Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
1991, Vol. 59, No. 6,799-812
Copyright 1991 by the American Psychological Association. Inc.
0022-006X/91/S3.00
Cultural Diversity and Treatment of Children
Roland G. Tharp
University of California, Santa Cruz
The increasing cultural diversity of child clients has produced a cascade of new issues and concerns
for psychological practice, theory, and research. Available evidence and pertinent theory are re-
viewed on such topics as the predictive utility and treatment consequences of ethnic membership,
whether treatments should be generic or specific to cultural groups, the degree of privilege that
should be accorded to same-culture therapists, and the relative desirability of different modalities
of treatment for children of different cultural groups. The concept of cultural compatibility of
treatment is explored and evaluated. A broad agenda of hypotheses for research and development is
suggested, and some guidelines for clinical practice and policy are proposed. It is concluded that
insofar as possible, treatment for all children should be contextualized in their family's and commu-
nity's structure of meanings, relationships, and language.
The culturally diverse society that our nation has become
provides a challenge to our politics, our schools, our science,
and our profession. As reiterated by concerned commissions,
agencies, professional organizations, and review articles in-
cluding the current Guidelines for Providers of Psychological
Services to Ethnic andCulturatty Diverse Populations (American
Psychological Association, 1990), we are instructed that "Psy-
chologists should recognize ethnicity and culture as significant
parameters in understanding psychological processes" (p. 4)
before delivering services. What will be necessary to satisfy this
new imperative? Self-examination? New specialized training?
Anthropological indoctrination, religious and spiritual relativ-
ism, multilingualism, "politically correct" thought? And most
to the point, what are the required practical clinical actions? In
discussing these questions, Pedersen and Marsella (1982) con-
clude that to know all and do all that a psychologist should is a
goal that accelerates beyond us.
The task is to bring some order out of this cascade of new
issues and concerns, in the light of available research evidence
and pertinent theory. I will suggest here that some broad out-
lines for strategy are emerging, with enough clarity at least to
pose an agenda of hypotheses for research and development,
and possibly even to provide an initial set of guidelines for
clinical practice and policy. These strategies can be stated
clearly enough to allow them to be tested by both formal evalua-
tion and clinical experience.
Not to overpromise, it should be said that research on cul-
tural issues in clinical treatment is scant, particularly research
addressing such issues with children. We must rely on evidence
from other age grou ...
TRAVAILS OF MOTHER WITH TERMINALLY ILL CHILD: A MULTIPLE CASE STUDYAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: This qualitative multiple case study explored the experiences of five mothers with a terminally
ill child and their coping strategies while in the hospital for an extended period. The findings revealed that upon
their child’s illness, the mother’s world seemed to crumble, causing them to shower their children with love and
seek Divine intervention while trying to be strong for their child. The participants stressed the importance of
seeking refuge in the lord, seeking help from government agencies, and remaining positive and hopeful. The
study’s implication suggest that it could serve as a model for medical social workers handling challenging cases
and parents of terminally ill children who persevere through difficulties over several years. This study
contributes to the literature on social work and the struggles faced by mothers with terminally ill children
globally.
KEYWORDS: Social work, travails, mother w/ terminally ill child, multi-case study, Philippines
AbstrActOne of the biggest challenges in nursing educati.docxransayo
AbstrAct
One of the biggest challenges in
nursing education is to develop cul-
turally sensitive graduates. Although
theory and lecture are appropriate to
introduce cultural issues, the applica-
tion of those skills is limited by the
kinds of clinical experiences and pa-
tient populations students may treat.
Literary works are a rich source of
information for nursing. This assign-
ment was created to sensitize the
students to the influence of cultural
diversity. Students were assigned to
read one novel from an approved list
and answer the questions posed on
the Cultural Discovery worksheet.
The only direction that was given re-
garding novel selection was that the
novel had to represent a culture other
than the student’s own. The focus
was to expose students to a different
culture. Classroom discussion, based
on worksheet answers, followed. The
assignment’s good, bad, and ugly out-
comes are discussed. Suggestions for
adaptation of this assignment to an
online format are also provided.
T
he United States is home to
one of the most ethnically and
culturally heterogeneous popu-
lations in the world. There are more
than 150 ethnic groups (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2006) and 430 recognized
tribes of Native Americans in the
United States (Redish & Lewis, 2007),
all with their own diverse practices
and beliefs. Culture and ethnicity of-
ten determine the clients’ perception
of health and illness. This includes
kinds of acceptable treatment, type
of follow up permitted, and who will
make health care decisions. As a cul-
ture defines health and illness, it also
defines health care and treatment
practices. Cultural values determine,
in part, how patients will behave.
The provision of culturally compe-
tent care is a dynamic process that
requires individuals to be aware of
their own values and beliefs, as well
as understand how these affect their
responses to those from cultures dif-
ferent from their own. Leininger
(1991) defined culture as the learned,
shared, and transmitted values, be-
liefs, norms, and life practices of a
particular group that guide their
thinking, decisions, and actions in
patterned ways. Cultural competence
includes the attributes of caring, re-
spect, adaptation, honesty, appropri-
ate body language, and interest and
the ability to develop working rela-
tionships across lines of difference
(Galanti, 2004). This encompasses
self-awareness, cultural knowledge
about illness and health practices, in-
tercultural communication skills, and
behavioral flexibility (Strivastava,
2006). Even the concept of transcul-
tural nursing is relatively new in the
nursing literature. In fact, only in the
past 3 decades have nurses begun to
develop an appreciation for the need
to incorporate culturally appropriate
clinical approaches into the daily rou-
tine of client care (Giger & Davidhi-
zar, 1999). Educators strive to develop
students into sensitive practitioners,
and they are challenged .
Assignment Instructions Week 2During weeks 1 and 2 you have ex.docxrock73
Assignment Instructions
Week 2
During weeks 1 and 2 you have explored how parenting expectations, experiences and styles are influenced by many factors. The learning resources suggest several ways to provide parenting information and related family supports. For Assignment 1 due Week 2 you will use this information to create an enticing flyer for a parenting class that is designed to help prepare new parents. Your flyer should include:
1. The purpose of the parenting class – including why it is important
2. At least 5 distinct topics that will be addressed in the class noting why each is important. Be sure to cite resources to back this up.
3. Be creative – how would you entice parents or parents to be to come?
Flyer length minimum 500 words, 2 academic references used, MS word or RTF format only.
Possible grade
Student grade
The paper addresses the issues specified by the assignment - 5 parenting topics described.
20
The author shows insight and sophistication in thinking and writing
30
Two academic references were used with corresponding citations in the body of the paper
20
Paper was well organized and easy to follow. Paper was the required length. Cover page, paper body, citations and Reference list were in the American Psychological Association format.
20
Few to no spelling, grammar, punctuation or other writing structure errors
10
TOTAL
100
HELPFUL CLASS REQUIRED READING
https://edge.apus.edu/access/content/group/education-common/Universal/CHFD/331/elf/lesson-1/elf_index.html
https://edge.apus.edu/access/content/group/education-common/Universal/CHFD/331/elf/lesson-2/elf_index.html
READING 2.pdf
PARENTING: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE, 12: 212–221, 2012
ISSN: 1529-5192 print / 1532-7922 online
DOI: 10.1080/15295192.2012.683359
Cultural Approaches to Parenting
Marc H. Bornstein
SYNOPSIS
This article first introduces some main ideas behind culture and parenting and next addresses
philosophical rationales and methodological considerations central to cultural approaches to
parenting, including a brief account of a cross-cultural study of parenting. It then focuses
on universals, specifics, and distinctions between form (behavior) and function (meaning)
in parenting as embedded in culture. The article concludes by pointing to social policy
implications as well as future directions prompted by a cultural approach to parenting.
INTRODUCTION
Every culture is characterized, and distinguished from other cultures, by deeply rooted
and widely acknowledged ideas about how one needs to feel, think, and act as a
functioning member of the culture. Cross-cultural study affirms that groups of people
possess different beliefs and engage in different behaviors that may be normative in
their culture but are not necessarily normative in another culture. Cultural groups thus
embody particular characteristics that are deemed essential or advantageous to their
members. These beliefs and behaviors tend to persist over time and constitute the val- ...
Issues in Multicultural Correctional Assessment and Treatment By.docxchristiandean12115
Issues in Multicultural Correctional Assessment and Treatment
By Corinne N. Ortega
Introduction Increasing diversity in the United States has widened the base populations to whom psychologists provide services. Various divisions of the American Psychological Association (APA) have recognized the importance of multicultural competencies for more than 25 years (notably, Division 17—Counseling Psychology and Division 45—The Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic Minority Issues). In 2002, APA formally recognized the evolution of the science and practice of psychology in a diverse society by adopting as policy the Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychologists (APA, 2002b). Nowhere is the changing face of the United States reflected more clearly than in its correctional systems. Blacks and Hispanics make up 62% of the incarcerated population, although they comprise only 25% of the national population (Human Rights Watch, 2002). Hispanics represent 40% of all sentenced federal offenders, although they account for only 13% of the total U.S. population (López, 2000). According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics (2007), the lifetime chance of a person going to prison is higher for Blacks (18.6%) and Hispanics (10%) than for Whites (3.4%). Furthermore, Blacks represent approximately 40% of the death row population in the United States (Amnesty International, 2003). The sociopolitical and socioeconomic explanations for this phenomenon are complex and far beyond the scope of this chapter. It is clear, however, that given the disproportionate confinement of minorities in the United States, any meaningful discussion of correctional mental health must necessarily include a discussion of multicultural issues. This chapter will first focus on a general overview of multicultural counseling and its applications in correctional settings. Second, the use of psychological tests and assessments with multicultural correctional populations will be explored with an emphasis on forensic evaluations. Finally, the issue of cultural competence with religious minorities and religious extremists will be addressed.
Multicultural Counseling Jackson (1995) succinctly defines multicultural counseling as counseling that takes place between or among individuals from different cultural backgrounds. Although a simple enough definition, the implications of this in the mental health field are far-reaching. The increased racial, ethnic, and cultural diversity in the United States creates a demand for professional services, including mental health, that meet the needs of people from a wide variety of backgrounds (Barrett & George, 2005). The issues involved in providing culturally competent services are as complex and varied as clients themselves (Sue & Sue, 2007). Cookbook approaches to multicultural counseling cannot be utilized without contradicting the very concept. López (2000) discusses this in terms .
TRAVAILS OF MOTHER WITH TERMINALLY ILL CHILD: A MULTIPLE CASE STUDYAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: This qualitative multiple case study explored the experiences of five mothers with a terminally
ill child and their coping strategies while in the hospital for an extended period. The findings revealed that upon
their child’s illness, the mother’s world seemed to crumble, causing them to shower their children with love and
seek Divine intervention while trying to be strong for their child. The participants stressed the importance of
seeking refuge in the lord, seeking help from government agencies, and remaining positive and hopeful. The
study’s implication suggest that it could serve as a model for medical social workers handling challenging cases
and parents of terminally ill children who persevere through difficulties over several years. This study
contributes to the literature on social work and the struggles faced by mothers with terminally ill children
globally.
KEYWORDS: Social work, travails, mother w/ terminally ill child, multi-case study, Philippines
AbstrActOne of the biggest challenges in nursing educati.docxransayo
AbstrAct
One of the biggest challenges in
nursing education is to develop cul-
turally sensitive graduates. Although
theory and lecture are appropriate to
introduce cultural issues, the applica-
tion of those skills is limited by the
kinds of clinical experiences and pa-
tient populations students may treat.
Literary works are a rich source of
information for nursing. This assign-
ment was created to sensitize the
students to the influence of cultural
diversity. Students were assigned to
read one novel from an approved list
and answer the questions posed on
the Cultural Discovery worksheet.
The only direction that was given re-
garding novel selection was that the
novel had to represent a culture other
than the student’s own. The focus
was to expose students to a different
culture. Classroom discussion, based
on worksheet answers, followed. The
assignment’s good, bad, and ugly out-
comes are discussed. Suggestions for
adaptation of this assignment to an
online format are also provided.
T
he United States is home to
one of the most ethnically and
culturally heterogeneous popu-
lations in the world. There are more
than 150 ethnic groups (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2006) and 430 recognized
tribes of Native Americans in the
United States (Redish & Lewis, 2007),
all with their own diverse practices
and beliefs. Culture and ethnicity of-
ten determine the clients’ perception
of health and illness. This includes
kinds of acceptable treatment, type
of follow up permitted, and who will
make health care decisions. As a cul-
ture defines health and illness, it also
defines health care and treatment
practices. Cultural values determine,
in part, how patients will behave.
The provision of culturally compe-
tent care is a dynamic process that
requires individuals to be aware of
their own values and beliefs, as well
as understand how these affect their
responses to those from cultures dif-
ferent from their own. Leininger
(1991) defined culture as the learned,
shared, and transmitted values, be-
liefs, norms, and life practices of a
particular group that guide their
thinking, decisions, and actions in
patterned ways. Cultural competence
includes the attributes of caring, re-
spect, adaptation, honesty, appropri-
ate body language, and interest and
the ability to develop working rela-
tionships across lines of difference
(Galanti, 2004). This encompasses
self-awareness, cultural knowledge
about illness and health practices, in-
tercultural communication skills, and
behavioral flexibility (Strivastava,
2006). Even the concept of transcul-
tural nursing is relatively new in the
nursing literature. In fact, only in the
past 3 decades have nurses begun to
develop an appreciation for the need
to incorporate culturally appropriate
clinical approaches into the daily rou-
tine of client care (Giger & Davidhi-
zar, 1999). Educators strive to develop
students into sensitive practitioners,
and they are challenged .
Assignment Instructions Week 2During weeks 1 and 2 you have ex.docxrock73
Assignment Instructions
Week 2
During weeks 1 and 2 you have explored how parenting expectations, experiences and styles are influenced by many factors. The learning resources suggest several ways to provide parenting information and related family supports. For Assignment 1 due Week 2 you will use this information to create an enticing flyer for a parenting class that is designed to help prepare new parents. Your flyer should include:
1. The purpose of the parenting class – including why it is important
2. At least 5 distinct topics that will be addressed in the class noting why each is important. Be sure to cite resources to back this up.
3. Be creative – how would you entice parents or parents to be to come?
Flyer length minimum 500 words, 2 academic references used, MS word or RTF format only.
Possible grade
Student grade
The paper addresses the issues specified by the assignment - 5 parenting topics described.
20
The author shows insight and sophistication in thinking and writing
30
Two academic references were used with corresponding citations in the body of the paper
20
Paper was well organized and easy to follow. Paper was the required length. Cover page, paper body, citations and Reference list were in the American Psychological Association format.
20
Few to no spelling, grammar, punctuation or other writing structure errors
10
TOTAL
100
HELPFUL CLASS REQUIRED READING
https://edge.apus.edu/access/content/group/education-common/Universal/CHFD/331/elf/lesson-1/elf_index.html
https://edge.apus.edu/access/content/group/education-common/Universal/CHFD/331/elf/lesson-2/elf_index.html
READING 2.pdf
PARENTING: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE, 12: 212–221, 2012
ISSN: 1529-5192 print / 1532-7922 online
DOI: 10.1080/15295192.2012.683359
Cultural Approaches to Parenting
Marc H. Bornstein
SYNOPSIS
This article first introduces some main ideas behind culture and parenting and next addresses
philosophical rationales and methodological considerations central to cultural approaches to
parenting, including a brief account of a cross-cultural study of parenting. It then focuses
on universals, specifics, and distinctions between form (behavior) and function (meaning)
in parenting as embedded in culture. The article concludes by pointing to social policy
implications as well as future directions prompted by a cultural approach to parenting.
INTRODUCTION
Every culture is characterized, and distinguished from other cultures, by deeply rooted
and widely acknowledged ideas about how one needs to feel, think, and act as a
functioning member of the culture. Cross-cultural study affirms that groups of people
possess different beliefs and engage in different behaviors that may be normative in
their culture but are not necessarily normative in another culture. Cultural groups thus
embody particular characteristics that are deemed essential or advantageous to their
members. These beliefs and behaviors tend to persist over time and constitute the val- ...
Issues in Multicultural Correctional Assessment and Treatment By.docxchristiandean12115
Issues in Multicultural Correctional Assessment and Treatment
By Corinne N. Ortega
Introduction Increasing diversity in the United States has widened the base populations to whom psychologists provide services. Various divisions of the American Psychological Association (APA) have recognized the importance of multicultural competencies for more than 25 years (notably, Division 17—Counseling Psychology and Division 45—The Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic Minority Issues). In 2002, APA formally recognized the evolution of the science and practice of psychology in a diverse society by adopting as policy the Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychologists (APA, 2002b). Nowhere is the changing face of the United States reflected more clearly than in its correctional systems. Blacks and Hispanics make up 62% of the incarcerated population, although they comprise only 25% of the national population (Human Rights Watch, 2002). Hispanics represent 40% of all sentenced federal offenders, although they account for only 13% of the total U.S. population (López, 2000). According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics (2007), the lifetime chance of a person going to prison is higher for Blacks (18.6%) and Hispanics (10%) than for Whites (3.4%). Furthermore, Blacks represent approximately 40% of the death row population in the United States (Amnesty International, 2003). The sociopolitical and socioeconomic explanations for this phenomenon are complex and far beyond the scope of this chapter. It is clear, however, that given the disproportionate confinement of minorities in the United States, any meaningful discussion of correctional mental health must necessarily include a discussion of multicultural issues. This chapter will first focus on a general overview of multicultural counseling and its applications in correctional settings. Second, the use of psychological tests and assessments with multicultural correctional populations will be explored with an emphasis on forensic evaluations. Finally, the issue of cultural competence with religious minorities and religious extremists will be addressed.
Multicultural Counseling Jackson (1995) succinctly defines multicultural counseling as counseling that takes place between or among individuals from different cultural backgrounds. Although a simple enough definition, the implications of this in the mental health field are far-reaching. The increased racial, ethnic, and cultural diversity in the United States creates a demand for professional services, including mental health, that meet the needs of people from a wide variety of backgrounds (Barrett & George, 2005). The issues involved in providing culturally competent services are as complex and varied as clients themselves (Sue & Sue, 2007). Cookbook approaches to multicultural counseling cannot be utilized without contradicting the very concept. López (2000) discusses this in terms .
AUTHORGerald V. Mohatt Joseph Trimble Ryan A. DicksonTITLE.docxrock73
AUTHOR: Gerald V. Mohatt Joseph Trimble Ryan A. Dickson
TITLE: Psychosocial Foundations of Academic Performance in Culture-Based Education Programs for American Indian and Alaska Native Youth: Reflections on a Multidisciplinary Perspective
SOURCE: Journal of American Indian Education 45 no3 Special Issue 38-59 2006
COPYRIGHT: The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and it is reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of this article in violation of the copyright is prohibited. To contact the publisher: http://coe.asu.edu/cie/
Since the Oglalas settled at Pine Ridge, it has been the contention of many policy makers that education is the panacea for the socio-economic ills besetting the society and the means for bringing Indians into the mainstream of American life. Education has been available to the Oglalas for 89 years and the problems remain almost as unresolved as they were that day in 1879 when Red Cloud helped to lay the cornerstone for the first school. For this (and other reasons), the educational system has often become the scapegoat among those impatient for greater progress. Blame has been placed on the schools for many of the social evils, personality disorders and general cultural malaise. But is it fair to expect the schools to counteract all of the negative aspects of the total socio-economic milieu? Is it realistic to expect the educational system alone to achieve a better life for the Oglalas when the environment offers few alternative economic goals and little opportunity to control one's destiny, when many children come from poverty-stricken and unstable family situations? True, the schools have failed in some respects, but the blame is not entirely theirs (Maynard & Twiss, 1970, p. 94).
Can we say the same thing today that was said by Maynard and Twiss and others 34 years ago? What accounts for American Indian/Alaska Native children dropping out at higher rates and having significantly lower academic performances than Euro-Americans? Is lower academic achievement due primarily to schooling or to community and familial factors? Are we following a path towards academic improvement for indigenous children? In this article, we argue that variables outside of the school environment and in-school variables must be carefully and concurrently considered in order to understand and improve the school performance and achievement of American Indian/Alaska Native children. Furthermore, for a culture-based education approach (CBE) to succeed it must chart a course toward a set of ideals and principles that are consistent with the dynamic nature of the lifeways and thoughtways of tribal or village cultures.
Culture-Based Educational Approach
The guiding assumption of CBE is that a discontinuity between home and school environments serves to confuse and alienate indigenous children, fostering a sense of inadequacy and lack of self-efficacy. Factors implicated in this discontinuity include value dif ...
8Some Implications for Research and Practice[C]ultural meanings,.docxsleeperharwell
8
Some Implications for Research and Practice
[C]ultural meanings, practices, norms, and social institutions … constitute the matrix in which are embedded the intentions, rules, practices, and activities through which people live their lives (Fiske, Kitayama, Markus & Nisbett, 1998, p. 917).
What goals or objectives must our profession and society adopt to become truly multicultural in vision, values, and practice? (Sue, Bingham, Porche-Burke & Vasquez, 1999, p. 1067).
This final chapter is the most difficult one to write. The quotations above suggest the complexity of understanding individual behavior within a cultural matrix. With the broad definition of culture proposed in this book, applicable to all significant groups that meet the criteria, complexity increases. To take seriously the multicultural nature of persons is to raise theoretical and empirical questions that are very difficult to answer. As a science and profession, we are not accustomed to thinking routinely and easily of individuals in this way. Our discipline will be enriched, however, if we can design creative new research strategies to address these questions.
The implications for practice may be least problematic because, whether in counseling, therapy, or education, theoretical emphasis has long been on taking into account “the whole person.” And in these areas, there is typically one-on-one interaction between persons – between client and mental health worker, or between student and teacher. An individual’s unique social identities or cultural memberships will be evident in behavior – overt or subtle. Whether they are recognized, acknowledged, respected and used positively in the actual practice of counseling, therapy, or education (beyond statements of theory) is a central concern. In research, a multicultural perspective presents a different set of interrelated problems pertaining to sampling, study design, methods, data analysis and interpretation.Research
Each participant or respondent in an investigation brings to it unique experiences and beliefs, perceptions, and response potentials that reflect far greater individual complexity and far more cultural memberships than most researchers are prepared to identify. We agree with Shields (2008, p. 304) that “[t]he facts of our lives reveal that there is no single identity category that satisfactorily describes how we respond to our social environment or are responded to by others.” We also agree with Mann and Kelley (1997, p. 392) that “knowledge is and should be situated in people’s diverse social locations.… [and] grounded in the social biography of … the observed.” Such agreement, however, does not lead easily or directly to researchable empirical questions that can be investigated in a practical way. Multiple issues and problems face the researcher who is accustomed to obtaining demographic descriptions of participants that are usually limited to age, ethnicity, and gender, or to the single-identity or group-members.
22CHAPTER 2 Cultural CompetencyAchieving cultural .docxrobert345678
22
CHAPTER
2 Cultural Competency
Achieving cultural competence is a learning process that
requires self-awareness, reflective practice, and knowl-
edge of core cultural issues. It involves recognizing one’s
own culture, values, and biases and using effective patient-
centered communication skills. A culturally competent
healthcare provider adapts to the unique needs of patients
of backgrounds and cultures that differ from his or her
own. This adaptability, coupled with a genuine curiosity
about a patient’s beliefs and values, lay the foundation for
a trusting patient-provider relationship.
A Definition of Culture
Culture, in its broadest sense, reflects the whole of human
behavior, including ideas and attitudes, ways of relating to
one another, manners of speaking, and the material products
of physical effort, ingenuity, and imagination. Language is
a part of culture. So, too, are the abstract systems of belief,
etiquette, law, morals, entertainment, and education. Within
the cultural whole, different populations may exist in groups
and subgroups. Each group is identified by a particular
body of shared traits (e.g., a particular art, ethos, or belief;
or a particular behavioral pattern) and is rather dynamic
in its evolving accommodations with internal and external
influences. Any individual may belong to more than one
group or subgroup, such as ethnic origin, religion, gender,
sexual orientation, occupation, and profession.
Distinguishing Physical Characteristics
The use of physical characteristics (e.g., gender or skin
color) to distinguish a cultural group or subgroup is inap-
propriate. There is a significant difference between distin-
guishing cultural characteristics and distinguishing physical
characteristics. Do not confuse the physical with the cultural
or allow the physical to symbolize the cultural. To assume
homogeneity in the beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of all
individuals in a particular group leads to misunderstandings
about the individual. The stereotype, a fixed image of any
group that denies the potential of originality or individuality
within the group, must be rejected. People can and do
respond differently to the same stimuli. Stereotyping occurs
through two cognitive phases. In the first phase, a stereotype
becomes activated when an individual is categorized into
a social group. When this occurs, the beliefs and feelings
(prejudices) come to mind about what members of that
particular group are like. Over time, this first phase occurs
without effort or awareness. In the second phase, people
use these activated beliefs and feelings when they interact
with the individual, even when they explicitly deny these
stereotypes. Multiple studies have shown that healthcare
providers activate these implicit stereotypes, or unconscious
biases, when communicating with and providing care to
minority patients (Stone and Moskowitz, 2011). With this
in mind, you can begin learning cult.
Do We Overemphasize the Role of Culture in the Behavior ofRa.docxpetehbailey729071
Do We Overemphasize the Role of Culture in the Behavior of
Racial/Ethnic Minorities? Evidence of a Cultural (Mis)Attribution Bias in
American Psychology
José M. Causadias
Arizona State University
Joseph A. Vitriol
Lehigh University
Annabelle L. Atkin
Arizona State University
Although culture influences all human beings, there is an assumption in American psychol-
ogy that culture matters more for members of certain groups. This article identifies and
provides evidence of the cultural (mis)attribution bias: a tendency to overemphasize the role
of culture in the behavior of racial/ethnic minorities, and to underemphasize it in the behavior of
Whites. Two studies investigated the presence of this bias with an examination of a decade of
peer reviewed research conducted in the United States (N � 434 articles), and an experiment
and a survey with psychology professors in the United States (N � 361 psychologists).
Archival analyses revealed differences in the composition of samples used in studies exam-
ining cultural or noncultural psychological phenomena. We also find evidence to suggest that
psychologists in the United States favor cultural explanations over psychological explana-
tions when considering the behavior and cognition of racial/ethnic minorities, whereas the
opposite pattern emerged in reference to Whites. The scientific ramifications of this phe-
nomenon, as well as alternatives to overcome it, are discussed in detail.
Keywords: bias, culture, ethnicity, race, cultural (mis)attribution bias
Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000099.supp
The crucial role of culture in shaping human behavior and
cognition has received increased attention in the last decade
(A. B. Cohen, 2009; Kitayama & Uskul, 2011). However,
despite widespread agreement about the psychological sig-
nificance of culture, several authors have argued that Amer-
ican psychology1 frequently associates culture with racial/
ethnic minorities more than Whites (Betancourt & López,
1993). This claim, to our knowledge, has yet to be tested
through an examination of the research literature or an
assessment of the opinion and assumptions of research
psychologists. In this article, we provide evidence of a
cultural (mis)attribution bias in American psychology: the
tendency to see racial/ethnic minorities as members of a
group whose traits, beliefs, and behaviors are shaped pri-
marily by culture, and to perceive the White racial/ethnic
majority as autonomous and independent actors who are
instead largely influenced by psychological processes. Be-
cause this bias rests on assumptions about human behavior
that are not supported by evidence and may lead to differ-
ential treatment of members of specific social groups, it
constrains psychologists’ explanations of behavior and cog-
nition. In two studies, we investigated the presence of this
bias in psychological research in the United States using
archival, experimental, and correlational methods.
1 By Amer.
Data Collection and the Topic of Your InterestData collection pr.docxsimonithomas47935
Data Collection and the Topic of Your Interest
Data collection procedures must walk the reader through the process of collecting research data, starting with permission information and concluding with procedures to maintain confidentiality of information and participants. This is a standard section of chapter 3 in dissertation research studies.
In this assignment, you will gain an understanding of how to implement data collection procedures for a dissertation.
Tasks:
In about 750 words, prepare a report, including the following:
· A detailed description of data collection procedures you intend to implement for the chosen topic of your interest and qualitative methodology (case study, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, or narrative approaches).
· A rationale related to ethical issues that have been covered in this module (for example, confidentiality, anonymity, and respect for persons).
· An informed consent document related to the topic of your interest and methodology will accompany the data collection procedures and will be referenced as Appendix A.
Note that your submission should follow AUO academic writing guidelines and APA rules for academic writing and referencing.
Submission Details:
In early infancy emotional expressions are automatic and not
yet subject to voluntary control. As children develop and
mature, they begin to regulate emotional displays in order to
meet personal goals and to meet the demands and expectations
of their culture. Culturally prescribed social conventions
dictate how, where, when, and to whom specific emotions are
expressed. These norms, otherwise known as display rules, are
learned culture-specific rules that convey what is socially
appropriate or desirable in certain social contexts and underlie
the management and regulation of emotional expression
(Ekman & Friesen, 1975).
The use of display rules in young North American children
has been investigated largely through the administration of a
procedure known as the disappointment gift paradigm (Cole,
1986; Cole, Zahn-Waxler, & Smith, 1994; Saarni, 1984,
1992). In this procedure, children are presented with an unde-
sirable gift in the presence of an audience figure, and their
emotional responses are recorded. This paradigm takes advan-
tage of the commonly understood North American practice of
smiling upon receiving a gift even though covertly one may not
like the gift (Goffman, 1967).
Existing research with North American children has gener-
ally focused on examining the role of age and gender in
children’s emotional reactions to a disappointing gift situation.
In addition to age and gender, culture is likely another source
of variation in children’s emotionally expressive behaviors. Yet
the role of cultural beliefs and norms in guiding expressive
behaviors has been largely overlooked in investigations of
children’s emotional development (Parke, 1994; Rubin, 1998;
Saarni, 1998, 1999). In the present study, the role of age,
gender, and cultur.
Mini ResearchHow parents deal with the education.pdf 1.docxannandleola
Mini Research/How parents deal with the education.pdf
1
The University of Western Australia
Graduate School of Education
PhD Research Proposal
Student Name: Jasmine McDonald Student Number:
Supervisors: Professor Keith Punch & Associate Professor Anne Chapman
A. PROPOSED STUDY
(i) Project Title
How parents deal with the education of their child with an Autism Spectrum Disorder:
a constructivist grounded theory study.
(ii) The Research Aim
The aim of this study is to develop substantive theory about how parents deal with
the education of their child diagnosed with an Autism Spectrum Disorder. A series
of in-depth case studies, conceptualised within the social theory of symbolic
interaction, will use both autoethnographic and constructivist grounded theory
methods to generate thick description and explanation.
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (4th TR ed.) of the American
Psychiatric Association (2000), Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) or Pervasive
Developmental Disorders (PDD) are “characterized by severe and pervasive
impairment in several areas of development: reciprocal social interaction skills,
communication skills, or the presence of stereotyped behaviour, interests, and
activities” (p.69). ASD’s are lifelong disorders which have no identified aetiology or
cure (Frith, 2003). There are five complex, often severe, neurological disorders under
the PDD category where manifestations vary greatly depending upon the
developmental level and chronological age of the individual. These are: Autistic
Disorder, Rett’s Disorder, Childhood Disintegrative Disorder, Asperger’s Disorder
and Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (Including Atypical
Autism).
Prevalence rates for all forms of ASD’s have risen dramatically over the last twenty
years from 1 in 10,000 in the 1980’s to 1 in 166 today (Fombonne, 2003; Gillberg,
2004; Kirby, 2005). Such increases have, most often, been attributed to changes in
case definition and an increasing community and professional awareness of the
diagnostic criteria for PDD (Fombonne, 2003) although other theories (Kirby, 2005)
are also now apparent in mainstream discourse. To further complicate matters families
with one affected child have a 45 times greater recurrence risk of siblings also being
affected by an ASD than would occur in the general population (Jamain et.al., 2003).
Along with any ASD diagnosis there is also a 25% greater susceptibility of
comorbidity with another psychiatric disorder and/or medical condition (Gillberg &
Billstedt, 2000). Autism is associated with mental retardation in about 70% of the
cases and is over represented amongst males with a male to female ratio of 4.3:1
(Fombonne, 2003). “Follow up studies suggest only a small percentage of individuals
with the disorder go on as adults to live and work independently. In about one-third
of cases, some degree of partial independence is possible ...
Authors: Dr. Bob Chaudhuri (1), Melissa Crawford, MED-3(1), Gerry V Martin, Anishawbae(2).
Affiliations:
1.Northern Ontario School of Medicine
2.Thunder Bay, Traditional Teacher
· In the methodology you should not say that you are going to look.docxLynellBull52
· In the methodology you should not say that you are going to look for the data, but only identify them, name them and establish how you are going to use them and why.
· In the methodology there is a lack of explanation about what method is going to be used for the research and development (objective 2, hip n°1 and 3).
· Furthermore you don ‘t explain how you are going to study and analyze the economic growth and its relation with the ethanol and which data are going to be used for the research .
· If you mention an interview, you need to insert a copy of the list of question that will be ask and how you will use them in you investigation.
38 ADOPTION & FOSTERING VOLUME 31 NUMBER 4 2007
The Hope Connection A therapeutic summer day
camp for adopted and at-risk children with special
socio-emotional needs
Large numbers of North American and Western
European families are adopting children with serious
socio-emotional needs. Other children experience
similar deficits as a result of neglect and abuse by
carers. Often these children are diagnosed with
psychopathology and receive drug treatments that
can be ineffective and even detrimental. Karyn B
Purvis, David R Cross, Ron Federici, Dana
Johnson and L Brooks McKenzie report on The
Hope Connection, a project designed to meet the
needs of these at-risk children and their families. The
core of this project is a theoretically integrated
summer day camp offering activities that are attach-
ment rich, sensory stimulating and behaviourally
structured. Pre-test and post-test data indicate that
summer camp had a significant impact on the
children’s behaviour (n = 19), as indicated by parent-
report measures of child behaviour problems and
attachment. These findings are discussed with
regard to possible future directions of programme
implementation and evaluation.
Introduction
The purpose of this article is to explore a
camp structure that was developed to
address the enduring effects of early
deprivation upon the development of
adopted and other at-risk children.
Originally, internationally adopted child-
ren with histories of severe deprivation
and commensurate behavioural diff icul-
ties were the target population for this
intervention. However, a small number of
domestically adopted children were
included due to the urgent needs of these
families and the background similarities
of deprivation (Purvis, Cross and
Sunshine, 2007).
Although most adopted children do
not present serious problems in these
areas, many children from deprived
backgrounds do, and there is an undeter-
mined number of families who need
support addressing them. As noted in two
recent meta-analyses by Juffer and van
IJzendoorn (2005) and Meese (2005),
there is a scarcity of research on interven-
tions in these areas.
Specifically, three areas of psycholo-
gical development are likely to be
affected when inadequate care is pro-
vided: attachment, pro-social behaviour
and sensory processing. By integrating
these three as.
Ethnic Identity as predictor for the well-being: An exploratory transcultural...Andrzej Pankalla
De Oliveira, D., Pankalla, A., Cabeccinhas, R. (2012). Ethnic Identity as predictor for the well-being: An exploratory transcultural study in Brazil and Europe. Summa Psicologica, vol. 9/9, 33-12 (ISSN 0718-0446).
Student PaperCultural Competency in Baccalaureate Nursing .docxdeanmtaylor1545
Student Paper
Cultural Competency in Baccalaureate Nursing Education: A Conceptual Analysis
Deborah Byrne, RN, MSN, La Salle University, Villanova University
Abstract
The ability to deliver culturally competent nursing care is an expected competency of
undergraduate nursing education programs. The American Association of Colleges of Nursing
(AACN) and the National League for Nursing (NLN) have developed toolkits that provide nurse
educators with models and teaching strategies to facilitate student learning in cultural
competency. However, the concept of cultural competency varies as does the best method for
integrating and evaluating cultural competency in undergraduate nursing curriculum. With the
growing number of diverse clients, it is imperative that nursing students deliver culturally
competent care. This article explores the current view of the concept of cultural competency from
the standpoint of nursing education and the methods used to evaluate cultural competency in
undergraduate nursing education programs.
Keywords: cultural competency, simulation,
undergraduate nursing education, cultural
awareness, cultural humility
Background and Significance
Health care is increasingly complex, diverse,
and growing in the United States. The United
States Census Bureau (2009) predicts that the
U.S. population of non-European Caucasians will
be equivalent to Caucasian Americans by 2050.
According to Healthy People 2020, there are
significant health disparities among minority
groups. A fundamental goal of Healthy People
2020 is to eliminate health disparities for all
groups (U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services [USDHHS]). The need for culturally
competent health care is essential to reduce
health disparities and ensure positive health
outcomes.
The National League for Nursing (NLN) and
American Association of Colleges of Nursing
(AACN) include culturally appropriate care in their
accreditation standards and have developed
toolkits for nurse educators to assist with
incorporating cultural competency in
undergraduate nursing curricula (NLN, 2009;
AACN, 2008). There is, however, no consensus in
the literature regarding effective ways to teach
cultural competency to undergraduate
baccalaureate nursing students. Most nursing
programs in the United States include the concept
and skill of cultural competency as a program
outcome and attempt to integrate cultural
competency into their curricula. Attempts at
integration have been reported as inadequate in
developing culturally competent nurses (Brennan
& Cotter, 2008). As the diversity of the population
increases, so too must the cultural competency of
nurses in practice. It is imperative that
undergraduate nursing students develop cultural
competency knowledge, awareness, and skills
while experiencing didactic courses, clinical, and
simulation experiences.
Culture is integral to how people view death,
birth, illness, and health (Delgado et al., 2013).
For individuals to seek health care, .
Student PaperCultural Competency in Baccalaureate Nursing blazelaj2
Student Paper
Cultural Competency in Baccalaureate Nursing Education: A Conceptual Analysis
Deborah Byrne, RN, MSN, La Salle University, Villanova University
Abstract
The ability to deliver culturally competent nursing care is an expected competency of
undergraduate nursing education programs. The American Association of Colleges of Nursing
(AACN) and the National League for Nursing (NLN) have developed toolkits that provide nurse
educators with models and teaching strategies to facilitate student learning in cultural
competency. However, the concept of cultural competency varies as does the best method for
integrating and evaluating cultural competency in undergraduate nursing curriculum. With the
growing number of diverse clients, it is imperative that nursing students deliver culturally
competent care. This article explores the current view of the concept of cultural competency from
the standpoint of nursing education and the methods used to evaluate cultural competency in
undergraduate nursing education programs.
Keywords: cultural competency, simulation,
undergraduate nursing education, cultural
awareness, cultural humility
Background and Significance
Health care is increasingly complex, diverse,
and growing in the United States. The United
States Census Bureau (2009) predicts that the
U.S. population of non-European Caucasians will
be equivalent to Caucasian Americans by 2050.
According to Healthy People 2020, there are
significant health disparities among minority
groups. A fundamental goal of Healthy People
2020 is to eliminate health disparities for all
groups (U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services [USDHHS]). The need for culturally
competent health care is essential to reduce
health disparities and ensure positive health
outcomes.
The National League for Nursing (NLN) and
American Association of Colleges of Nursing
(AACN) include culturally appropriate care in their
accreditation standards and have developed
toolkits for nurse educators to assist with
incorporating cultural competency in
undergraduate nursing curricula (NLN, 2009;
AACN, 2008). There is, however, no consensus in
the literature regarding effective ways to teach
cultural competency to undergraduate
baccalaureate nursing students. Most nursing
programs in the United States include the concept
and skill of cultural competency as a program
outcome and attempt to integrate cultural
competency into their curricula. Attempts at
integration have been reported as inadequate in
developing culturally competent nurses (Brennan
& Cotter, 2008). As the diversity of the population
increases, so too must the cultural competency of
nurses in practice. It is imperative that
undergraduate nursing students develop cultural
competency knowledge, awareness, and skills
while experiencing didactic courses, clinical, and
simulation experiences.
Culture is integral to how people view death,
birth, illness, and health (Delgado et al., 2013).
For individuals to seek health care, ...
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Handedness and the Diverse Gender-Related Personality Traits i.docxwhittemorelucilla
Handedness and the Diverse Gender-Related Personality Traits in Humans
Handedness and the Diverse Gender-Related Personality Traits in Humans
Sejla Husic
FSCJ South Campus
Handedness and the Diverse Gender-Related Personality Traits in Humans
According to recent meta-analysis, there has been an immoderate amount of
information linked between the likeliness of sexual orientation and laterality. Using one hand
more than the other. The significant data from 6,182 homosexual and 14,808 heterosexual men,
showed that homosexual men had 34% greater odds of being non-right handed than heterosexual
men, and data from 805 homosexual and 1,615 heterosexual women had 91% greater odds of
being non- right handed than heterosexual women RichardA.Lippa,Ph.D.1 Other gender-
atypicality has been linked to this finding, one would be gender identity disorder. In an
international survey, more than 11,000 participants, documented that 10.6% of males and 8.5%
of females are at higher rates of heft- handedness. Even though the number of theories found of
small but reliable gender differences found in handedness, the results remain poorly understood.
Prenatal Androgen Theory is the most reasonable explanation of homosexuality in
the social behavior of human genders. Stating the sexual orientation is established in the womb
during fetal development. Although with more higher androgen exposure, comes more gender
typical patterns of development, in the males case it would be a greater chance of left-
handedness. Corresponding to gender- related personality traits, within sexual orientation groups,
non- right handedness is associated with masculine traits for both sexes. Predictions have been
made based on simple linear version of prenatal hormone theory, the androgens masculinize
behavior between sex and then is compared on average (James, 1989). Consequently there has
been strong data shown the prenatal hormone theory of handedness, concluding that the non-
right-handedness occurs more in the males sex than females.
Handedness and the Diverse Gender-Related Personality Traits in Humans
Neurological and developmental problems can be the cause of so many theories.
For instance the Pathological left- handedness theory, stating that left-handedness is caused by
pathological stressors, as in birth traumas, or cerebrum impairments. Evidence has proven that
left-handedness is associated with numerous cognitive developmental problems, including
learning disabilities, intellectual retardation, autism, cerebral palsy, etc. (Previc,1996). An
argument has been made that moderate right-handedness is the optimal evolved human trait and
therefore that developmental instability leads both to non-right ...
Tangible Needs and External Stressors Faced by Chinese Ameri.docxperryk1
Tangible Needs and External Stressors
Faced by Chinese American Families with
a Member Having Schizophrenia
Winnie Kung
This article examines the tangible needs and external stressors experienced by Chinese
American families with a member living with schizophrenia, in the context of a six-month
pilot study of family psychoeducation. Therapists’ notes from 117 family and group sessions
were analyzed. The families expressed concerns regarding housing, finance, work, study, and
the shortage of bilingual psychosocial services. Interacting with government offices and
social services agencies caused anxiety and frustration, partly due to the high stakes involved
given their low socioeconomic status, and partly due to the bureaucracy. As immigrants,
study participants had needs for language translation, knowledge about resources, and advo-
cacy by case managers. This study also highlights the importance of interventions beyond
the micro individual level to the mezzo and macro levels, where changes in organizations
and policies are necessary.
KEY WORDS: caregivers; Chinese Americans; environmental stressors; ethnic sensitivity;
schizophrenia
This study aims to address the knowledge gap in understanding the challenges faced by Chinese American families with a member
living with schizophrenia in relation to their tangible
needs and external stressors from the environment. I
conducted this research in the context of an interven-
tion study of family psychoeducation that I previously
developed and pilot-tested as an ethnic-sensitive pro-
gram for Chinese Americans ( Kung, Tseng, Wang,
Hsu, & Chen, 2012). Family psychoeducation has
been proven effective in reducing caregiver stress and
the relapse rate of individuals with schizophrenia
( Jewell, Downing, & McFarlane, 2009; Lefley, 2010;
McFarlane, Dixon, Lukens, & Lucksted, 2003). The
intervention protocols focus on educating the fami-
lies about the nature of the illness, promoting better
communication, and helping family members re-
solve conflicts ( Anderson, Reiss, & Hogarty, 1986;
McFarlane, 2002) to reduce “expressed emotions”
such as criticism and overinvolvement, which highly
predict relapses ( Butzlaff & Hooley, 1998; Hooley,
2007; Leff & Vaughn, 1985; Marom, Munitz, Jones,
Weizman, & Hermesh, 2005). Few studies had been
conducted with Chinese American families, many of
whom face unique challenges due to their immigrant
status and cultural values ( Kung, 2003).
To more thoroughly understand the stresses ex-
perienced by these families so as to better meet their
needs and to refine the family psychoeducation pro-
tocol, a qualitative inquiry was conducted using the
clinicians’ session notes from the intervention study.
Whereas the family psychoeducation model in its
original design focused on resolving the psycho-
logical and relational issues within the families, this
investigation noted that these families’ struggles were
closel.
1. Discuss the organization and the family role in every one of the.docxcroysierkathey
1. Discuss the organization and the family role in every one of the heritages mentioned about and how they affect (positively or negatively) the delivery of health care.
2. Identify sociocultural variables within the Irish, Italian and Puerto Rican heritage and mention some examples.
References must be no older than 5 years. A minimum of 700 words is required.
.
1. Compare and contrast DEmilios Capitalism and Gay Identity .docxcroysierkathey
1. Compare and contrast D'Emilio's
Capitalism and Gay Identity
with the
From Mary to Modern Woman
reading. What patterns do you see that are similar to the modern American society? What can be said about global notions of gender in the modern age? Feel free to invoke Foucault.
2. How is the writer's experience important in the story being told in
Middlesex
? Describe your reaction to the reading and invoke some of the concepts discussed in the
Queer Theory
reading to try to make sense of sexuality when it does not match your own conventions. Compare both readings, but go deeper to explore your own stereotypes and socialization.
**PLEASE READ THE READINGS IN ODER TO DO THIS ASSIGNMENT.
.
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AUTHORGerald V. Mohatt Joseph Trimble Ryan A. DicksonTITLE.docxrock73
AUTHOR: Gerald V. Mohatt Joseph Trimble Ryan A. Dickson
TITLE: Psychosocial Foundations of Academic Performance in Culture-Based Education Programs for American Indian and Alaska Native Youth: Reflections on a Multidisciplinary Perspective
SOURCE: Journal of American Indian Education 45 no3 Special Issue 38-59 2006
COPYRIGHT: The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and it is reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of this article in violation of the copyright is prohibited. To contact the publisher: http://coe.asu.edu/cie/
Since the Oglalas settled at Pine Ridge, it has been the contention of many policy makers that education is the panacea for the socio-economic ills besetting the society and the means for bringing Indians into the mainstream of American life. Education has been available to the Oglalas for 89 years and the problems remain almost as unresolved as they were that day in 1879 when Red Cloud helped to lay the cornerstone for the first school. For this (and other reasons), the educational system has often become the scapegoat among those impatient for greater progress. Blame has been placed on the schools for many of the social evils, personality disorders and general cultural malaise. But is it fair to expect the schools to counteract all of the negative aspects of the total socio-economic milieu? Is it realistic to expect the educational system alone to achieve a better life for the Oglalas when the environment offers few alternative economic goals and little opportunity to control one's destiny, when many children come from poverty-stricken and unstable family situations? True, the schools have failed in some respects, but the blame is not entirely theirs (Maynard & Twiss, 1970, p. 94).
Can we say the same thing today that was said by Maynard and Twiss and others 34 years ago? What accounts for American Indian/Alaska Native children dropping out at higher rates and having significantly lower academic performances than Euro-Americans? Is lower academic achievement due primarily to schooling or to community and familial factors? Are we following a path towards academic improvement for indigenous children? In this article, we argue that variables outside of the school environment and in-school variables must be carefully and concurrently considered in order to understand and improve the school performance and achievement of American Indian/Alaska Native children. Furthermore, for a culture-based education approach (CBE) to succeed it must chart a course toward a set of ideals and principles that are consistent with the dynamic nature of the lifeways and thoughtways of tribal or village cultures.
Culture-Based Educational Approach
The guiding assumption of CBE is that a discontinuity between home and school environments serves to confuse and alienate indigenous children, fostering a sense of inadequacy and lack of self-efficacy. Factors implicated in this discontinuity include value dif ...
8Some Implications for Research and Practice[C]ultural meanings,.docxsleeperharwell
8
Some Implications for Research and Practice
[C]ultural meanings, practices, norms, and social institutions … constitute the matrix in which are embedded the intentions, rules, practices, and activities through which people live their lives (Fiske, Kitayama, Markus & Nisbett, 1998, p. 917).
What goals or objectives must our profession and society adopt to become truly multicultural in vision, values, and practice? (Sue, Bingham, Porche-Burke & Vasquez, 1999, p. 1067).
This final chapter is the most difficult one to write. The quotations above suggest the complexity of understanding individual behavior within a cultural matrix. With the broad definition of culture proposed in this book, applicable to all significant groups that meet the criteria, complexity increases. To take seriously the multicultural nature of persons is to raise theoretical and empirical questions that are very difficult to answer. As a science and profession, we are not accustomed to thinking routinely and easily of individuals in this way. Our discipline will be enriched, however, if we can design creative new research strategies to address these questions.
The implications for practice may be least problematic because, whether in counseling, therapy, or education, theoretical emphasis has long been on taking into account “the whole person.” And in these areas, there is typically one-on-one interaction between persons – between client and mental health worker, or between student and teacher. An individual’s unique social identities or cultural memberships will be evident in behavior – overt or subtle. Whether they are recognized, acknowledged, respected and used positively in the actual practice of counseling, therapy, or education (beyond statements of theory) is a central concern. In research, a multicultural perspective presents a different set of interrelated problems pertaining to sampling, study design, methods, data analysis and interpretation.Research
Each participant or respondent in an investigation brings to it unique experiences and beliefs, perceptions, and response potentials that reflect far greater individual complexity and far more cultural memberships than most researchers are prepared to identify. We agree with Shields (2008, p. 304) that “[t]he facts of our lives reveal that there is no single identity category that satisfactorily describes how we respond to our social environment or are responded to by others.” We also agree with Mann and Kelley (1997, p. 392) that “knowledge is and should be situated in people’s diverse social locations.… [and] grounded in the social biography of … the observed.” Such agreement, however, does not lead easily or directly to researchable empirical questions that can be investigated in a practical way. Multiple issues and problems face the researcher who is accustomed to obtaining demographic descriptions of participants that are usually limited to age, ethnicity, and gender, or to the single-identity or group-members.
22CHAPTER 2 Cultural CompetencyAchieving cultural .docxrobert345678
22
CHAPTER
2 Cultural Competency
Achieving cultural competence is a learning process that
requires self-awareness, reflective practice, and knowl-
edge of core cultural issues. It involves recognizing one’s
own culture, values, and biases and using effective patient-
centered communication skills. A culturally competent
healthcare provider adapts to the unique needs of patients
of backgrounds and cultures that differ from his or her
own. This adaptability, coupled with a genuine curiosity
about a patient’s beliefs and values, lay the foundation for
a trusting patient-provider relationship.
A Definition of Culture
Culture, in its broadest sense, reflects the whole of human
behavior, including ideas and attitudes, ways of relating to
one another, manners of speaking, and the material products
of physical effort, ingenuity, and imagination. Language is
a part of culture. So, too, are the abstract systems of belief,
etiquette, law, morals, entertainment, and education. Within
the cultural whole, different populations may exist in groups
and subgroups. Each group is identified by a particular
body of shared traits (e.g., a particular art, ethos, or belief;
or a particular behavioral pattern) and is rather dynamic
in its evolving accommodations with internal and external
influences. Any individual may belong to more than one
group or subgroup, such as ethnic origin, religion, gender,
sexual orientation, occupation, and profession.
Distinguishing Physical Characteristics
The use of physical characteristics (e.g., gender or skin
color) to distinguish a cultural group or subgroup is inap-
propriate. There is a significant difference between distin-
guishing cultural characteristics and distinguishing physical
characteristics. Do not confuse the physical with the cultural
or allow the physical to symbolize the cultural. To assume
homogeneity in the beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of all
individuals in a particular group leads to misunderstandings
about the individual. The stereotype, a fixed image of any
group that denies the potential of originality or individuality
within the group, must be rejected. People can and do
respond differently to the same stimuli. Stereotyping occurs
through two cognitive phases. In the first phase, a stereotype
becomes activated when an individual is categorized into
a social group. When this occurs, the beliefs and feelings
(prejudices) come to mind about what members of that
particular group are like. Over time, this first phase occurs
without effort or awareness. In the second phase, people
use these activated beliefs and feelings when they interact
with the individual, even when they explicitly deny these
stereotypes. Multiple studies have shown that healthcare
providers activate these implicit stereotypes, or unconscious
biases, when communicating with and providing care to
minority patients (Stone and Moskowitz, 2011). With this
in mind, you can begin learning cult.
Do We Overemphasize the Role of Culture in the Behavior ofRa.docxpetehbailey729071
Do We Overemphasize the Role of Culture in the Behavior of
Racial/Ethnic Minorities? Evidence of a Cultural (Mis)Attribution Bias in
American Psychology
José M. Causadias
Arizona State University
Joseph A. Vitriol
Lehigh University
Annabelle L. Atkin
Arizona State University
Although culture influences all human beings, there is an assumption in American psychol-
ogy that culture matters more for members of certain groups. This article identifies and
provides evidence of the cultural (mis)attribution bias: a tendency to overemphasize the role
of culture in the behavior of racial/ethnic minorities, and to underemphasize it in the behavior of
Whites. Two studies investigated the presence of this bias with an examination of a decade of
peer reviewed research conducted in the United States (N � 434 articles), and an experiment
and a survey with psychology professors in the United States (N � 361 psychologists).
Archival analyses revealed differences in the composition of samples used in studies exam-
ining cultural or noncultural psychological phenomena. We also find evidence to suggest that
psychologists in the United States favor cultural explanations over psychological explana-
tions when considering the behavior and cognition of racial/ethnic minorities, whereas the
opposite pattern emerged in reference to Whites. The scientific ramifications of this phe-
nomenon, as well as alternatives to overcome it, are discussed in detail.
Keywords: bias, culture, ethnicity, race, cultural (mis)attribution bias
Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000099.supp
The crucial role of culture in shaping human behavior and
cognition has received increased attention in the last decade
(A. B. Cohen, 2009; Kitayama & Uskul, 2011). However,
despite widespread agreement about the psychological sig-
nificance of culture, several authors have argued that Amer-
ican psychology1 frequently associates culture with racial/
ethnic minorities more than Whites (Betancourt & López,
1993). This claim, to our knowledge, has yet to be tested
through an examination of the research literature or an
assessment of the opinion and assumptions of research
psychologists. In this article, we provide evidence of a
cultural (mis)attribution bias in American psychology: the
tendency to see racial/ethnic minorities as members of a
group whose traits, beliefs, and behaviors are shaped pri-
marily by culture, and to perceive the White racial/ethnic
majority as autonomous and independent actors who are
instead largely influenced by psychological processes. Be-
cause this bias rests on assumptions about human behavior
that are not supported by evidence and may lead to differ-
ential treatment of members of specific social groups, it
constrains psychologists’ explanations of behavior and cog-
nition. In two studies, we investigated the presence of this
bias in psychological research in the United States using
archival, experimental, and correlational methods.
1 By Amer.
Data Collection and the Topic of Your InterestData collection pr.docxsimonithomas47935
Data Collection and the Topic of Your Interest
Data collection procedures must walk the reader through the process of collecting research data, starting with permission information and concluding with procedures to maintain confidentiality of information and participants. This is a standard section of chapter 3 in dissertation research studies.
In this assignment, you will gain an understanding of how to implement data collection procedures for a dissertation.
Tasks:
In about 750 words, prepare a report, including the following:
· A detailed description of data collection procedures you intend to implement for the chosen topic of your interest and qualitative methodology (case study, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, or narrative approaches).
· A rationale related to ethical issues that have been covered in this module (for example, confidentiality, anonymity, and respect for persons).
· An informed consent document related to the topic of your interest and methodology will accompany the data collection procedures and will be referenced as Appendix A.
Note that your submission should follow AUO academic writing guidelines and APA rules for academic writing and referencing.
Submission Details:
In early infancy emotional expressions are automatic and not
yet subject to voluntary control. As children develop and
mature, they begin to regulate emotional displays in order to
meet personal goals and to meet the demands and expectations
of their culture. Culturally prescribed social conventions
dictate how, where, when, and to whom specific emotions are
expressed. These norms, otherwise known as display rules, are
learned culture-specific rules that convey what is socially
appropriate or desirable in certain social contexts and underlie
the management and regulation of emotional expression
(Ekman & Friesen, 1975).
The use of display rules in young North American children
has been investigated largely through the administration of a
procedure known as the disappointment gift paradigm (Cole,
1986; Cole, Zahn-Waxler, & Smith, 1994; Saarni, 1984,
1992). In this procedure, children are presented with an unde-
sirable gift in the presence of an audience figure, and their
emotional responses are recorded. This paradigm takes advan-
tage of the commonly understood North American practice of
smiling upon receiving a gift even though covertly one may not
like the gift (Goffman, 1967).
Existing research with North American children has gener-
ally focused on examining the role of age and gender in
children’s emotional reactions to a disappointing gift situation.
In addition to age and gender, culture is likely another source
of variation in children’s emotionally expressive behaviors. Yet
the role of cultural beliefs and norms in guiding expressive
behaviors has been largely overlooked in investigations of
children’s emotional development (Parke, 1994; Rubin, 1998;
Saarni, 1998, 1999). In the present study, the role of age,
gender, and cultur.
Mini ResearchHow parents deal with the education.pdf 1.docxannandleola
Mini Research/How parents deal with the education.pdf
1
The University of Western Australia
Graduate School of Education
PhD Research Proposal
Student Name: Jasmine McDonald Student Number:
Supervisors: Professor Keith Punch & Associate Professor Anne Chapman
A. PROPOSED STUDY
(i) Project Title
How parents deal with the education of their child with an Autism Spectrum Disorder:
a constructivist grounded theory study.
(ii) The Research Aim
The aim of this study is to develop substantive theory about how parents deal with
the education of their child diagnosed with an Autism Spectrum Disorder. A series
of in-depth case studies, conceptualised within the social theory of symbolic
interaction, will use both autoethnographic and constructivist grounded theory
methods to generate thick description and explanation.
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (4th TR ed.) of the American
Psychiatric Association (2000), Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) or Pervasive
Developmental Disorders (PDD) are “characterized by severe and pervasive
impairment in several areas of development: reciprocal social interaction skills,
communication skills, or the presence of stereotyped behaviour, interests, and
activities” (p.69). ASD’s are lifelong disorders which have no identified aetiology or
cure (Frith, 2003). There are five complex, often severe, neurological disorders under
the PDD category where manifestations vary greatly depending upon the
developmental level and chronological age of the individual. These are: Autistic
Disorder, Rett’s Disorder, Childhood Disintegrative Disorder, Asperger’s Disorder
and Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (Including Atypical
Autism).
Prevalence rates for all forms of ASD’s have risen dramatically over the last twenty
years from 1 in 10,000 in the 1980’s to 1 in 166 today (Fombonne, 2003; Gillberg,
2004; Kirby, 2005). Such increases have, most often, been attributed to changes in
case definition and an increasing community and professional awareness of the
diagnostic criteria for PDD (Fombonne, 2003) although other theories (Kirby, 2005)
are also now apparent in mainstream discourse. To further complicate matters families
with one affected child have a 45 times greater recurrence risk of siblings also being
affected by an ASD than would occur in the general population (Jamain et.al., 2003).
Along with any ASD diagnosis there is also a 25% greater susceptibility of
comorbidity with another psychiatric disorder and/or medical condition (Gillberg &
Billstedt, 2000). Autism is associated with mental retardation in about 70% of the
cases and is over represented amongst males with a male to female ratio of 4.3:1
(Fombonne, 2003). “Follow up studies suggest only a small percentage of individuals
with the disorder go on as adults to live and work independently. In about one-third
of cases, some degree of partial independence is possible ...
Authors: Dr. Bob Chaudhuri (1), Melissa Crawford, MED-3(1), Gerry V Martin, Anishawbae(2).
Affiliations:
1.Northern Ontario School of Medicine
2.Thunder Bay, Traditional Teacher
· In the methodology you should not say that you are going to look.docxLynellBull52
· In the methodology you should not say that you are going to look for the data, but only identify them, name them and establish how you are going to use them and why.
· In the methodology there is a lack of explanation about what method is going to be used for the research and development (objective 2, hip n°1 and 3).
· Furthermore you don ‘t explain how you are going to study and analyze the economic growth and its relation with the ethanol and which data are going to be used for the research .
· If you mention an interview, you need to insert a copy of the list of question that will be ask and how you will use them in you investigation.
38 ADOPTION & FOSTERING VOLUME 31 NUMBER 4 2007
The Hope Connection A therapeutic summer day
camp for adopted and at-risk children with special
socio-emotional needs
Large numbers of North American and Western
European families are adopting children with serious
socio-emotional needs. Other children experience
similar deficits as a result of neglect and abuse by
carers. Often these children are diagnosed with
psychopathology and receive drug treatments that
can be ineffective and even detrimental. Karyn B
Purvis, David R Cross, Ron Federici, Dana
Johnson and L Brooks McKenzie report on The
Hope Connection, a project designed to meet the
needs of these at-risk children and their families. The
core of this project is a theoretically integrated
summer day camp offering activities that are attach-
ment rich, sensory stimulating and behaviourally
structured. Pre-test and post-test data indicate that
summer camp had a significant impact on the
children’s behaviour (n = 19), as indicated by parent-
report measures of child behaviour problems and
attachment. These findings are discussed with
regard to possible future directions of programme
implementation and evaluation.
Introduction
The purpose of this article is to explore a
camp structure that was developed to
address the enduring effects of early
deprivation upon the development of
adopted and other at-risk children.
Originally, internationally adopted child-
ren with histories of severe deprivation
and commensurate behavioural diff icul-
ties were the target population for this
intervention. However, a small number of
domestically adopted children were
included due to the urgent needs of these
families and the background similarities
of deprivation (Purvis, Cross and
Sunshine, 2007).
Although most adopted children do
not present serious problems in these
areas, many children from deprived
backgrounds do, and there is an undeter-
mined number of families who need
support addressing them. As noted in two
recent meta-analyses by Juffer and van
IJzendoorn (2005) and Meese (2005),
there is a scarcity of research on interven-
tions in these areas.
Specifically, three areas of psycholo-
gical development are likely to be
affected when inadequate care is pro-
vided: attachment, pro-social behaviour
and sensory processing. By integrating
these three as.
Ethnic Identity as predictor for the well-being: An exploratory transcultural...Andrzej Pankalla
De Oliveira, D., Pankalla, A., Cabeccinhas, R. (2012). Ethnic Identity as predictor for the well-being: An exploratory transcultural study in Brazil and Europe. Summa Psicologica, vol. 9/9, 33-12 (ISSN 0718-0446).
Student PaperCultural Competency in Baccalaureate Nursing .docxdeanmtaylor1545
Student Paper
Cultural Competency in Baccalaureate Nursing Education: A Conceptual Analysis
Deborah Byrne, RN, MSN, La Salle University, Villanova University
Abstract
The ability to deliver culturally competent nursing care is an expected competency of
undergraduate nursing education programs. The American Association of Colleges of Nursing
(AACN) and the National League for Nursing (NLN) have developed toolkits that provide nurse
educators with models and teaching strategies to facilitate student learning in cultural
competency. However, the concept of cultural competency varies as does the best method for
integrating and evaluating cultural competency in undergraduate nursing curriculum. With the
growing number of diverse clients, it is imperative that nursing students deliver culturally
competent care. This article explores the current view of the concept of cultural competency from
the standpoint of nursing education and the methods used to evaluate cultural competency in
undergraduate nursing education programs.
Keywords: cultural competency, simulation,
undergraduate nursing education, cultural
awareness, cultural humility
Background and Significance
Health care is increasingly complex, diverse,
and growing in the United States. The United
States Census Bureau (2009) predicts that the
U.S. population of non-European Caucasians will
be equivalent to Caucasian Americans by 2050.
According to Healthy People 2020, there are
significant health disparities among minority
groups. A fundamental goal of Healthy People
2020 is to eliminate health disparities for all
groups (U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services [USDHHS]). The need for culturally
competent health care is essential to reduce
health disparities and ensure positive health
outcomes.
The National League for Nursing (NLN) and
American Association of Colleges of Nursing
(AACN) include culturally appropriate care in their
accreditation standards and have developed
toolkits for nurse educators to assist with
incorporating cultural competency in
undergraduate nursing curricula (NLN, 2009;
AACN, 2008). There is, however, no consensus in
the literature regarding effective ways to teach
cultural competency to undergraduate
baccalaureate nursing students. Most nursing
programs in the United States include the concept
and skill of cultural competency as a program
outcome and attempt to integrate cultural
competency into their curricula. Attempts at
integration have been reported as inadequate in
developing culturally competent nurses (Brennan
& Cotter, 2008). As the diversity of the population
increases, so too must the cultural competency of
nurses in practice. It is imperative that
undergraduate nursing students develop cultural
competency knowledge, awareness, and skills
while experiencing didactic courses, clinical, and
simulation experiences.
Culture is integral to how people view death,
birth, illness, and health (Delgado et al., 2013).
For individuals to seek health care, .
Student PaperCultural Competency in Baccalaureate Nursing blazelaj2
Student Paper
Cultural Competency in Baccalaureate Nursing Education: A Conceptual Analysis
Deborah Byrne, RN, MSN, La Salle University, Villanova University
Abstract
The ability to deliver culturally competent nursing care is an expected competency of
undergraduate nursing education programs. The American Association of Colleges of Nursing
(AACN) and the National League for Nursing (NLN) have developed toolkits that provide nurse
educators with models and teaching strategies to facilitate student learning in cultural
competency. However, the concept of cultural competency varies as does the best method for
integrating and evaluating cultural competency in undergraduate nursing curriculum. With the
growing number of diverse clients, it is imperative that nursing students deliver culturally
competent care. This article explores the current view of the concept of cultural competency from
the standpoint of nursing education and the methods used to evaluate cultural competency in
undergraduate nursing education programs.
Keywords: cultural competency, simulation,
undergraduate nursing education, cultural
awareness, cultural humility
Background and Significance
Health care is increasingly complex, diverse,
and growing in the United States. The United
States Census Bureau (2009) predicts that the
U.S. population of non-European Caucasians will
be equivalent to Caucasian Americans by 2050.
According to Healthy People 2020, there are
significant health disparities among minority
groups. A fundamental goal of Healthy People
2020 is to eliminate health disparities for all
groups (U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services [USDHHS]). The need for culturally
competent health care is essential to reduce
health disparities and ensure positive health
outcomes.
The National League for Nursing (NLN) and
American Association of Colleges of Nursing
(AACN) include culturally appropriate care in their
accreditation standards and have developed
toolkits for nurse educators to assist with
incorporating cultural competency in
undergraduate nursing curricula (NLN, 2009;
AACN, 2008). There is, however, no consensus in
the literature regarding effective ways to teach
cultural competency to undergraduate
baccalaureate nursing students. Most nursing
programs in the United States include the concept
and skill of cultural competency as a program
outcome and attempt to integrate cultural
competency into their curricula. Attempts at
integration have been reported as inadequate in
developing culturally competent nurses (Brennan
& Cotter, 2008). As the diversity of the population
increases, so too must the cultural competency of
nurses in practice. It is imperative that
undergraduate nursing students develop cultural
competency knowledge, awareness, and skills
while experiencing didactic courses, clinical, and
simulation experiences.
Culture is integral to how people view death,
birth, illness, and health (Delgado et al., 2013).
For individuals to seek health care, ...
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Handedness and the Diverse Gender-Related Personality Traits i.docxwhittemorelucilla
Handedness and the Diverse Gender-Related Personality Traits in Humans
Handedness and the Diverse Gender-Related Personality Traits in Humans
Sejla Husic
FSCJ South Campus
Handedness and the Diverse Gender-Related Personality Traits in Humans
According to recent meta-analysis, there has been an immoderate amount of
information linked between the likeliness of sexual orientation and laterality. Using one hand
more than the other. The significant data from 6,182 homosexual and 14,808 heterosexual men,
showed that homosexual men had 34% greater odds of being non-right handed than heterosexual
men, and data from 805 homosexual and 1,615 heterosexual women had 91% greater odds of
being non- right handed than heterosexual women RichardA.Lippa,Ph.D.1 Other gender-
atypicality has been linked to this finding, one would be gender identity disorder. In an
international survey, more than 11,000 participants, documented that 10.6% of males and 8.5%
of females are at higher rates of heft- handedness. Even though the number of theories found of
small but reliable gender differences found in handedness, the results remain poorly understood.
Prenatal Androgen Theory is the most reasonable explanation of homosexuality in
the social behavior of human genders. Stating the sexual orientation is established in the womb
during fetal development. Although with more higher androgen exposure, comes more gender
typical patterns of development, in the males case it would be a greater chance of left-
handedness. Corresponding to gender- related personality traits, within sexual orientation groups,
non- right handedness is associated with masculine traits for both sexes. Predictions have been
made based on simple linear version of prenatal hormone theory, the androgens masculinize
behavior between sex and then is compared on average (James, 1989). Consequently there has
been strong data shown the prenatal hormone theory of handedness, concluding that the non-
right-handedness occurs more in the males sex than females.
Handedness and the Diverse Gender-Related Personality Traits in Humans
Neurological and developmental problems can be the cause of so many theories.
For instance the Pathological left- handedness theory, stating that left-handedness is caused by
pathological stressors, as in birth traumas, or cerebrum impairments. Evidence has proven that
left-handedness is associated with numerous cognitive developmental problems, including
learning disabilities, intellectual retardation, autism, cerebral palsy, etc. (Previc,1996). An
argument has been made that moderate right-handedness is the optimal evolved human trait and
therefore that developmental instability leads both to non-right ...
Tangible Needs and External Stressors Faced by Chinese Ameri.docxperryk1
Tangible Needs and External Stressors
Faced by Chinese American Families with
a Member Having Schizophrenia
Winnie Kung
This article examines the tangible needs and external stressors experienced by Chinese
American families with a member living with schizophrenia, in the context of a six-month
pilot study of family psychoeducation. Therapists’ notes from 117 family and group sessions
were analyzed. The families expressed concerns regarding housing, finance, work, study, and
the shortage of bilingual psychosocial services. Interacting with government offices and
social services agencies caused anxiety and frustration, partly due to the high stakes involved
given their low socioeconomic status, and partly due to the bureaucracy. As immigrants,
study participants had needs for language translation, knowledge about resources, and advo-
cacy by case managers. This study also highlights the importance of interventions beyond
the micro individual level to the mezzo and macro levels, where changes in organizations
and policies are necessary.
KEY WORDS: caregivers; Chinese Americans; environmental stressors; ethnic sensitivity;
schizophrenia
This study aims to address the knowledge gap in understanding the challenges faced by Chinese American families with a member
living with schizophrenia in relation to their tangible
needs and external stressors from the environment. I
conducted this research in the context of an interven-
tion study of family psychoeducation that I previously
developed and pilot-tested as an ethnic-sensitive pro-
gram for Chinese Americans ( Kung, Tseng, Wang,
Hsu, & Chen, 2012). Family psychoeducation has
been proven effective in reducing caregiver stress and
the relapse rate of individuals with schizophrenia
( Jewell, Downing, & McFarlane, 2009; Lefley, 2010;
McFarlane, Dixon, Lukens, & Lucksted, 2003). The
intervention protocols focus on educating the fami-
lies about the nature of the illness, promoting better
communication, and helping family members re-
solve conflicts ( Anderson, Reiss, & Hogarty, 1986;
McFarlane, 2002) to reduce “expressed emotions”
such as criticism and overinvolvement, which highly
predict relapses ( Butzlaff & Hooley, 1998; Hooley,
2007; Leff & Vaughn, 1985; Marom, Munitz, Jones,
Weizman, & Hermesh, 2005). Few studies had been
conducted with Chinese American families, many of
whom face unique challenges due to their immigrant
status and cultural values ( Kung, 2003).
To more thoroughly understand the stresses ex-
perienced by these families so as to better meet their
needs and to refine the family psychoeducation pro-
tocol, a qualitative inquiry was conducted using the
clinicians’ session notes from the intervention study.
Whereas the family psychoeducation model in its
original design focused on resolving the psycho-
logical and relational issues within the families, this
investigation noted that these families’ struggles were
closel.
Similar to Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology1991, Vol. 59, .docx (20)
1. Discuss the organization and the family role in every one of the.docxcroysierkathey
1. Discuss the organization and the family role in every one of the heritages mentioned about and how they affect (positively or negatively) the delivery of health care.
2. Identify sociocultural variables within the Irish, Italian and Puerto Rican heritage and mention some examples.
References must be no older than 5 years. A minimum of 700 words is required.
.
1. Compare and contrast DEmilios Capitalism and Gay Identity .docxcroysierkathey
1. Compare and contrast D'Emilio's
Capitalism and Gay Identity
with the
From Mary to Modern Woman
reading. What patterns do you see that are similar to the modern American society? What can be said about global notions of gender in the modern age? Feel free to invoke Foucault.
2. How is the writer's experience important in the story being told in
Middlesex
? Describe your reaction to the reading and invoke some of the concepts discussed in the
Queer Theory
reading to try to make sense of sexuality when it does not match your own conventions. Compare both readings, but go deeper to explore your own stereotypes and socialization.
**PLEASE READ THE READINGS IN ODER TO DO THIS ASSIGNMENT.
.
1.Purpose the purpose of this essay is to spread awareness .docxcroysierkathey
1.
Purpose: the purpose of this essay is to spread awareness around stereotyping and how it can be very hurtful to some people.
2.
Audience: Anyone that uses stereotypical jokes or saying around people that are different than them even without realizing that they are making a stereotypical joke or statement.
3.
Genre: the genre that I will be trying to reach out to in this essay will be informational, reason being is that I mainly look at informational online documentaries and stories.
4.
Stance and tone: I’m just a young man who grew up around a lot of people from different places and have different cultures and never paid attention in my younger years to what was happening from stereotyping others that they are different till recently.
5.
Graphic design
: My essay will be a strict academic essay
.
1. Tell us why it is your favorite film.2. Talk about the .docxcroysierkathey
1. Tell us why it is your favorite film.
2. Talk about the interconnection between the aesthetic and the technical aspects of the film. This should include at least seven of the following: Editing, Film Structure, Cinematography, Lighting, Colors, Screenwriting, Special effects, Sound and Music.
3. After this course, will you see you favorite film in a different light? Why or why not?
.
1.What are the main issues facing Fargo and Town Manager Susan.docxcroysierkathey
1.What are the main issues facing Fargo and Town Manager Susan Harlow?
Fargo and Town Manager Harlow are on a slippery slope to corruption. I think that Harlow is handling her position the correct way by trying to remain neutral and sticking to a code of ethics so the problem really comes down to the political actors in the town. It is good that Harlow declined the invite to the dinner party, and cracked down on employees playing politics at work, that is a step in the right direction to removing the possibility of political corruption.
2.What is the basis for your answer to question #1?
At the end of the article Harlow remembers another city manager saying “you never have more authority than the day you walk into your office” What I get from that, and what I think Harlow got from that is that when you come into a position as a public manager everyone is going to want something from you. Political actors are going to want political favors, quid pro quos, you have something that everyone else wants and they are going to try and get that from you.
3.What are your recommended solutions to the problems you identified?
I think the best thing to do would be to continue to try to remain neutral. It will always be impossible to please absolutely everybody so the best thing to do is try to avoid doing everything everyone asks and stick to some sort of code of ethics.
4.What points do you agree, disagree or want further discussion from your fellow classmates and why? (tell them not me)
I think the overarching theme of this article is that people are going to want things from the government. I agree with Harlow's steps to avoid political corruption in her administration by cracking down on political favors with the snow plows and referring to the ICMA code of ethics.
.
1.Writing Practice in Reading a PhotographAttached Files.docxcroysierkathey
1.
Writing: Practice in Reading a Photograph
Attached Files:
Bachman, Ieshia Evans, Baton Rouge (2016).jpg
(277.283 KB)
For this assignment, you will practice analyzing how various rhetorical elements contribute to the overall meaning of a visual image--in this case, a photograph. To begin, click on the attached image.
By way of some context, this photo was taken in 2016 at a protest rally in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. The woman in the photo is named Ieshia Evans. The photographer is named Jonathan Bachman. Bachman's photo, which was first published by Reuters, was a finalist for a Pulitzer Prize in 2017. You can use this information to do more research on the image, if you like.
Now, review once again the Elements and Methods of Visual Rhetoric document and select from it
three
elements that you wish to discuss in relation to this photo. Please note that this is not a formal essay assignment, so do not treat it as such. For example, you do not need to create a formal introduction.
Begin by simply providing an
interpretive claim
--i.e., stating what you believe is the meaning or message of Bachman's photo. Ideally, this should be just
one
sentence (tho you can write two if necessary). After that, your document simply needs to contain
three paragraphs
, one for each rhetorical element you have selected. In each paragraph, you need to explain fully how the particular element contributes to the overall meaning or message of the image.
Note: Your assignment must be submitted as an attached .doc or .docx file. Name your file correctly, using your last name and brief description of assignment (e.g., Martinez, Photograph.docx).
2.
DB: Interpreting Political Ads
In this discussion board, you will be discussing and interpreting a recent political ad entitled "Mourning in America," which was produced by The Lincoln Project, a political action committee (PAC). If you are not familiar with the group, take a moment to research it, as that context will add to your understanding and interpretation. You can
click here
to view the ad.
As you watch "Mourning in America", think carefully about how this political advertisement compares and contrasts with Ronald Reagan's "Morning in America" ad, in terms of its rhetorical methods as well as its overall message. You will be asked to comment on
three
specific rhetorical elements, so decide which ones stand out most to you and take careful notes on those to prepare for the discussion.
When you are ready, click the link above to enter the Discussion Board, and then follow the instructions in the first thread posted in this forum for responding to this material.
Questions:-
Mourning in America
COLLAPSE
Your task here is to share with your peers your ideas on how
three
specific rhetorical elements or your choosing are used in this ad to make its appeal to an audience and to convey a message.
1. Identity the three rhetorical elements that you have selected and then
explain
how each .
1.Some say that analytics in general dehumanize managerial activitie.docxcroysierkathey
1.Some say that analytics in general dehumanize managerial activities, and others say they do not. Discuss arguments for both points of view.
2.What are some of the major privacy concerns in employing intelligent systems on mobile data?
3. Identify some cases of violations of user privacy from current literature and their impact on data science as a profession.
4.Search the Internet to find examples of how intelligent systems can facilitate activities such as empowerment, mass customization, and teamwork.
Note: Each question must be answered in 5 lines and refrences must be APA cited.
.
1.What is the psychological term for the symptoms James experiences .docxcroysierkathey
1.What is the psychological term for the symptoms James experiences after abstaining from consuming
alcohol? How do changes in the functioning of neurotransmitter systems produce these symptoms?
2.With reference to associative learning principles/models/theories, why does James consume alcohol
to alleviate these symptoms? What motivates his drinking behaviour given that he no longer enjoys this
activity (most of the time)?
3.How do these factors prevent James from quitting his drinking, and lead to a cycle of relapse when he
attempts to do so? Why are these processes important for our understanding of addiction and
substance use disorders.
1 Page
at least 3 sources
APA
.
1.Write at least 500 words discussing the benefits of using R with H.docxcroysierkathey
1.Write at least 500 words discussing the benefits of using R with Hadoop. Use APA format and Include at least 3 quotes from your sources enclosed in quotation marks.
2.Write at least 500 words discussing how insurance companies use text mining to reduce fraud. Use APA format and Include at least 3 quotes from your sources enclosed in quotation marks.
.
1.What is Starbucks’ ROA for 2012, 2011, and 2010 Why might focusin.docxcroysierkathey
1.What is Starbucks’ ROA for 2012, 2011, and 2010? Why might focusing specifically on ROA be misleading when assessing asset management (aka management efficiency)?
2.Why is ROE considered the most useful metric in measuring the overall ability of a business strategy to generate returns for shareholders?
3. How do the financial statements reveal company strategy (i.e., what story do the numbers tell and does that story align with the strategy of Starbucks?)?
.
1. Discuss the cultural development of the Japanese and the Jewis.docxcroysierkathey
1. Discuss the cultural development of the Japanese and the Jewish heritage.
2. What are the cultural beliefs of the Japanese and Jewish heritage related to health care and how they influence the delivery of evidence-based healthcare?
A minimum of 2 evidence-based references
no older than 5 years is required.
A minimum of 600 words
(excluding the first and references page) is required.
.
1. Discuss at least 2 contextual factors(family, peers, school,.docxcroysierkathey
1.
Discuss at least 2 contextual factors(family, peers, school, community, work, etc.) that might make young people more or less likely to experience adolescence as a period of storm and stress.
2. How might the dramatic physical changes that adolescents undergo—and the accompanying reactions from others—influence other aspects of development, such as social or emotional development?
3. Describe some ways in which adolescent decision making is a product of interactions among puberty, brain development, cognitive growth, and contextual influences such as parents, peers, and community.
.
1.Write at least 500 words in APA format discussing how to use senti.docxcroysierkathey
1.Write at least 500 words in APA format discussing how to use sentiment analysis how political speech affects voters. Use at least 3 references in APA format.
2.Read the below article(link below) on statistics for categorical variables. Write at least 500 words in APA format discussing how to use these statistics to help understand big data.
Link: https://uc-r.github.io/descriptives_categorical
.
1.The following clause was added to the Food and Drug Actthe S.docxcroysierkathey
1.The following clause was added to the Food and Drug Act:
“the Secretary [of the Food and Drug Administration] shall not approve for use in food any chemical additive found to induce cancer in man, or, after tests, found to induce cancer in animals.”
After this clause was adopted, no new additives could be approved for use in food if they caused cancer in people or animals.
The public loved this and industry hated it.
What do you think of this clause? Do you support it or do you oppose it?
At the top of your post, please indicate SUPPORT or OPPOSE and then give your rationale. Then after you can view your classmates' posts, make your case to your fellow students.
2.There was a law that individuals who were indigent and who wished to litigate could apply to the courts for a total waiver of the normal filing fee. In the legislative session, however, a statute was enacted which limits the courts' authority to waive filing fees in lawsuits brought by prisoners against the state government.
Under this new law, a court has to require the prisoner to pay a filing fee "equal to 20 percent ... of the average monthly deposits made to the prisoner's [prison] account ... or the average balance in that account", whichever is greater (unless this calculation yields a figure larger than the normal filing fee).
A prisoner (who was indigent) wanted to appeal his case and was to be charged this fee. He filed suit claiming it was unconstitutional to charge this fee to prisoners.
Choose the side of the prisoner or the side of the state and tell why you would rule for the side you chose.
At the top of your post, please indicate SUPPORT PRISONER or OPPOSE PRISONER and then give your rationale. After you can view your classmates' posts, make your case to your fellow students.
3.A defendant pleaded guilty to receiving and possessing child pornography and was sentenced to 108 months in prison. The sentencing judge raised the defendant’s base offense level….by two levels because "a computer was used for the transmission" of the illegal material.
The appeal filed challenged the punishment enhancement (not his guilt of the base punishment.)
The defendant argued the law did not apply to him because he did not use a computer to transmit the material. (ie He was the receiver, not the sender, of the child pornography.)
Do you believe that the sentence enhancement should be upheld? Give an economic analysis and rational for your choice.
At the top of your post, please indicate SENTENCE UPHELD or SENTENCE REVERSED and then give your economic analysis/rationale. After you can view your classmates' posts, make your case to your fellow students.
4.The ordinance was enacted that gives tenants more legal rights including:
the payment of interest on security deposits;
requires that those deposits be held in Illinois banks;
allows (with some limitations) a tenant to withhold rent in an amount reflecting the cost to him of the landlord's v.
1.What are social determinants of health Explain how social determ.docxcroysierkathey
1.What are social determinants of health? Explain how social determinants of health contribute to the development of disease. Describe the fundamental idea that the communicable disease chain model is designed to represent. Give an example of the steps a nurse can take to break the link within the communicable disease chain.
Resources within your text covering international/global health, and the websites in the topic materials, will assist you in answering this discussion question.
2. Select a global health issue affecting the international health community. Briefly describe the global health issue and its impact on the larger public health care systems (i.e., continents, regions, countries, states, and health departments). Discuss how health care delivery systems work collaboratively to address global health concerns and some of the stakeholders that work on these issues.
Resources within your text covering international/global health, and the websites in the topic materials, will assist you in answering this discussion question.
.
1.This week, we’ve been introduced to the humanities and have ta.docxcroysierkathey
1.
This week, we’ve been introduced to the humanities and have taken some time to consider the role of the humanities in establishing socio-cultural values, including how the humanities differ from the sciences in terms of offering unique lenses on the world and our reality. Since one of the greatest rewards of being a human is engaging with different forms of art, we’ve taken some time this week to learn about what it means to identify and respond to a work of art. We’ve learned about the difference between abstract ideas and concrete images and concepts like structure and artistic form. To help you deepen your understanding of these foundational ideas, your Unit 1 assignment will consist of writing an essay addressing using the following criteria:
Essay Requirements:
• 1,000 words or roughly four double-spaced pages.
• Make use of at least three scholarly sources to support and develop your ideas. Our course text may serve as one of these three sources.
• Your essay should demonstrate a thorough understanding of the READ and ATTEND sections.
• Be sure to cite your sources using proper APA format (7th edition).
Essay Prompt:
• In this essay, you will consider the meaning of art and artistic form by responding to these questions:
o To what extent does Kevin Carter’s Pulitzer Prize-winning photograph (figure 2-5) have artistic form?
o Using what you’ve learned in Chapters 1, 2 and 14 explain if you consider Carter’s photograph a work of art? Be sure to point to specific qualities of the photograph to support/develop your response.
o How do you measure the intensity of your experience in response to Carter’s photograph? What does it make you see/feel/imagine and how does your response/reaction support Carter’s image as a work of art?
.
1.What are barriers to listening2.Communicators identif.docxcroysierkathey
1.
What are barriers to listening?
2.
Communicators identified the following as major listening poor habits. Search what each poor habit means and try to set an example using your own experience.
Poor listening habit:
Pseudo-listening, Stage hogging, Filling in gaps, Selective listening, Ambushing (
Definition & Example)
.
1.Timeline description and details There are multiple way.docxcroysierkathey
1.
Timeline description and details
: There are multiple ways to construct a timeline. Find one that fits you and your information.
Include 10-15 events, each including the following descriptors:
- titles of books or writings or some sort of identifier
- your age or some time reference
- and whether it was a positive or negative experience
.
1.The PresidentArticle II of the Constitution establishe.docxcroysierkathey
1.
The President
Article II of the Constitution established the institution of the presidency. Select any TWO Presidents prior to 1933 and any TWO Presidents since 1933 and for EACH one:
a.
Discuss
any
expressed
power used by each president and the
impact
that decision had on American society at the time of its use
b.
Explain
whether you
agree/disagree
with the presidential action taken and
WHY
c.
Describe
one
legislative initiative
promoted by each president and the
impact
on America at the
time of its passage
as well as what the impact of that legislation is
TODAY
d.
Discuss
one
executive order
issued by each president and whether you
agree/disagree
with the order and
WHY
1.
Select any FOUR United States Supreme court decisions related to Civil Rights/Civil Liberties and for
each one
:
a.
Describe
the facts of the case
b.
Discuss
the arguments of each side as it pertains to the
Constitutional issue
being addressed
c.
Explain
the decision citing
Constitutional rationale
of the court including any dissenting opinion if not a unanimous verdict
d.
Explain
whether you
agree/disagree
with the court’s decision and
WHY
.
1.What other potential root causes might influence patient fal.docxcroysierkathey
1.
What other potential root causes might influence patient falls?
2.
Equipped with the data, what would you do about the hypotheses that proved to be unsupported?
3.
Based on the correctly identified hypothesis in the case scenario, what would be your course of action if you were the CEO/president of St. Xavier Memorial Hospital?
4.
What do you think of the CNO’s (Sara Mullins) position of “waiting and seeing what the data tells us” instead of immediately jumping to conclusions?
.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology1991, Vol. 59, .docx
1. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
1991, Vol. 59, No. 6,799-812
Copyright 1991 by the American Psychological Association.
Inc.
0022-006X/91/S3.00
Cultural Diversity and Treatment of Children
Roland G. Tharp
University of California, Santa Cruz
The increasing cultural diversity of child clients has produced a
cascade of new issues and concerns
for psychological practice, theory, and research. Available
evidence and pertinent theory are re-
viewed on such topics as the predictive utility and treatment
consequences of ethnic membership,
whether treatments should be generic or specific to cultural
groups, the degree of privilege that
should be accorded to same-culture therapists, and the relative
desirability of different modalities
of treatment for children of different cultural groups. The
concept of cultural compatibility of
treatment is explored and evaluated. A broad agenda of
hypotheses for research and development is
2. suggested, and some guidelines for clinical practice and policy
are proposed. It is concluded that
insofar as possible, treatment for all children should be
contextualized in their family's and commu-
nity's structure of meanings, relationships, and language.
The culturally diverse society that our nation has become
provides a challenge to our politics, our schools, our science,
and our profession. As reiterated by concerned commissions,
agencies, professional organizations, and review articles in-
cluding the current Guidelines for Providers of Psychological
Services to Ethnic andCulturatty Diverse Populations (American
Psychological Association, 1990), we are instructed that "Psy-
chologists should recognize ethnicity and culture as significant
parameters in understanding psychological processes" (p. 4)
before delivering services. What will be necessary to satisfy
this
new imperative? Self-examination? New specialized training?
Anthropological indoctrination, religious and spiritual relativ-
ism, multilingualism, "politically correct" thought? And most
to the point, what are the required practical clinical actions? In
discussing these questions, Pedersen and Marsella (1982) con-
clude that to know all and do all that a psychologist should is a
goal that accelerates beyond us.
The task is to bring some order out of this cascade of new
issues and concerns, in the light of available research evidence
and pertinent theory. I will suggest here that some broad out-
lines for strategy are emerging, with enough clarity at least to
pose an agenda of hypotheses for research and development,
and possibly even to provide an initial set of guidelines for
clinical practice and policy. These strategies can be stated
clearly enough to allow them to be tested by both formal
evalua-
tion and clinical experience.
3. Not to overpromise, it should be said that research on cul-
tural issues in clinical treatment is scant, particularly research
addressing such issues with children. We must rely on evidence
from other age groups and look to related literatures (family and
community) where child treatment is discussed. Cultural issues
in the education of children is a field somewhat more mature,
and if considered cautiously, evidence from that field can serve
by analogy. Other disciplines, notably anthropology and lin-
guistics, have a longer history with the study of ethnic and
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Ro-
land G. Tharp, Merrill College, University of California, Santa
Cruz,
California 95064.
cultural diversity, and psychology can anticipate from their ex-
perience. In attempting to discern the figure in this ground, we
can fit some of these diverse tesserae into the beginning of a
mosaic. Still, there are more spaces than tiles.
Basic Questions
Concerns arising from both theory and practice converge on
four basic questions about the implications of cultural member-
ship for the treatment of children. First, is there a useful level
of
developmental analysis, which I will call here ethnogenetic, that
accounts for important current features of a childls psychology
in terms of the historical forces operating on his or her ances-
tors in a time frame of hundreds to thousands of years? That is,
does ethnogenesis, which lies in the dimension of time between
phylogenesis and ontogenesis, provide critical elements for un-
4. derstanding and treating the child's present condition?
Second, are there present in cultures psychosocial features so
widely shared that membership is a useful guide for prescrip-
tion of clinical services? Or, conversely, does membership as a
guide result in stereotypical overgeneralization, and are more
conventional individual and family descriptors to be preferred?
Third, are there forms of treatment—either potential or ac-
tual—that are specifically or uniquely suited for the treatment
of children of different cultures? It is important to differentiate
specific from unique. Although one or another form of therapy
may be specifically suited for members of one culture, that does
not mean that the modality is exclusively suited to them; family
therapy, for example, might prove to be the treatment of choice
of members of several cultures, whereas the sweat lodge might
be uniquely suited to those of only one.
Fourth, are culture members privileged in the capacity to
treat or to investigate the treatment of children of their own
culture? Although the literature has not necessarily developed
in response to them, these questions may be borne in mind as
the available knowledge is reviewed.
Cultural Differences in Diagnosis and Treatment
Cultural Differences in Pathology
Some childhood disorders are of particular frequency in cer-
tain cultural groups, because of either characteristic social
799
800 ROLAND G. THARP
5. problems or psychosocial structures. Weisz, Suwanlert, Chaiya-
sit, and Walter (1987) consider psychosocial differences by con-
trasting Thailand, a Buddhist nation, which discourages chil-
dren's aggression and encourages inhibition, peacefulness,
politeness, and deference, with the United States, where inde-
pendence, competitiveness, and differentiation from the family
as the goal of socialization is widespread. In Thailand, children
and adolescents are referred for clinic treatment more often for
"overcontrolled syndrome" (fearfillness, sleep problems, soma-
ticizing), whereas in the United States referred children and
adolescents are reported more often with "undercontrolled
syndrome" (disobedience, fighting, arguing). The same general
pattern is discernible in an epidemiological study, although the
culturally consistent trends are more marked in parents' deci-
sions to refer for treatment than in their general ratings of their
children (Weisz, Suwanlert, Chaiyasit, Weiss, et at, 1987). An-
other "overcontrolled" society (Jamaican) has produced similar
results (Lambert, Weisz, & Knight, 1989).
6. Many describe minority status itself as a stressor, because it is
often associated with hostility and prejudice. According to
Moritsugu and Sue (1983) minority status also often is asso-
ciated with a lack of effective support during crises and the
danger of developing ineffective cognitive coping styles. The
status of all minorities, however, is not the same, and neither
are
their characteristic stressors nor responses to them. In the field
of minority education, the nature of stress and the responses to
it are often differentiated for the children of voluntary immi-
grant groups versus those of "involuntary" minority children.
Children of the latter (such as African Americans and Native
Americans) learn that education does not lead to economic
improvement, and they become withdrawn and hostile in
school. Children of recent minority groups, however, may feel
the stress of difference, but see that their people prosper
through education, and they may respond in school by striving.
Gibson and Ogbu (1991), with whose names this analysis is
associated, are now attempting to further differentiate among
7. minority groups as to the specific defenses and coping mecha-
nisms used.
As an example of disorders in response to culturally charac-
teristic stressors, Indochinese refugee children treated in Cali-
fornia were recovering from such severe stress that application
of categories from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (3rd ed., DSM-III, 1980, American Psychiat-
ric Association) was confounded (Krener & Sabin, 1985). The
pattern is found with Central American refugee children as well
(Arredondo, Orjuela, & Moore, 1989). "For every one of our
patients, Axis I DSM-III diagnoses could be reached on the
basis of the patient's fulfilling the criteria, but the diagnosis
was
felt to be incompletely descriptive or fundamentally wrong"
(Krener & Sabin, 1985, p. 457). The issue does not derive only
from specific stress; their Indochinese child patients revealed
cross-cultural child-rearing differences and their potential mis-
construing as psychopathology. For example, the American
concept of mourning includes a sequencing of stages and a time
8. limitation. Indochinese, who believe that the dead live after
bodily death, may be seen as manifesting pathological or in-
complete grief. "Particular DSM-III diagnostic categories. . .
break down when we attempt to apply them cross-culturally,
and . . . may have only qualified validity within our own cul-
ture" (Krener & Sabin, 1985, p. 457). These authors decry the
practice of applying the diagnostic scheme of one culture to
child patients from another.
Among indigenous minorities, there are also characteristic
child problems. Because of high rates of death and displace-
ment, Crow Indian children objectively experience repeated
and traumatic loss; they suffer a chronic condition of mourning
and depression (Long, 1983). The common plight of the acting-
out, depressed, poor, alienated Black male adolescent is an-
other example of a disorder so frequent in that group as to
require a psychocultural category. Paster (1985) provides a dis-
cussion of this syndrome, emphasizing the way that political,
historical, societal, economic, interpersonal, and intrapsychic
9. factors may be seen as intertwined and reciprocally reinforcing;
the article is an example of how ethnogenetic, ontogenetic, and
microgenetk levels of analysis integrate.
When such integrated-genetic analyses are performed, it is
difficult to discount cultural factors. The case can be made that
not only in minorities are cultural, ethnogenetic features pres-
ent in psychopathology.
The overwhelming evidence of cultural psychiatric literature. . .
is that cultural factors are a substantial part of every disorder
and
not a descriptive, picturesque component.. . . What is lacking in
the [DSM-III] system, from a Latin-American perspective, is the
explicit recognition of psychocultural categories or cultural
crite-
ria—or both—to aid in the identification of crucial categories
and in the description of clusters of symptoms. (Alarcon, 1983,
p.
104)
The even stronger case is made by Marsella and Higgenbotham
(1984), who argue that reserving the term culture-specific for
exotic disorders merely delays the awareness that all disorders
are culture-specific, and so is all treatment.
Cultural Differences in Treatment
10. Do clients of all cultures receive equal mental health services?
Meta-analyses of research conclude that the issue is not clear
(Atkinson, 1985; Sue & Zane, 1987) because of the usual re-
search problems of nonuniformity of treatment goals, inaccessi-
bility of records, inappropriate analog designs, and absence of
any process research. However, to illustrate the issue, we may
consider a set of data that appear to make the optimistic case,
that clients are offered about the same services according to
diagnosis and prognosis, without regard for ethnicity. Sue, Al-
len, and Conaway (1978) studied 13,450 clients and found no
evidence that Hispanic or Native-American clients in commu-
nity mental health facilities were offered inferior or discrimina-
tory services in either diagnosis, assigned personnel, or type of
treatment. However, Hispanic and Native American clients fre-
quently did not return after the initial treatment session. In
these facilities, the dropout rates were Hispanic 42%, Indian
55%, Black 52%, Asian-American 52%, and Anglo clients only
30%. Why are these rates so high for minority culture clients?
The authors indict not only the fit of the assigned type of ser-
11. vice, but the quality of the professional interaction. Thus the
same service is not necessarily responsive service, and in its
effects, identical is not necessarily equal.
Techniques that are of demonstrated utility in one culture
may not operate in the same way for others. In a study con-
SPECIAL SECTION: CULTURAL DIVERSITY 801
ducted by Lieh-Mak, Lee, & Luk (1984), Hong Kong Chinese
parents were trained to be mediators of behavior therapy for
their own children, but the therapists reported severe culturally
based reluctance, arising from patterns of traditional family
structure and interaction. These parents found it difficult to
play with their children or respond contingently with praise or
ignoring, because this violated their accustomed mode of child
rearing, their beliefs about childhood problems, and their atti-
tudes about the proper role of doctors. Thus Lieh-Mak, Lee, &
Luk warn against the ethnocentric bias involved in importing
treatment modalities from one culture to another.
Cultural Differences in Knowledge
The core of the problem, according to King, Moody, Thomp-
son, & Bennett (1983), is that mental health intellectual and
institutional constructions
reflect the orientations of educators, researchers, and therapists
who too often make judgments about and define programs for
Black persons and communities with insufficient data on the na-
12. ture of these persons and communities, their beliefs, values or
their abilities and resources. We have almost developed an inca-
pacity to shift from our Anglo-American perceptions, to change
our attitudes and to foster real change. (King et al., 1983, p. 5)
This perception of establishment ignorance and nonrespon-
siveness is not limited to African-American psychologists.
Although non-Indian psychologists are becoming increasingly
in-
volved in mental health service delivery to American Indians,
they are, unfortunately, typically not prepared to work
effectively
with Indian clientele. The non-Indian psychologist may not be
aware of the cultural values, life-styles, family practices,
develop-
mental progressions, and needs of their American Indian clients.
This lack of cultural awareness typically results in conflicts and
frustrations for both the psychologist and his or her Indian
clients;
ultimately, American Indian children and families may not re-
ceive appropriate mental health services. (Everett, Proctor, &
Cartmell, 1983, p. 588)
Not only is the individual client harmed, but child workers who
devalue native culture may actually intensify social disorgani-
zation in Indian communities (Sullivan, 1983).
The single most important explanation for the problems in
service
delivery involves the inability of therapists to provide culturally
responsive forms of treatment.. . .Most therapists are not famil-
iar with the cultural backgrounds and life-styles of various
ethnic-
minority groups and have received training primarily developed
for Anglo, or mainstream, Americans. . . [and ] are often unable
13. to devise culturally appropriate forms of treatment, and ethnic-
minority clients frequently find mental health services strange,
foreign, or unhelpful. (Sue & Zane, 1987, p. 37)
Many mental health professionals find clients of some cul-
tures strange and unhelpful, or even harmful, for example in
the area of child abuse/neglect. Gray and Cosgrove (1985) inter-
viewed Mexican, Samoan, Vietnamese, Filipino, Japanese, and
Blackfoot as to their culturally normative child rearing values
and practices. The researchers then examined these practices
for the likelihood of their being misunderstood as "abuse" or
"neglect" by child-protective professionals. That potential for
misunderstanding is very high, particularly around two basic
topics: the degree of responsibility delegated to children and
the degree to which children should submit to adult domi-
nance. The authors suggest that ignorance of these differential
norms will lead to mistreatment of some parents by ethnocen-
tric social workers. It should be noted that the potential for
misunderstanding of one another's parenting conventions
across all ethnic groups is high, and not restricted to Euro-
Americans. However, the institutionalization of Euro-Ameri-
can norms into professional assumptions is a hazard to ad-
vances in psychocultural understanding and to the just percep-
tion of parents' behaviors within other cultures. A source book
on ethnic child socialization is Phinney and Rotheram (1987),
on cultural approaches to parenting is Bernstein (1991), and an
analysis of the use of such information in understanding child
abuse and neglect is Korbin (1980).
Much of the research and professional literature in culture
and mental health attempts to provide enough information to
sensitize psychologists to cultural issues in diagnosis and treat-
ment. Several journals have published special issues on culture
and mental health, and edited books on the topic are the most
typical medium of communication. The typical pattern of
14. these publications is to have several chapters on specific cul-
tures, book-ended by introductory and summary chapters that
attempt more general discussions.' This construction well com-
municates the state of analysis of the issues. The field suffers
from a shortage of empirical studies of program or variable
evaluation, and there are virtually no studies of process in
cross-cultural treatment. Nevertheless, this literature can sensi-
tize the therapist to some issues that may be present for cul-
turally unfamiliar clients.2
Differences Within Cultures
This general approach—to learn as much about cultures as
possible—is frustrated by significant differences among sub-
groups and individuals within cultures. Everett, Proctor, and
Cartmell (1983) point out the vast intertribal, interclan, urban-
traditional, and individual differences among American In-
dian clients. Isomura, Fine, and Lin (1987) discuss the differ-
ences in offering services to Japanese immigrant families of the
first, second, and third generations. Hispanic cultures differen-
tiate among themselves; Cuban-, Mexican-, and Puerto Rican-
Americans celebrate their distinctions as well as their common
causes. Although clients expect respect and understanding of
1 See, e.g, Atkinson, Morton, and Sue (1989); Pedersen,
Sartorius,
and Marsella (1984); Chunn, Dunston, and Ross-Sheriff (1983).
2 Notable journals include a special issue of Psychotherapy
titled
"Psychotherapy with Ethnic Minorities." There is a special issue
of the
American Journal of Social Psychiatry on psychiatric care of
minority
15. groups, ftmily therapy with immigrant families is treated in
Journal of
Strategic and Systemic Therapies, and Journal of Drug Issues
has a
special issue on "Alcohol Problems and Minority Youth." A
useful
compilation of orientations to family structure and function,
with im-
plications for family treatment, is discussed for 20 different
cultural
groups in McColdrick, Pearce, & Giordano (1982), and more
recently
by Ho (1987,1990), who presents useful tabular comparisons of
family-
therapy relevant dimensions by culture. For child treatment, the
most
useful volumes of this sort are Children of Color: Psychological
Interven-
tions With Minority Youth (Gibbs & Huang, 1989) and Ethnic
Issues in
Adolescent Mental Health (Stiffman & Davis, 1990).
802 ROLAND G. THARP
16. their culture and values, all will resent being seen merely as a
representative of a cultural central tendency.
Issues of culture and treatment exist today in a context of
tempestuous intercultural relations in the political and eco-
nomic arena, putting us in hazard of using cultural member-
ship as no more than stereotypical overgeneralization. A part
of the research agenda must therefore be to unpack the cultural
variable (Whiting, 1976) so that differentiating characteristics
within culture can be understood for clinical implications for
individuals. In this way culture can be analyzed for its variable
influence on individuals, in contrast to approaches that assign
an equal value to culture for all members of a group. I am
unaware of such work within mental health disciplines, but an
idea of the strategy is given by work in culture and education
(e.g., Weisner, Gallimore, & Jordan, 1988). Gallimore, Reese,
Balzano, Benson, and Goldenberg (1991), in investigating the
correlates of academic success for children of Mexican immi-
grants, found that the domestic variable with the strongest rela-
tionship to child school success is whether the father uses skills
of literacy/numeracy in his employment (not the level of
father's
education). This kind of finer grained analysis of cultural and
community life would allow us accurately to perceive the dy-
namics of culture in the daily life of the individual child in the
consulting chair.
Faced with these contradictions, confusions, similarities, and
differences, mental health professionals have advocated every
position on the continuum. Some writers bundle all "children
of color" together and believe their cause is common. Other
writers call for culturally derived diversity of treatments, and
others insist on a universality of the form of treatment, al-
though of course purified by a correction of racist attitudes.
Psychological science is now searching for a system of under-
standing, and some theoretical guidance that
17. goes beyond a study of exotic populations from different
cultures
and examines guidelines for excellence for mental health as a
whole. . .the case for emphasizing cultural context in the under-
standing, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders has
been
made extensively and persuasively. . .The problem we face,
how-
ever is going from general knowledge about culture traditions to
specific mental health practices. This is where the
disagreements,
debates, and arguments begin and where the pragmatists fre-
quently lose interest. (Sartorius, Pedersen, & Marsella, 1984,
p. 282)
The Cultural Compatibility Hypothesis
The hypothesis of cultural compatibility suggests that treat-
ment is more effective when compatible with client culture pat-
terns. The hypothesis has a more mature theoretical and re-
search base in child education (Tharp, 1989) than in child men-
tal health, but the issues may be argued in substantially the
same terms. Three forms of this hypothesis exist. The strong
form, or culturally specific version, suggests that the most
effec-
tive interventions for different cultures will be different and
specific (if not unique) to cultures. Proponents are associated
with the effort to derive culturally based modalities or varia-
tions of treatment.
A weaker form is the two-type hypothesis, which suggests
that there are two types of cultures, and therefore two types of
most-effective clinical interventions. The first type is the
major-
18. ity, or Euro-American, culture; the second type includes those
cultures whose students typically experience problems in
schools, who are by-and-large children of color, less industrial-
ized, urbanized, or western acculturated, and who thus share
crucial incompatibilities with standard mental health prac-
tices. In this position, effective treatment strategies for children
of color would not be critically different from one another. This
position is more salient in social work (e.g., Lum, 1986) than in
psychology.
The null form of the cultural compatibility hypothesis is the
universalistic argument that effective treatments will follow the
same course for all cultures. This is the default hypothesis of
clinical psychology, in that the unreflective proceed as though
there are no significant differences. However, many universal-
ists agree that there are some variant subroutines that make
minority children and their families more comfortable and are
willing to engage in the search for these accommodations.
The challenge faced by all is to balance universality and plu-
ralism, preserving an authentic responsiveness to individual
differences while avoiding an impractically large number of
kinds of treatments (Huang & Gibbs, 1989). The obstacles are
several, but they include pervasive psychological theory that
lacks concepts crucial to the solution, and in which culture
itself
plays almost no role as a variable.
Proponents of all three positions appear to be moderately
satisfied with the existing monolith of treatment, as derived
from, practiced by, and practiced for Europeans and Euro-
Americans. Whether their hypotheses call for erecting many
other treatment structures, as in the culturally specific position;
or creating one other alternate for children of color, as in the
two-type hypothesis; or only for modifying and polishing the
universalist structure, there is no systematic understanding
19. that the serious examination of the issues of culture and treat-
ment may well call for a restructuring of the monolith itself,
even for children of its own.
Approaches to Culturally Compatible Treatment
Each of these hypotheses operates in the same arena and
takes its different positions on certain salient issues. These in-
clude modifying professional role behaviors, assigning same-
ethnicity professionals, and searching for the process details
that will create or modify compatible procedures.
Modified Professional Roles in Cross-Cultural Treatment
Jenkins (1985), in discussing Afro-American clients, sug-
gests that they should be approached in a down-to-earth and
egalitarian manner that reduces status differences. In this way a
positive affective response is made more likely, and early treat-
ment attrition is reduced. By contrast, it is not uncommon that
a more authoritative, formal, and concrete therapist role is rec-
ommended for Japanese clients (e.g, Isomura, Fine, & Lin,
1987). Hong (1988) recommends that a psychologist dealing
with an Asian-American clientele operate in a context of gen-
eral family practice as a primary care provider, similar to the
traditional family doctor who provides treatment for clients
and their families, thus assessing the strong and traditional role
of the family, minimizing client families' inhibition against
SPECIAL SECTION: CULTURAL DIVERSITY 803
seeking mental health services, and taking advantage of the
Asian-American's respect and deference to doctors.
Juarez (198S) recommends a firm, instructing, professional
20. demeanor when working with the Hispanic client, as do most
who write from the Latino perspective. However, consider this
quotation from Montijo (1985):
Any therapeutic model that strives to serve poor Puerto Ricans
or
poor people in general cannot. . .enhance the control and hierar-
chical superiority of the therapist at the cost of the greater sense
of
self-esteem produced by the assumption of greater autonomy,
as-
sertiveness, and responsibility by patients, (p. 439)
This contradiction is consistent with differences that flow
from economic class, as well as differences in opinion as to
whether mental health treatment should be seen first as an
instrumentality that feeds and is fed by an existing social order.
Furthermore, as in all efforts to match treatment to culture,
there are wide individual and subgroup/acculturation differ-
ences in client preferences for therapist roles (Sue & Zane,
1987).
Even if there were agreement on recommendations for profes-
sional role stances toward members of different cultures, prob-
lems remain, including the difficulty for any therapist of mani-
festing flexible role behaviors and maintaining authenticity.
More fundamentally, many forms of treatment have theoretical
requirements for specific role characteristics of the therapist.
How much cultural variation in therapist behavior could be
allowed without wounding the core of client-centered therapy,
or psychoanalysis, or any theory driven treatment?
Ethnicity ofTherapists: The Question of Privileged Status
When there are pervasive social attitudes from one culture
toward another, are they likely to infiltrate the therapeutic rela-
21. tionship? Spurlock (1985) and Sykes (1987) both recommend an
early and frank discussion of the comfort of the client in Black/
White cross-cultural treatment, thus assisting both parties to
understand racially based attitudes. Greene (1985), following
Kupers (1981), articulates four general stances that are expres-
sions of racism, and for which White therapists are enjoined to
self-examination. They are (a) bigotry, "a conscious or uncon-
scious belief in White supremacy and as a consequence, the
feeling that the Black patient's problems are an outgrowth of
the patient's inferiority"; (b) color blindness, which "may repre-
sent the therapist's resistance to confronting the meaning of the
color difference'1, (c) paternalism, which "involves the attribu-
tion of all of the patient's problems to society and the effects of
racism. To do this will fail to help patients to understand any
role they may have in their dilemma"; and (d), "often a result of
the therapist's racial guilt, is the unquestioning compliance
with the rhetoric of Black power . . . [which] can result in a
failure or reluctance to set appropriate limits or interpret act-
ing-out." The Black patient may consciously or unconsciously
put the White therapist to a series of tests to determine the
acceptance as an individual. "It remains, however, the thera-
pist's responsibility to be familiar with the Black patient's cul-
ture to some extent, and with his or her own personal feelings
and motivations for and about working with Black patients"
(Greene, 1985; all quotations in this paragraph are from pp.
392-393). Is there any acceptable stance? Or are same-ethnicity
therapists privileged in knowledge and attitude and thus in
power of effectiveness?
College youths have clear preferences for counselors who are
like themselves—in many dimensions, not only ethnicity Sam-
ples give somewhat different results, depending on geographi-
cal location, but by and large students prefer counselors who
are well educated and of the same ethnicity and gender and who
share their attitudes and values; by and large students report
22. themselves more likely to use counseling services when their
preferences are met (Atkinson, Furlong, & Poston, 1986; Atkin-
son, Poston, Furlong, & Mercado, 1989; Haviland, Horswill,
(JConnell, & Dynneson, 1983; Ponterotto, Alexander, & Hink-
ston. 1988). Preference is not the same as effectiveness. In a
discussion of counseling with Mexican-American youth, De-
Blassie (1976) insists that a therapist need not be Hispanic to be
effective. Rather, common humanity is sufficient, and if solid
counseling skills and correct, generous counselor attitudes are
present, so too will be effectiveness. However, this author goes
on to report many areas of values and beliefs that are arguably
specific to Mexican-American youth, knowledge of which is
critical to empathic understanding (DeBlassie. 1976).
Sue (1988), who has labored long in the field of culture and
treatment, reviews the literature on ethnic matching of thera-
pist and client in psychotherapy and finds contradictory and
inconclusive evidence as to whether matching is superior. He
distinguishes between ethnic membership (which emphasizes
national or geographic origin of ancestors) and cultural mem-
bership (which emphasizes current identifications with the
group or groups, and their commonalities of values, attitudes,
motives, etc.). Although concluding that ethnic matching is
irrel-
evant, whereas cultural matching is likely to be an authentic
distal variable affecting outcome, Sue urges researchers to con-
sider more proximal variables, such as how cultural knowledge
is translated into particular therapeutic behaviors and deci-
sions. This position emphasizes the therapist's capacity for
correct understanding and for comfortable communication.
The issue is not whether patients are treated more effectively by
same-race, same-class, or same-sex therapists, but whether the
therapists' interpretation of the clients' cultural experience
creates the ambience that is necessary to establish rapport and
an
23. empathic bond which facilitates the therapeutic process.
(Juarez,
1985, p. 441)
This resolution is similar to that espoused for cultural re-
search by the Cuban-American anthropologist Dominguez
(1985; 1986), who has worked both as "member" and "outsider"
in cultural research. Her position is that "native" members' ac-
counts of their own situation may well be privileged, because of
their intimate, subjective, and empathic knowledge. This does
not excuse native anthropologists' accounts from the disci-
plines of their scholarship and profession and does not invali-
date the outsider anthropologist's account, over which in terms
of objectivity the native account is not ipso facto privileged. By
analogy, it appears that psychological treatment, relying so
heavily on both subjective and objective accuracy of perception,
must attempt to maximize that accuracy in a variety of ways.
Ethnic matching may contribute, but as a matter of practicality
it is not an available strategy, and were it to be adopted, it
would
804 ROLAND G. THARP
exclude minority-culture therapists from treating most clients.
Are there other ways?
Culturally Specific Treatment Modalities
Many writers (e.g^ da Silva, 1984) urge therapists to become
aware of ethnogenetically determined patterns of help-seeking.
For example, folk healers may be approached for folk diseases
and scientific healers sought for infectious diseases, wounds,
and refractory emotional disorders. These patterns for some
Hispanic Americans are discussed in Tharp and Meadow
24. (1973). Among urban Colorado Hispanic-American women,
20% had visited a curandero (folk healer) for treatment, and
12%
had taken one or more of their children for treatment (Rivera,
1988). These treatments are far from conventional psychologi-
cal treatments in form, and they may involve prayers, rest, rit-
ual, and the ingestion of herbs. Many progressive treatment
centers provide for cooperative work among scientific and folk
practitioners.
More than specific forms, there are presumptions and meta-
processes in the traditional treatment practices of many cul-
tures that are drastically different from values inherent in Euro-
pean and American mental health treatment. LaFromboise,
Trimble, and Mohatt (1990) provide an excellent description of
American Indian healing processes, in which "religion, physiol-
ogy, and psychology intertwine" (p. 632) and where traditional
healing encourages the client to transcend the ego by experienc-
ing self as embedded in and expressive of community. Tradi-
tional ceremonies reinforce adherence to cultural values and
remind participants of the importance of family and commu-
nity networks. Indeed, the family, kin, and friends coalesce into
an interlocking network to observe and understand and to inte-
grate the individual back into the social life of the group. Un-
like conventional psychological treatments, American Indian
healing ceremonies and procedures usually involve the client's
family and community members along with the healer and
client. This collective treatment of the entire network "heals"
not only the individual, but reaffirms the norms and solidarity
of the entire group (Kaplan & Johnson, 1964).
A third route toward cultural compatibility is to specifically
design treatment modalities on and for members of specific
cultures. An excellent example is cuento therapy, developed for
Puerto Rican children by Costantino, Malgady, and Rogler
(1986), but no doubt equally appropriate for other Hispanic
25. groups for whom cuentos (cautionary folktales) are familiar so-
cialization devices. In this technique, cuentos that were either
traditional or adapted to reflect current conflicts in American
life were read to high-risk kindergarten through third-grade
children by their (bilingual, bicultural) therapists and their
mothers, and a discussion was then fostered exploring the
meaning of the tale. Results indicated that cuento therapy sig-
nificantly reduced children's trait anxiety relative to traditional
therapy and to no intervention, and this trend was stable over 1
year. Cuento therapy also increased Wechsler Intelligence Test
for Children-revised (WISC-R) Comprehension subtest
scores. The authors discuss this technique as a modeling ther-
apy, which is attractive to the children because of the cultural
familiarity of the story characters, and as a cognitive develop-
ment task, useful because of the familiarity of the story-telling
modality itself. They also point out the relevance of the litera-
ture on cognitive and social development of disadvantaged mi-
nority children, who respond well to fairy-tale, story-telling
formats in classroom contexts. We should also note that the
involvement of the mothers is another feature highly recom-
mended by most students of Latin-American child treatment,
regardless of treatment modality.
Choice of Treatment Levels and Modalities:
Compatibility Through Context
However desirable specific-culture treatments are held to be,
it must be noted that very few have been designed and reported,
although the issue of cultural compatibility has been with us for
nearly 40 years. The history of the cultural compatibility move-
ment in education has a similar pattern. In spite of heroic ef-
forts, almost no culturally "invented" specific educational mo-
dalities have been designed to survive the practicalities of
schools. In the culture and education movement, most
compatibilities have been established through choosing estab-
26. lished modalities that per se allow for greater influence of the
child's culture, or at least do not demand incompatible child
behavior. The majority of mental health programs for minority
children in the literature appear to be using that same tactic: By
electing modalities that naturally include family and commu-
nity members and settings, some compatibility is assured by the
objective introduction of the cultural context. I will discuss
those modalities in an order that represents a rough progression
from lesser toward greater contextualization in the client's cul-
ture.
Psychotherapy
In the eyes of the public, individually conducted talking
treatment conducted by a professional is the paradigmatic
treatment form. Many clients of many cultures insist on receiv-
ing it because they have been convinced of its primacy and are
well aware of its elevated status. Indeed psychotherapy is not
per se ineffective for any culture (Sue, 1988); it can be made to
work for clients. For example, Paster (1985) makes a heroic
argument for the adaptations needed to psychodynamic psycho-
therapy so that it can be used with depressed, acting-out Black
male adolescents. Tyler, Sussewell, and Williams-McCoy
(1985)
address the issue of providing culturally sensitive services by
an
attempt to preserve the basic structure and concepts of psycho-
therapy while reconciling the universalist and particularist po-
sitions into a "transcendist" perspective of an "ethnic validity
model" that stresses that "persons from different ethnic/racial
backgrounds are psychosocially different but that under some
circumstances those differences can be transcended in ther-
apy" (p. 312).
With what reliability and regularity can therapists expect to
establish that transcendence? It appears to this writer that, be-
27. cause of two basic conditions, importing culture into individual
child psychotherapy is heavy freight indeed. First, individual
psychotherapy is a culturally specific form of treatment, just as
surely as is the sweat lodge or the herbalism of the curandero;
and second, of all the modalities at the command of the mental
health professions, individual psychotherapy most rigidly ex-
SPECIAL SECTION: CULTURAL DIVERSITY 805
eludes family or community members who might in feet import
the cultural context. In any event, the preponderance of writers
propose forms of treatment for minority children that struc-
turally involve participants who are themselves culture carriers.
Group Therapy
Kahn, Lewis, and Galvez (1974) reported a counseling pro-
gram for miscreant Papago Indian youth. The authors quickly
moved from an individual to a group therapy format, although
they improvised a number of changes to the usual confessional-
and-problem-sharing approach:
The cultural truth that Papagos are very reluctant to reveal per-
sonal and intimate details to others, particularly in a setting
with
their peers, appeared to be a major hurdle in developing much
group [therapy] interaction. It appeared that the main thing sus-
taining the group in early sessions was the money being paid for
attendance . . . [then] the therapists selected what they judged
would be a relevant problem or topic for these boys. The first
part
of the sessions [was] given to formal presentations.. . . How to
meet girls, venereal disease, homosexuality, drinking and
alcohol-
28. ism, the role of the male in the family, etc.. . . The boys would
talk about subjects or ask questions in the abstract or in terms
of a
third person." (Kahn, Lewis, & Galvez, p. 239-240)
The boys also confronted the [non-Indian] therapists about
their motivations and real reasons for working with them on the
reservation. They did develop regular attendance and much
improved arrest and school truancy rates.
Recourse to group treatment of children of cultures unfamil-
iar to the therapist can have many advantages, including the
socialization of new clients into an unfamiliar process, as well
as providing a socialization of the therapist into the client cul-
ture. Spurlock (1985) presents an instructive case in which a
White resident treats Black adolescents in just such a situation.
Problem Solving and Social Skills Training
Many writers recommend for Native American clients a
structured, problem-solving, skill-training approach, which
teaches through modeling and rehearsing those everyday skills
that are useful to Indian adolescents in adaptive living (e.g,
Long, 1983; Kahn et al, 1974; LaFromboise & Low, 1989; La-
Fromboise & Rowe, 1983; LaFromboise et al, 1990). Such pro-
grams have been successfully applied with Indian adolescents
to reduce substance abuse (Bobo, Cvetkovich, Gilchrist, Trim-
ble, & Schinke, 1987; Schinke et al, 1988), and adolescent sui-
cide (LaFromboise & BigFoot, 1988).
Globetti (1988) has reviewed alcohol education programs for
minority youth and concludes that similar programs are suited
for African-American and Hispanic youth as well. He does not
avoid the question of whether such an approach can be effective
without corresponding changes in family and neighborhood
conditions or without correction of the feelings of anomie, feel-
29. ings of oppression, marginal status, and the unemployment of
minority poverty. However, among Black, Hispanic, and Indian
minority communities, there are resources available for com-
munity treatment, including a strong abstinence sentiment es-
pecially among women and youth. A psychosocial skills ap-
proach reaches youth before they enter the age where drinking
patterns and attitudes become rigid. This approach emphasizes
values awareness and enhances self-esteem and a sense of self-
power through increasing abilities for stress reduction, decision
making, and behavioral alternatives such as assertiveness, re-
fusal skills, and social competency. Even minority youths in
effective social training groups for alcoholism prevention are
concerned with problem drinking by their family members.
Edwards and Edwards (1988) urge that Indian families be in-
volved, including nondrinking members and the extended fam-
ily
Family Therapy
Family therapy is often recommended by therapists and theo-
rists who are concerned to establish more compatible and more
effective treatment. Several considerations enter into this
broad-based recommendation. For example, consider that tan-
gle of racial attitudes, transferences, countertransferences, and
guilt that Greene (1985) cautions against in White treatment of
Black adolescents. Sykes (1987) recommends structured family
therapy (short-term, goal-directed) as a way of avoiding those
tangles, because the presence of the family establishes a Black
context in which the White therapist is a facilitator and in
which immediate problem solving is the focus.
The emphasis on extended family and on the individual as
part of a family in Asian culture is discussed by Chin (1983).
30. The Western view of family is more restrictive and based on the
nuclear family with the ultimate goal of a separation from the
family. The emphasis on nuclear family boundaries and
individual
"privacy" in Western families, when imposed on Asian-
American
families, often fails to appreciate the supportive networks,
social
cohesiveness, and sense of affiliation of the extended family.
The
diagnostic process needs to examine the indusiveness and inter-
dependence of kinship relationships in terms of how they might
facilitate the therapeutic process." (p. 107)
Because family therapy brings kin into the process itself, they
are less likely to be overlooked in the diagnostic process. In the
same way, family therapy mobilizes the available family re-
sources for impact on the situation of the child. Kim (1985)
endorses structured family therapy as the presumptive treat-
ment for children of Asian Americans and provides a valuable
discussion of the issues likely to arise in Asian families; merely
to resort to family treatment is no final escape for the therapist
from the need for cultural knowledge.
Structured family therapy was recommended by Inclan
(1985) for Puerto Rican and other Hispanic clients. Structural
family therapy was found to protect the integrity of the family
at 1-year follow-up, more than did psychodynamic child ther-
apy, although the two treatments were apparently equal and
superior to control conditions for 69 six- to twelve-year-old
His-
panic boys (Szapocznik, Rio, Murray, & Cohen, 1989).
Family therapy is recommended for Latin-American school
children by Vazquez-Nuttal, Avila-Vivas, and Morales-Barreto
(1984) because of the strong Hispanic emphasis on the family.
31. These authors recommend that the therapist explore the im-
portance of ethnic values and traditions to the family, the strain
between traditional family values and contemporaneous Ameri-
can life, intergenerational strains that are likely loci of these
value conflicts, and the extent to which the family relies on
neighborhood and school institutions.
806 ROLAND G. THARP
As Falicov and Brudner-White (1983) have discussed, the ac-
ceptance of the extended family as the unit of analysis reveals
vulnerabilities and sources of growth enhancement that are not
dreamed of in nuclear-family-based treatment tactics and the-
ories. Black families, even those of the stereotypical father-ab-
sent, unemployed-mother pattern, often have strengths and re-
sources in extended family and social networks that are com-
pletely overlooked by the therapist with a narrow view of
"family" (Spurlock, 1985). Juarez (1985) also discusses the best
fit for Hispanic children and recommends family therapy, but
also a form of megafamily treatment, "network therapy," a col-
laborative involvement of all significant members of the child's
social world.
temic interaction with those of the network members. Network
therapy is held to combat the depersonalization of the accultur-
ating, urban environment; and because it mobilizes the
strength of the support network, it contextualizes treatment
directly in the cultural nexus of family and community
members. Network therapy has been discussed as a specific
culturally consistent treatment and prevention approach for
American Indian communities (LaFromboise et al, 1990). In
Native Hawaiian communities, the entire network of family
and support participants are involved in a traditional process of
healing and reconciliation called hob'ponopono; Mokuau (1990)
32. has reported on the practice and its implications and possibili-
ties for the treatment of children.
Home-Based Treatment
Home-based programs embed treatment in a cultural
surround and thus are far less insulated from the influences of
home, family, and community. "The most well-documented,
effective therapeutic treatment with lower socioeconomic class
Blacks has been home-visiting programs aimed at supporting
and counseling mothers of young children" (Thomas &
Dansby, 1985, p. 400), particularly those such as described in
Gray and Ruttle (1980), that have positive effects on child lan-
guage development and a sustained improvement in mothers'
teaching styles. These criteria are well met by the carefully
evaluated home-visiting programs of Roberts and his asso-
ciates, working principally with Native Hawaiians (Roberts,
Wasik, Casto, & Ramey, 1991; Roberts & Magrab, 1991). These
authors rightly urge that culturally compatible programs must
be continually vitalized by a staff committed to the principle of
compatibility and influenced by community participation.
Even more deeply embedded in context is the Homebuilders
program, which trains, places, and supports professional
workers who become temporarily resident or quasi-resident in
the homes of their children clients, most of whom have already
been targeted for placement outside of the home (Kinney, Haa-
pala, & Booth, 1991). Although home-maintenance success
rates are impressive for all categories of children, children of
color had a significantly higher chance of remaining at home
during and after Homebuilders treatment than did their White,
non-Hispanic counterparts (Fraser, Pecora, & Haapala, 1991).
These data are consistent with the view that contextualization
of service is particularly critical for minority children.
Network Treatment
33. Network therapy (see Schoenfeld, Halevy-Martini, Hemley-
Van der Velden, & Ruhf, 198 5,1986, for descriptions and
evalua-
tions) involves a group of family, relatives, and friends who are
organized into a network. It is informal in operation. The thera-
pist's role is to catalyze and conduct the process, but the forces
of healing and correction are those of the support system of the
network itself. Ordinarily conducted in the home, it can include
50 people or more. Network therapy can be used for solving a
common or shared problem of the clan, family, or community,
or the network can be mobilized in response to the problem of a
single child or adolescent. Even in the latter case, the patient's
behaviors, experiences, and goals are understood in their sys-
Community Intervention
Contextuality may be seen as extending from family to ex-
tended family to community to the entire ecocultural niche.
Culturally oriented writers consistently call for an ecologically
oriented, contextualized analysis of psychological phenomena
and consequently a diagnosis and treatment scheme that lo-
cates the child in the sociocultural nexus—and indeed recog-
nizes that the intervention target for some child problems lies
in family, school, or community (Huang & Gibbs, 1989). Illus-
trating that critical difference, under new environmental con-
ditions of migration, displacement, or community change, the
family and the school themselves may become sources of stress
for the child and lose their value as social support networks
(Canino, Earley, & Rogler, 1980).
Ramirez (1980) discusses the complexity of family and com-
munity as problem/support units among urban Mexican Ameri-
cans. His study found that the propinquity and size of extended
family was positively related to mental health status among
Mexican Americans in Detroit. But nearness in time to Mexico
34. and markers of traditional culture were negatively related to
mental health status. Apparently an effective support structure
develops slowly, postmigration. It appears that as a family mi-
grates, it slowly develops a network, gains education, and im-
proves in mental health status. Furthermore, family support is a
structural phenomenon that operates in a mundane, solid, and
workaday manner: The presence of someone in the network
who offers "emotional understanding" and such "counselor-
like" qualities is unrelated to mental health status. Assisting a
referred child in a recent immigrant community may require
assisting a family, group of families, or entire community to
organize for mutual assistance.
An example of a developmentally oriented community psy-
chology program is that of OTJonnell and Tharp (1990), which
is based on the principles of neo-Vygotskian socio-historical
theory. In their analyses, the real client of the consultation is
the
social system that produces or maintains the problem. No per-
manent improvement in a child's condition can be expected
unless the sustaining context is also assisted to change. The
consultant must locate the levers of influence that can bring
about some reorganization. The ultimate goal of the consultant
is to empower and to increase the self-assistance of the commu-
nity and thus the growth or development of its members, partic-
ularly the referred child or children. The route to that goal is
through reorganization of activity settings. Through the pro-
SPECIAL SECTION: CULTURAL DIVERSITY 807
cesses of interaction and assisted performance in activity set-
tings, the targeted community members gain greater compe-
tence, skill level, and solidarity. The basic task of intervention
is
35. to design new or changed activity settings in which that growth
and development can occur. The influence of the consultant is
used to generate or organize the resources necessary to produce
those activity settings. The consultant, working in the triadic
model (Tharp & Note, 1988; Tharp & Wetzel, 1969), exercises
the consulting effects through mediators who are themselves
members of the settings or of the community context.
A fine example of such a program is that for prevention of
drug abuse by American Indian youth by the Indian Drug Pre-
vention Program (IDPP) of Washington State (Bobo et al,
1987). The consultants established an all-Indian advisory
board, worked with members to establish goals and guidelines,
developed together a curriculum of skills training (modeling,
instructing, and practicing), contacted gatekeepers of services
in six different communities, located venues and activity set-
tings in which the program could be operated, trained and
cooperated with local schools and other agencies, and left the
communities competent to carry out the positively evaluated
program. Other examples of similar community programs are
available in Edwards and Edwards (1988).
The IDPP operates primarily in schools. The movement to-
ward integrated mental health services in schools is particularly
important for cultural minorities. Red Horse (1982) described a
short-lived but well-conceived program that operated for In-
dian public school adolescent girls in Minnesota. It included
credit-bearing social skills training and psychosocial develop-
mental materials, cultural enrichment materials provided by
Indian elders, pregnancy prevention, group counseling, and a
professional staif of counselors who assisted the girls to bridge
and build extended family relationships both in the city and on
the nearby reservation. The creation of new activity settings
and the mobilization of resourcesof the family and community
to assist the performance of the adolescent girls is a model of
community program design. Another exemplary program is a
36. school psychology program for Hispanics that involves "sys-
tems networking among the nuclear and extended family, com-
padres, church personnel, indigenous support systems, and
school [which] affords pooling of human, informational, and
mental health resources for more effective, efficient, and eth-
nospecific services for Hispanics" (Rosado, 1986, p. 196).
Status of the Evidence for the Cultural
Compatibility Hypotheses
As we have now seen, there is virtual unanimity among
writers that some degree of compatibility between culture and
treatment is necessary. That unanimity, however, does not con-
clude the case. A useful understanding of compatibility requires
evidence that will allow unpacking the concept into its potent
and inert components. The necessary breadth of that evidence
is not yet present in the child-treatment literature. The absence
can be felt especially in the paucity of process studies of child
treatment, where interactions could be examined by charting
flows and glitches against the culturally based repertoires of
participants.
Evidence of that sort is present to a greater degree in the
study of child education. Although these parallel data can be
taken only as suggestive, they can help to formulate hypotheses
for research in the clinical and consulting context. In education
research on children, there is a substantial body of evidence
demonstrating cultural diversities in at least four domains that
make a difference in educational process and outcome: in lin-
guistics and sociolinguistics, cognition, motivation (state and
trait), and social organizational proclivities (reviewed in Tharp,
1989). As an illustration of the consequences for schooling,
effective monocultural classrooms for Native Indian children
have been shown to be markedly different from those for Native
37. Hawaiian children, in social organization, in patterns of child
control, in management of gender interaction, and in the pat-
terns of the teaching conversation between and among children
and teacher. As one example of an "unpacked" cultural vari-
able, sociolinguistic studies have demonstrated crucial differ-
ences in the courtesies and conventions of conversation for dif-
ferent ethnic groups, differences that have strong emotional
effects on children and condition the child's reaction to instruc-
tion, from willing engagement to hostile withdrawal.
Although this might be taken as evidence for the "strong"
cultural compatibility solution of designing classrooms for spe-
cific cultures, specific-culture classrooms are largely impracti-
cal. The typical classroom of our nation today is mwft/cultural.3
Of course, clinical services are not, and a variety of specific
culturally compatible services might be feasible within existing
service delivery institutional structures.
Before leaping to recommendations, however, we must note
in that same review of culture-and-education research (Tharp,
1989) considerable evidence for the weak or "two-type" form of
the hypothesis—that the children of all those cultures who typi-
cally underachieve in schools share the requirement for a modi-
fied kind of education that is not the same as that provided by
the majority-oriented schools. The educational research evi-
dence speaks for two conditions shared by successful
classrooms for children of underachieving minorities: (a) con-
textualization of learning activities into settings and topics that
are meaningful in the children's daily life and (b) assisting chil-
dren in developing the language of instruction, the latter assur-
ing the child of adequate participation in the learning activities.
These two factors are consistent with the evidence for child
treatment reviewed in this article: Contextualization of treat-
ment in the meanings and processes of cultural life is the most
insistent urging of all who work in child culture and mental
38. health. And logic dictates that treatment cannot be effective
unless it is delivered in a language the child and the family can
understand and use.
However, the universalist position does not lack evidence
either. For example, just as in the clinical domain, specific edu-
cational "treatments" growing from the institutions of specific
cultures have not emerged in any great number and in general
3 Certainly there are monocultural classrooms present in
society,
and these have been of great interest to researchers in culture
and
education because they allow cultural processes in teaching and
learn-
ing to emerge clearly. Likewise, investigating both process and
out-
come studies of various treatment modalities within a single
culture is
a research strategy of promise.
808 ROLAND G. THARP
have not survived the realities and necessities of schooling.
Rather, the cultural-compatibility movement in education ap-
pears to have settled on the least-change principle (Tharp et al.,
1984), which calls not for inventing entire new pedagogies or
teaching modalities, but for the careful selection of modalities
of demonstrated effectiveness in real schools and by working
teachers. The selection of such modalities may be quite differ-
ent for children of different cultures, and it is certain that the
instantiation of the modalities will be modified by contextua-
lizing them in the experience and language of the children's
daily lives. This appears to be entirely consistent with the expe-
39. rience of the more youthful culture-and-treatment movement.
Few specific treatment modalities have been offered. Certain
modalities, however, are overwhelmingly preferred by thera-
pists knowledgeable of certain cultures; and each instantiation
is recommended to be conditioned by the culture. Thus, family
therapy is repeatedly recommended for Hispanic children, but
the recommendation is equally strong that the family must be
treated in ways that reflect that family's composition, values,
and language.
On the basis of this discussion, it appears that the most via-
ble hypothesis is a universalist one, but not the "unrversalist"
hypothesis as previously understood. That is, clinical service
for everyone must be contextualized in the values, processes,
and language of the clients' culture, and that is the universalist
principle. Existing services are already contextualized for ma-
jority, English-speaking culture members because treatment
procedures grew out of that culture and language. Were it not
so, prescription would have to see to it.
When the strong, the weak, and the null forms of a hypothe-
sis are all verified, we know the question needs rephrasing.
Evidence and inference suggest the following as the best next
direction for investigation. Cultural compatibility, rather than
an accommodation needed for certain subsets of people, should
be understood as an aspect of a universally required contextua-
lization of services. The appropriate question would then be-
come: How can therapists, program developers, and re-
searchers develop heuristics for assuring the conditions of con-
text uality and language accessibility? Some previous inquiry is
available to that question.
Linguistic and Sociolinguistic Accessibility of Services
The problem of assessing and providing treatment across a
language barrier is central in the provision of services to chil-
40. dren of diverse cultures. This issue is most familiar to psychol-
ogy as an issue in testing: English-language interaction, in bi-
lingual children, is not a clear window through which cognitive
functioning can be estimated. And the problems associated
with attempting treatment when the therapist is not competent
in the basic language of the clients are formidable indeed.
In an effort to increase the linguistic accessibility, bilingual
and bicultural staff may be incorporated into the staff of men-
tal health facilities, as advocated early by Scott and Delgado
(1979). Acosta and Cristo (1981) describe a clinic for Hispanics
that recruited community members to serve as translators for
the English-speaking professional staff. Training was provided
in the basic concepts and vocabulary of psychotherapy. These
translators also served as cultural informants, explaining to the
therapists the meaning of some of the client's topics in therapy.
There is a danger, however, as pointed out by Lappin (1983),
in having a "house ethnic," often a paraprofessional, who is
called in to translate. Many individuals and cultural groups
want a professional regardless of race. In fact, there is a danger
in using any translator, who becomes a switchboard, a distorter,
and an additional principal in an already complex interaction.
Therapists must be cautious in using the most bilingual family
member as translator for all, particularly when this is the child,
who, while most flexible in language use may also be most
psychologically vulnerable to the dynamic forces of family and
therapist interaction. Nevertheless, there is evidence that pro-
vision of Spanish language opportunities in clinic programs
does increase utilization rates in Hispanic communities
(Rogler, Malgady, Costantino, & Blumenthal, 1987).
However, it is not simply language code proficiency that
creates misunderstandings and frustrations in cross-cultural
service delivery Differing Sociolinguistic and paralinguistic
41. patterns are barriers to communication. For example, Michaels
(1984) has shown that children of different cultures tell their
stories in different ways, with startling audience effects. In her
study, White children were topic-centered in their narratives,
with thematic cohesion and a temporal reference. Black chil-
dren used a topic-associating style consisting of a series of im-
plicitly associated anecdotal segments with no explicit state-
ment of an overall theme or point. White adults criticized the
topic-associating style as incoherent, but Black adults found it
interesting with lots of detail and description. It is apparent that
this cultural difference in basic language structure can lead to
quite different judgments and predictions in the treatment
room.
Process studies of cross-cultural treatment of children are
lacking. Again we must look to culture-and-education, where
such research is growing. A recent review (Tharp, 1989) reveals
that in determining relationship, learning, and satisfaction in
cross-cultural settings, there is enormous weight in variables of
the courtesies and conventions ofcomersation, such as the
length
of pause between speakers (wait-time), rhythm of speech and
event, and participation structures (the patterns and conditions
for speaking and listening). When Sociolinguistic school/home
compatibilities are present, children are more comfortable, and
they participate and display their abilities appropriately As one
example, Black migrant children, whose schools view them as
below grade level and unresponsive, speak and behave with
complexity and competence in home settings. In addition, they
exhibit full competence and full participation at church. The
similarities of Sociolinguistic and behavioral conventions be-
tween church and home offer an example to schools of how
formal institutions can engage their young by compatibilities of
expectations with child repertoires (Lein, 1975).
Many strategies have been devised for achieving linguistic
42. compatibility for children in schools. Because schooling is so
heavily language dependent, a first-order goal for effective edu-
cation is to provide adequate language development. This goal
is very likely parallel to child treatment, which is also a
learning
modality heavily dependent on language exchanges. To the de-
gree that treatment does occur through language, we may ex-
pect that special attention will be required to ensure linguistic
SPECIAL SECTION: CULTURAL DIVERSITY 809
and sociolinguistic compatibilities. This makes cross-cultural
psychotherapy particularly problematic for both therapist and
client. In the dimension of language, it seems clear that culture
members are indeed privileged, and same-language therapists
are advantageous to clients. However, when therapists do serve
clients of a different language, compensatory strategies are
available, the most powerful of which is to contextualize treat-
ment in the culture of the client. By importing other family and
community members into the treatment itself, familiar lan-
guage becomes a part of the treatment context.
Contextuality of Treatment
Sue and Zane (1987) observe that therapist/client cultural
matching is a distal variable and that efficacy lies in the proxi-
mal issues of how well the therapist is able to (a) meet the
client's conceptualization of the problem, (b) require acceptable
behaviors as means for problem resolution, and (c) share goals
for treatment. The literature considered here suggests that the
probability of those proximal conditions being achieved is lim-
ited by the degree to which social, linguistic, and other process
variables are congruent. There seems little doubt that all else
being equal, culturally matched psychologists and clients are
43. more likely to achieve that congruence and those conditions.
Most therapists can have little hope of sufficient detailed
knowl-
edge of many (if any) cultures other than their natal one and
almost no hope of mastering a variety of linguistic and socio-
linguistic codes. This leads us to consider the probability of
achieving process congruence and the Sue and Zane conditions
as a function of the modality of treatment.
Treatment modalities for children may be arrayed on a con-
tinuum of inclusiveness or social contextuality, from individual
psychotherapy to group therapy to family therapy to network
therapy to community intervention. Historically, these modali-
ties developed in roughly that order. Thus therapists of my own
(senior) cohort were trained, by and large, in the individual
model, with less intense training in groups, less still on fami-
lies, and little direct experience of network or community
methods, that is, with a decreasing emphasis on the expanding
continuum of social contextuality Although that pattern has
eased in many training programs during the past 30 years, there
is perhaps a residual tropism toward the individual end of the
continuum in the prescriptive inclinations of our field.
If the reading of the literature offered here is correct, a rever-
sal of that strategy is indicated. That is, for a therapist facing a
client across a cultural chasm, the treatment of first consider-
ation should be community intervention; that of second consid-
eration, network therapy; that of third, family treatment;
fourth, group treatment; and last of all, individual treatment.
The work of therapy is potent when the therapist and child
share so much that the therapist can presume a thorough knowl-
edge of the workings of the child's family and community and
can teach the youngster knowingly, confidently, and credibly
Because Euro-American culture has produced most therapists
and most clients, most clients and therapists have been
44. matched in culture and language. Insulated within a common
culture, we have not recognized cultural contextuality as a vari-
able because it has not varied. We have not noticed the basic
condition that because it is decontextualized, individual ther-
apy depends more than any other modality on shared values,
semiotics, habits, and expectations between therapist and
client. When these are not present, resources of commonality
have to be provided by expanding to family/network/commu-
nity interventions, even for majority culture members. It ap-
pears that the conclusions available from the culture and treat-
ment literature are not restricted to strategies for exotic culture
members. As we should have expected, an expanded range of
observations leads to a more comprehensive universalism. It is
paradoxical but welcome, that facing the problems of treating
others is teaching us how better to treat ourselves.
Implications for Research and Theoretical Programs
Humanity has a common base, provided by evolutionary
processes; but over long periods of historical time, ethnoge-
netic processes have put our common humanity through differ-
ent filters. To recover our common features, we must study
those filters and come to know how historical processes have
created differing psychological and behavioral realities for dif-
ferent peoples. These differences are not trivial, and they are
not surface. They include differences in motivation, cognition,
social organizational principles, communication patterns, val-
ues, and semiotic structures, as well as accustomed ways of
teaching and learning. Further research into ethnogenetic pro-
cesses is a necessity for advances in culture-and-treatment and
also holds promise for the discovery of a broader range of fun-
damental processes of psychology and sociology. This agendum
falls within the program of the sociohistorical theoretical move-
ment (e.g., Cole, 1985; Tharp & Gallimore, 1988; Vygotsky,
1929,1978; Wertsch, 1985).
45. On the other hand, just because we have been blind to "cul-
ture," we must not now be blinded by it. Each culture member
has also had a different life history and accumulation of learn-
ing. Thus ethnogenetic effects are filtered and conditioned by
ontogenetic and microgenetic processes; and in our rush to
solve problems of treatment arising from cultural differences,
we must not overlook the resulting wide range of variance
within cultures. Indeed the definitions and boundaries of eth-
nicities are under constant negotiation and redefinition (Do-
minguez, 1986). Psychology comes to the porch of cultural
stud-
ies just as the volatility of the concept of ethnicity is coming
into focus, and although belated, our arrival may well be wel-
comed by the house of social science. Individuals define them-
selves in and out of ethnic identities, and that psychological
identification is of more moment in treatment issues than is
that of race. Psychologists have the means to understand those
processes and how they operate in and through psychological
treatment.
Another major research need lies within the field of clinical
and consulting psychology itself. The paucity of process studies
in the treatment of different culture members, particularly in a
variety of modalities, is the greatest single need for evidence.
Critical data and its analysis will require methods of investiga-
tion less familiar to psychology than they might be, methods
such as ethnography, microethnography, and discourse analy-
sis. Expanding our range of research operations need not await
major retooling of psychologists' methodology. Research part-
nerships made with scientists of other appropriate disciplines,
810 ROLAND G. THARP
46. such as sociolinguistics, anthropology, or community develop-
ment, could allow an immediate infusion of data that reveal
cultural processes in their immediacy and at their points of
impact—in the situations and communications of treatment
itself.4
Are there immediate, imperative, specific hypotheses for in-
vestigation? Certainly all conclusions offered above have the
status of hypothesis. As much as on direct evidence, this analy-
sis perforce relied on reasoning and analogy. My strategy was to
suggest the figure in the ground by putting those tiles in the
mosaic as placeholders, pending the arrival of more direct evi-
dence drawn from the treatment of children. About the figure
that will eventually be clear, there is one thing that now appears
certain. These cultures meeting in the consulting room will
clarify not only the processes of the cultures themselves, but
will bring to our notice things about treatment that we do not
yet suspect.
4 As an example of how this strategy was used in the culture-
and-
47. educational domain, see Tharp et al. (1984).
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Revision received May 3,1991
Accepted May 15,1991 •
CHAPTER FOURTEEN: Juvenile Corrections: Probation,
Community Treatment, and Institutionalization
CHAPTER OUTLINE
JUVENILE PROBATION
68. · Historical Development
Expanding Community Treatment
Contemporary Juvenile Probation
Duties of Juvenile Probation Officers
PROBATION INNOVATIONS
· Intensive Supervision
Electronic Monitoring
Restorative Justice
Balanced Probation
Restitution
Residential Community Treatment
SECURE CORRECTIONS
· History of Juvenile Institutions
What Does This Mean to Me?
JUVENILE INSTITUTIONS TODAY: PUBLIC AND PRIVATE
· Population Trends
Physical Conditions
THE INSTITUTIONALIZED JUVENILE
· Male Inmates
FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Mental Health Needs of Juvenile
Inmates on the Rise
Female Inmates
CORRECTIONAL TREATMENT FOR JUVENILES
· Individual Treatment Techniques: Past and Present
Group Treatment Techniques
Educational, Vocational, and Recreational Programs
Wilderness Programs
Professional Spotlight: Kristi Swanson
Juvenile Boot Camps
THE LEGAL RIGHT TO TREATMENT
· The Struggle for Basic Civil Rights
JUVENILE AFTERCARE AND REENTRY
· Supervision
JUVENILE DELINQUENCY: Treatment: Using the Intensive
Aftercare Program (IAP) Model
Aftercare Revocation Procedures
69. FUTURE OF JUVENILE CORRECTIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter you should:
· 1. Be familiar with juvenile probation.
· 2. Know about new approaches for providing probation
services to juvenile offenders.
· 3. Understand past and current trends in the use of juvenile
institutions and key issues facing the institutionalized juvenile
offender.
· 4. Be able to identify current juvenile correctional treatment
approaches and comment on their effectiveness in reducing
recidivism.
· 5. Know about aftercare and reentry for juvenile offenders.
REAL CASES/REAL PEOPLE: Karen’s Story
Karen Gilligan, age 16, was the oldest of four children living
with their parents in a small rural community. Her mother
worked two jobs, her father was unemployed, and both parents
drank heavily. Karen’s high school attendance was sporadic.
She started to experiment with alcohol and vandalized local
businesses. After being arrested in a stolen car on several
occasions, Karen was referred to juvenile court and was put on
community supervision and probation. An initial assessment
was provided by her probation officer, and formal dispositional
recommendations were made to the court. She would remain at
home on house arrest for 60 days, attend school regularly and
maintain at least a C average, follow an alcohol and drug
assessment program, and participate in weekly family therapy
with her parents. Karen was also ordered to cooperate with the
juvenile restitution program, pay her restitution in full within
six months, and participate in the Community Adolescent
Intensive Supervision Program, as arranged by her probation
officer.
Not used to being accountable to anyone, Karen struggled
initially with all the new rules and expectations. She missed
some of her initial appointments and skipped some classes at
school. Karen’s probation officer began making unannounced