(.) Short Pause
(/) Section Missing
? Unknown Speaker
((In Overlap)) Speech Overlaps
((Laughs)) Individual Laughs
((General Laughter)) All Laugh

F. 1
Appendix ‘F’ - Focus group ‘A’ transcript
Int: Ok so I first have to just tell you that what you say are your own thoughts and
opinions and that there are like no wrong or right answers basically and you are
welcome to bring in examples or if you don’t want to talk about yourself you can
talk about family friends (.) eh people in general kind of thing (.) So firstly I want
everyone just to say their name and then like pick if you can think of like a female
family member whom either you admire and why or like really don’t admire and
why and I’ll go first I have an aunt and em when I was younger I actually just
hated her so much she is like the embodiment of like the house wife she just used
to drive me insane all her dinners were perfect and you know she used to make
the children sit at the children’s table (.) I don’t like that
((General laughter))
Int: Anyways (.) who would like to start (. . .)
Mary: em Mary em I think my mom (. . .)
Int: Of course
Mary: Yup and eh (. . .)
Int: Well do you admire or
Mary: ((in overlap)) oh yeah yeah I admire my mother (.) she’s eh very smart yeah but
not in a annoying way (.) you know like not one of those annoyingly smart people
(/)

F. 2
Sal: Sal (.) my auntie I absolutely love her she’s my favourite person in the world
((laughs)) she’s so good to me and all my other cousins and coz she has no kids
of her own so she’s (.) like a big mother to us all and just I dunno…
Int: Great (.) well would you girls like to go?
Mia: Eh yeah I’ll go (. . .) Mia and my mum coz like she does everything for us and
like never complains
Mary: ((in overlap)) ‘She does everything for you’
Mary: Well not like dat but you know like do lots of stuff for us and she’d never like
complain and like well you know (. . .) not like in a slavery way or nothing
Grace: Em Grace and my sister because she’s just always there for me always has my
back and just always knows to tell me right from wrong
Int: You guys are all so nice and positive (.) I swear I love my mummy too
((General Laughter))
(/)
Int: … How do you connect with the outside world (.) get your news stuff like that
Mary: Like Facebook and stuff
Int: Yeah ‘Like Facebook and’
Mary: ((In overlap)) Like media
Int: Well yeah

F. 3
Mary: Yup media ((laughs)) (.) eh I dunno
Int: Ok so on Facebook what do you get from it
Mary: Well I guess celebrity news that’s all Facebook
Sal: Yeah and apps and stuff
Mary: Yeah I use apps for news like news in general like like world news or (.)
Int: Yeah sure
Mary: Well BBC app
Grace: Yeah I’ve the BBC app
(/)
Int: So is it mainly Facebook?
Grace: Yeah and the radio (. . .) and the six o’clock news
Int: So are you always in the car for the six o’clock news
Grace: Na I just watch it on the telly coz my dad will always have it on
Int: So are there any other elements of popular culture you interact with regularly
Mary: Well Twitter
Sal: Yeah Instagram and like Snapchat now
Mary: Whatsapp Viber
Sal: ((In overlap)) Snapchat’s actually really good for lots of news like it has the
stories
Grace: ((In overlap)) yeah you find lots of things going on like the the the

F. 4
Mary: ((In overlap)) oh yeah that’s true
Grace: Yeah they had that art festival on and they had
Sal: ((In overlap)) and the World Cup
Grace: Yeah yeah the World Cup
Sal: And that music awards that were on last week
Grace: Oh yeah (.) what was that
Mary: I dunno was it the MA’s
Sal: Yeah
Mary: Very informative Snapchat
Int: So they are all elements of pop culture so then how often do you interact with
them(.) I mean would it be hourly you check Facebook and stuff or (.)
Mary: Oh God (.) yeah
Grace: Yeah it would be hourly anyways
Int: When you wake up in the morning would you check it
Mary: Oh yeah
Sal: ((In overlap)) yeah
Mia: ((In overlap)) mmm

F. 5
Grace: ((In overlap)) no (. . .) but just coz I get up so early for college and I’m in too
much of a hurry
(/)
Int: So would you guys read newspapers at all
Mia: Mmm I would if it was at home (. . .)
Int: So you wouldn’t actively seek one
Sal: Na but you might if you were bored and there was one lying around
Int: So Facebook and stuff is sufficient for you to get your news from
Gen: Yeah
Mary: Yeah I’d never go out and buy a newspaper
Int: Mmm so we are talking about popular culture, how would you guys understand
the term popular culture and could you like define it?
Mary: Like media we use and like (. . .)
Grace: And popular culture like going out at the weekends or something
Int: Yeah they are all elements of popular culture
Grace: Ok then yeah internet is deffo popular culture
Mia: ((Inaudible))
Mary: A lot of stuff is popular culture (.) like music is popular culture oh and like fashion
I spose you could say eh like sport

F. 6
?: ((In overlap)) G.A.A
Mary: Yeah there is so much you could bring in (. . .) there’s a lot isn’t there (. . .) that’s
very broad now
(/)
Int: Then what do you guys feel your role within popular culture is
Mary: eh(.)
Int: Well do you contribute to it are you just completely submissive (.)
Grace: Yeah I just kinda sit back and like let it happen
Mary: Yeah I’m like aware of it but (…)
Int: you’re ‘aware of it’
Mary: Yeah like you don’t actually stop and think about it like (.) you don’t (. . .)
Int: Well therefore would you say you are active it it but in a passive sort of way
Mary: Yeah yeah yeah coz I definitely (.) like I check Facebook wake up and the first
thing I do is check my phone
Int: So you’re consuming it I guess
Mary: Yeah consuming it but you don’t realise it like you never think about it you never
stop and think about it like we would never sit around just like ‘oh how do you’
like you just wouldn’t
Gen: ((In overlap)) mmm
Mary: Like yeah you just wouldn’t ((laughs))

F. 7
Int: So if we are talking about popular culture and the media and stuff like what parts
of your identity do you feel are important in your interaction with them does that
make sense
?: Em
Int: So say advertising is a big part of it and like what part of you dictates with how
you interact with it
Grace: What I agree with and what I don’t agree with is that an answer
Int: Sure ((laughs))
Mary: Well you obviously choose what you interact with no one forces you to sign up
or anything
Sal: But people put so much stuff up like even if you don’t want to talk about it it’s
there
(/)
Int: So then is age a thing
Mary: Oh yeah definitely
Gen: Mmm
Int: is the media therefore playing of your age
Mary: Oh yeah definitely coz you wouldn’t see like ads for like walker things on
Facebook coz that would be stupid
((General Laughter))

F. 8
Mary: Well you wouldn’t like coz who would be buying them you see ads for Boohoo
or whatever yeah and they know who they are aiming for it is all like it would be
mainly younger people (. . .)
Int: So is there anything else than about yourself like those kind of elements (. . .)
Mia: Your friends (. . .)
Int: Yeah yeah how so
Mia: Em (. . .)
Int: Well yeah they would obviously be a big thing as you see what they share and
where they go and what they wear and stuff
Mia: Yeah it comes up in your newsfeed and stuff
Int: If we are saying age friends (.) what other elements is there then
Mary: I don’t like what
Int: As in what elements of your identity so if we are talking about Facebook you
know those Facebook ads that come up come up judging on what you have liked
and what you have searched and what info you have given to Facebook like your
age sex country of origin etc etc etc (.) that’s basically funnelling what you see (.)
(/)
Int: Is gender a big factor?
Sal: Yeah it would be like coz boys aren’t gonna have like Newlook and stuff coming
up
Mary: Yeah ((laughs))

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