Assignment Instructions
Week 2
During weeks 1 and 2 you have explored how parenting expectations, experiences and styles are influenced by many factors. The learning resources suggest several ways to provide parenting information and related family supports. For Assignment 1 due Week 2 you will use this information to create an enticing flyer for a parenting class that is designed to help prepare new parents. Your flyer should include:
1. The purpose of the parenting class – including why it is important
2. At least 5 distinct topics that will be addressed in the class noting why each is important. Be sure to cite resources to back this up.
3. Be creative – how would you entice parents or parents to be to come?
Flyer length minimum 500 words, 2 academic references used, MS word or RTF format only.
Possible grade
Student grade
The paper addresses the issues specified by the assignment - 5 parenting topics described.
20
The author shows insight and sophistication in thinking and writing
30
Two academic references were used with corresponding citations in the body of the paper
20
Paper was well organized and easy to follow. Paper was the required length. Cover page, paper body, citations and Reference list were in the American Psychological Association format.
20
Few to no spelling, grammar, punctuation or other writing structure errors
10
TOTAL
100
HELPFUL CLASS REQUIRED READING
https://edge.apus.edu/access/content/group/education-common/Universal/CHFD/331/elf/lesson-1/elf_index.html
https://edge.apus.edu/access/content/group/education-common/Universal/CHFD/331/elf/lesson-2/elf_index.html
READING 2.pdf
PARENTING: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE, 12: 212–221, 2012
ISSN: 1529-5192 print / 1532-7922 online
DOI: 10.1080/15295192.2012.683359
Cultural Approaches to Parenting
Marc H. Bornstein
SYNOPSIS
This article first introduces some main ideas behind culture and parenting and next addresses
philosophical rationales and methodological considerations central to cultural approaches to
parenting, including a brief account of a cross-cultural study of parenting. It then focuses
on universals, specifics, and distinctions between form (behavior) and function (meaning)
in parenting as embedded in culture. The article concludes by pointing to social policy
implications as well as future directions prompted by a cultural approach to parenting.
INTRODUCTION
Every culture is characterized, and distinguished from other cultures, by deeply rooted
and widely acknowledged ideas about how one needs to feel, think, and act as a
functioning member of the culture. Cross-cultural study affirms that groups of people
possess different beliefs and engage in different behaviors that may be normative in
their culture but are not necessarily normative in another culture. Cultural groups thus
embody particular characteristics that are deemed essential or advantageous to their
members. These beliefs and behaviors tend to persist over time and constitute the val- ...
Effect of Cultural Values on Character Formation: Implication for Education ...PUBLISHERJOURNAL
The influence of cultural norms and home values on an individual's personality and life adjustment can manifest in various ways. An individual's personality is shaped by a complex interplay of biological and experiential factors, with the latter being significantly influenced by cultural elements. One prominent avenue through which cultural values impact personality is in the cultural conditioning of child-rearing practices. When a child is born, it not only relies on the care and support of family members but also lacks the necessary behavioral knowledge required to function within a human society. It depends on innate biological instincts like hunger and the care provided by elders to fulfill these basic needs. To survive and thrive, a human infant must acquire the skills, knowledge, and societal norms specific to the culture into which it is born. Thus, cultural values are deliberately instilled in the members of a society. For a society to function effectively, these shared cultural values must be passed down through generations, primarily through child-rearing practices within homes. Nigeria, characterized by its diverse cultural backgrounds, value systems, and numerous ethnic groups, has distinct child-rearing practices that transmit these values and norms to successive generations. This paper examines the role of culture in shaping an individual's character and emphasizes that education, when coupled with values, is crucial. Education serves as a potent tool for fostering desirable character traits, and it must be refocused to continue producing individuals with strong moral values and responsible character.
Keywords: Character formation, Culture, Morals, Value, Impact
Discussion QuestionsQuestion 1 (300 words minimum)MoneLyndonPelletier761
Discussion Questions
Question 1 (300 words minimum)
Monetary policy is largely determined by the Federal Reserve Bank (Fed) in the United States. For this discussion, let’s cordially debate the necessity of the Fed.
For your initial post address the following:
· How does the Fed control the money supply? Be sure to explain how they can expand or restrict the money supply.
· How does the banking system create money?
· List two to three pros and cons of the Federal Reserve Bank.
· What is your conclusion: is the Fed necessary? Support your opinion.
Your initial response should be a minimum of 300 words. Graduate school students learn to assess the perspectives of several scholars. Support your response with at least one scholarly and/or credible resource in addition to the text.
Discussion: Week 11: Critical Conversations—Part 2: Taking a Stand
Today’s early childhood professionals are operating in a much more diverse world than those who have come before them. Whether the diversity is racial, cultural, economic, or related to sexual orientation and/or familial differences, professionals must not only recognize and respect but also seek to understand the unique context of each child with whom he or she works. Part of this journey involves replacing mainstream ideas of how things ‘are’ or ‘should be’ with culturally responsive practices that are enhanced by home-school relationships.
In this Discussion, you again engage in critical conversations, this time focusing on the concepts of culturally responsive practices and the use of published literacy programs.
To prepare
Review this module’s Learning Resources. Then, select from the following the topic that most resonates with you. Last, conduct additional research to find two articles for and two articles against the topic you have selected.
Topics Of Choice:
· Published literacy programs for all young children or literacy education philosophies (for example, whole language vs. phonics)
· National literacy standards (for example, Common Core)Assignment Task Part 1
In a 500 word response:
Write and discuss about Employ the critical conversation approach to explain your perspective on the topic. Then, analyze and share insights from the articles both for and against your topic. Justify your post with specific references to the resources you have found, and include the citations for each of your sources at the bottom of your post.
Assignment Task Part 2
In 200 word responses:
Read a selection of your colleagues’ postings.
Respond to two or more of your colleagues’ postings—one who wrote about the same topic you chose, and one who wrote about a different topic—in one or more of the following ways:
· Explain whether you agree or disagree with the colleague who wrote about the same topic you chose, citing the resources to substantiate your thinking.
· Pose a question to a colleague who wrote about a different topic, asking clarifying questions to better understand his or her perspective. ...
Product Costing Assignment Steps· Show research on the matter .docxbriancrawford30935
Product Costing
Assignment Steps
· Show research on the matter that is properly cited and referenced according to APA with references
· Your posts that you want to count toward your substantive participation grade should be at least 100-150 words of each one of the following subjects:
1. Distinguish between under- and over-applied overhead?
2. What are the main differences between job, process, and activity-based costing?
3. How is manufacturing overhead calculated in each of the costing methods?
4. How are variances identified?
5. How might each of the costing methods be used in managerial decision-making?
6. Why is it important that a manager understands how product cost is determined?
7. What are the alternative costing methods?
8. Describe the scenario in which each costing method can best be used.
Introduction
Eddie is a White preschooler with a genuine curiosity about everything. He was the first to ask how plants grow and how cars run. One day he asked Michael, an African American classmate, whether his skin was brown because he had drunk too much chocolate milk. Eddie was honestly attempting to make sense of what he observed: he noticed the pattern between the African American child bringing chocolate milk for lunch and having darker skin than the rest of the children in the class.
In situations like this, teachers have to think about how to guide such conversations between children. We do not want to stifle children's natural cognitive development process, and we do not want to make them feel ashamed about being curious and asking questions. The goal is to be able to provide children with accurate, yet developmentally appropriate, information about why they might be observing certain physical differences between children.
The purpose of this chapter is to build the cultural competence of early education teachers so they will be able to effectively teach young children with ethnic, language, and cultural differences, as well as examine the biases in their own teaching and perceptions. This chapter also explores how prejudice and bias may develop inside and outside the classroom, such as through the media, and ways to combat these prejudices and biases by building a more culturally inclusive classroom that affirms the principles of multicultural education.
2.1 Building Cultural Competence Among Early Childhood Educators
How can Eddie's question be answered so that he does not feel ashamed to ask more questions and Michael does not feel insulted and hurt? Some avenues that Eddie's teacher can take are to discuss the "science" of skin color: what skin is made of and why people have different skin colors—including people and children from the same ethnic and racial groups. The teacher can also ask the reverse question of whether Eddie's skin color is white because he drinks plain white milk or if his skin will turn brown when he drinks chocolate milk.
As the U.S. population becomes more diverse, young children will be asking more.
CHAPTER 1 HISTORICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES .docxsleeperharwell
CHAPTER 1
HISTORICAL AND
PHILOSOPHICAL
PERSPECTIVES
Family life education (FLE) that takes place in communities is a unique type of education. The business of outreach FLE involves taking family science principles and practices to the general public—indi
viduals, couples, parents, whole families—in varied educational settings
outside the traditional classroom. Some outreach family life educators are
employed as field agents or as university campus-based specialists within
the Cooperative Extension System. Others may work in social work or other
human service agency contexts or as media representatives. Those with an
entrepreneurial spirit may develop their own FLE business and market their
programs nationally. Still others may hold traditional university positions
that include some outreach expectations.
To succeed in educating the public about family life requires a somewhat
different skill set than teaching students in traditional classroom settings.
With these skills, family life educators become more effective ambassadors
of family science scholarship to citizens of the world.
This text endeavors to provide a comprehensive response to the fol
lowing need: There is knowledge and skills that family life educators need
to be most helpful and effective in work with their clientele. To arrive at
the response, we first generated a content outline that represented our
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EBSCO : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 11/13/2018 6:19 PM via AMERICAN PUBLIC UNIV SYSTEM
AN: 474397 ; Duncan, Stephen F., Goddard, H. Wallace.; Family Life Education : Principles and Practices for Effective Outreach
Account: s7348467.main.ehost
4 ● FOUNDATIONS OF FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION
collective experiences totaling nearly three decades as family life Extension
Service specialists at several universities. We sent the content outline to
other specialists and colleagues and incorporated their ideas. Since this
first edition was published in 2005, many FLE scholars, practitioners, and
students have used the book in their work and studies and have provided
us with ideas to improve upon what we first developed. We have incorpo
rated their ideas into this second edition. The result is what we hope is a
practical, how-to reference volume on effective outreach FLE that you will
use for years to come.
This first chapter provides a foundational and philosophical discus
sion of FLE in outreach settings. We begin with a brief discussion of the
definition and history of outreach FLE, as well as the role universities and
communities have played in the movement. We next turn to a discussion
of contemporary developments also making FLE his.
Culture, Identity, Learning, and EqualityLearning Objec.docxfaithxdunce63732
Culture, Identity, Learning,
and Equality
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
• Analyze the impact of culture on everything we do, including communication and learning.
• Evaluate the relationship between learning, culture, and education.
• Describe the interactions between various forms of identity and student learning.
• Analyze the tension between supporting students’ culture, identity and language, and making sure all
students are treated equally.
5
AP Photo/Havre Daily News/Nikki Carlson
war81073_05_c05.indd 129 8/30/13 10:16 AM
CHAPTER 5Pre-Test
Introduction
In this chapter we examine culture’s impact on everything people do, including com-municating, learning, and teaching. For educators, it is important to remember that the students and families they serve may come from very different cultures than that of the
school or their own.
While it is very important to consider the diverse backgrounds of all students and their
families, school personnel must remember that diversity comes in many rich and complex
combinations. Children’s unique cultural, linguistic, gender, disability, and other identi-
ties must be honored, respected, and supported.
However, schools need to make sure they support equality and integration, and sometimes
it is difficult to balance these two perspectives. Grouping students to target instruction and
develop group solidarity is often the best way to support students’ unique identities and
to meet their educational needs. However, this approach can produce negative and unin-
tended consequences. Schools must continually struggle to balance supporting unique
cultures and identities while providing multicultural activities, exposure, and knowledge.
Pre-Test
1. In these types of cultures, social and cultural contexts in which words are used
often communicate more than the words themselves. These are known as
a. highly verbal cultures.
b. low-context cultures.
c. high-context cultures.
d. legalistic cultures.
2. In the 1960s, who first introduced to the United States a four-stage, biological
view of how children learn?
a. Jean Piaget
b. Noam Chomsky
c. Lawrence Kohlberg
d. Sigmund Freud
3. A child’s beliefs about how competent he or she is in achieving a task and activ-
ity and in learning a new skill or concept, is called
a. self-image.
b. self-esteem.
c. self-efficacy.
d. self-concept.
4. When students are segregated due to some inadvertent consequence, practice, or
activity, this is termed
a. intentional segregation.
b. unintentional integration.
c. unintentional consequences.
d. unintentional segregation.
war81073_05_c05.indd 130 8/30/13 10:16 AM
CHAPTER 5Section 5.1 Influence of Culture on Everything We Do
Answers
1. c. high-context cultures. The answer can be found in Section 5.1.
2. a. Jean Piaget. The answer can be found in Section 5.2.
3. c. Self-efficacy. The answer can be found in Section 5.3.
.
Effect of Cultural Values on Character Formation: Implication for Education ...PUBLISHERJOURNAL
The influence of cultural norms and home values on an individual's personality and life adjustment can manifest in various ways. An individual's personality is shaped by a complex interplay of biological and experiential factors, with the latter being significantly influenced by cultural elements. One prominent avenue through which cultural values impact personality is in the cultural conditioning of child-rearing practices. When a child is born, it not only relies on the care and support of family members but also lacks the necessary behavioral knowledge required to function within a human society. It depends on innate biological instincts like hunger and the care provided by elders to fulfill these basic needs. To survive and thrive, a human infant must acquire the skills, knowledge, and societal norms specific to the culture into which it is born. Thus, cultural values are deliberately instilled in the members of a society. For a society to function effectively, these shared cultural values must be passed down through generations, primarily through child-rearing practices within homes. Nigeria, characterized by its diverse cultural backgrounds, value systems, and numerous ethnic groups, has distinct child-rearing practices that transmit these values and norms to successive generations. This paper examines the role of culture in shaping an individual's character and emphasizes that education, when coupled with values, is crucial. Education serves as a potent tool for fostering desirable character traits, and it must be refocused to continue producing individuals with strong moral values and responsible character.
Keywords: Character formation, Culture, Morals, Value, Impact
Discussion QuestionsQuestion 1 (300 words minimum)MoneLyndonPelletier761
Discussion Questions
Question 1 (300 words minimum)
Monetary policy is largely determined by the Federal Reserve Bank (Fed) in the United States. For this discussion, let’s cordially debate the necessity of the Fed.
For your initial post address the following:
· How does the Fed control the money supply? Be sure to explain how they can expand or restrict the money supply.
· How does the banking system create money?
· List two to three pros and cons of the Federal Reserve Bank.
· What is your conclusion: is the Fed necessary? Support your opinion.
Your initial response should be a minimum of 300 words. Graduate school students learn to assess the perspectives of several scholars. Support your response with at least one scholarly and/or credible resource in addition to the text.
Discussion: Week 11: Critical Conversations—Part 2: Taking a Stand
Today’s early childhood professionals are operating in a much more diverse world than those who have come before them. Whether the diversity is racial, cultural, economic, or related to sexual orientation and/or familial differences, professionals must not only recognize and respect but also seek to understand the unique context of each child with whom he or she works. Part of this journey involves replacing mainstream ideas of how things ‘are’ or ‘should be’ with culturally responsive practices that are enhanced by home-school relationships.
In this Discussion, you again engage in critical conversations, this time focusing on the concepts of culturally responsive practices and the use of published literacy programs.
To prepare
Review this module’s Learning Resources. Then, select from the following the topic that most resonates with you. Last, conduct additional research to find two articles for and two articles against the topic you have selected.
Topics Of Choice:
· Published literacy programs for all young children or literacy education philosophies (for example, whole language vs. phonics)
· National literacy standards (for example, Common Core)Assignment Task Part 1
In a 500 word response:
Write and discuss about Employ the critical conversation approach to explain your perspective on the topic. Then, analyze and share insights from the articles both for and against your topic. Justify your post with specific references to the resources you have found, and include the citations for each of your sources at the bottom of your post.
Assignment Task Part 2
In 200 word responses:
Read a selection of your colleagues’ postings.
Respond to two or more of your colleagues’ postings—one who wrote about the same topic you chose, and one who wrote about a different topic—in one or more of the following ways:
· Explain whether you agree or disagree with the colleague who wrote about the same topic you chose, citing the resources to substantiate your thinking.
· Pose a question to a colleague who wrote about a different topic, asking clarifying questions to better understand his or her perspective. ...
Product Costing Assignment Steps· Show research on the matter .docxbriancrawford30935
Product Costing
Assignment Steps
· Show research on the matter that is properly cited and referenced according to APA with references
· Your posts that you want to count toward your substantive participation grade should be at least 100-150 words of each one of the following subjects:
1. Distinguish between under- and over-applied overhead?
2. What are the main differences between job, process, and activity-based costing?
3. How is manufacturing overhead calculated in each of the costing methods?
4. How are variances identified?
5. How might each of the costing methods be used in managerial decision-making?
6. Why is it important that a manager understands how product cost is determined?
7. What are the alternative costing methods?
8. Describe the scenario in which each costing method can best be used.
Introduction
Eddie is a White preschooler with a genuine curiosity about everything. He was the first to ask how plants grow and how cars run. One day he asked Michael, an African American classmate, whether his skin was brown because he had drunk too much chocolate milk. Eddie was honestly attempting to make sense of what he observed: he noticed the pattern between the African American child bringing chocolate milk for lunch and having darker skin than the rest of the children in the class.
In situations like this, teachers have to think about how to guide such conversations between children. We do not want to stifle children's natural cognitive development process, and we do not want to make them feel ashamed about being curious and asking questions. The goal is to be able to provide children with accurate, yet developmentally appropriate, information about why they might be observing certain physical differences between children.
The purpose of this chapter is to build the cultural competence of early education teachers so they will be able to effectively teach young children with ethnic, language, and cultural differences, as well as examine the biases in their own teaching and perceptions. This chapter also explores how prejudice and bias may develop inside and outside the classroom, such as through the media, and ways to combat these prejudices and biases by building a more culturally inclusive classroom that affirms the principles of multicultural education.
2.1 Building Cultural Competence Among Early Childhood Educators
How can Eddie's question be answered so that he does not feel ashamed to ask more questions and Michael does not feel insulted and hurt? Some avenues that Eddie's teacher can take are to discuss the "science" of skin color: what skin is made of and why people have different skin colors—including people and children from the same ethnic and racial groups. The teacher can also ask the reverse question of whether Eddie's skin color is white because he drinks plain white milk or if his skin will turn brown when he drinks chocolate milk.
As the U.S. population becomes more diverse, young children will be asking more.
CHAPTER 1 HISTORICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES .docxsleeperharwell
CHAPTER 1
HISTORICAL AND
PHILOSOPHICAL
PERSPECTIVES
Family life education (FLE) that takes place in communities is a unique type of education. The business of outreach FLE involves taking family science principles and practices to the general public—indi
viduals, couples, parents, whole families—in varied educational settings
outside the traditional classroom. Some outreach family life educators are
employed as field agents or as university campus-based specialists within
the Cooperative Extension System. Others may work in social work or other
human service agency contexts or as media representatives. Those with an
entrepreneurial spirit may develop their own FLE business and market their
programs nationally. Still others may hold traditional university positions
that include some outreach expectations.
To succeed in educating the public about family life requires a somewhat
different skill set than teaching students in traditional classroom settings.
With these skills, family life educators become more effective ambassadors
of family science scholarship to citizens of the world.
This text endeavors to provide a comprehensive response to the fol
lowing need: There is knowledge and skills that family life educators need
to be most helpful and effective in work with their clientele. To arrive at
the response, we first generated a content outline that represented our
3
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ri
gh
t
@
20
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.
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P
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EBSCO : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 11/13/2018 6:19 PM via AMERICAN PUBLIC UNIV SYSTEM
AN: 474397 ; Duncan, Stephen F., Goddard, H. Wallace.; Family Life Education : Principles and Practices for Effective Outreach
Account: s7348467.main.ehost
4 ● FOUNDATIONS OF FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION
collective experiences totaling nearly three decades as family life Extension
Service specialists at several universities. We sent the content outline to
other specialists and colleagues and incorporated their ideas. Since this
first edition was published in 2005, many FLE scholars, practitioners, and
students have used the book in their work and studies and have provided
us with ideas to improve upon what we first developed. We have incorpo
rated their ideas into this second edition. The result is what we hope is a
practical, how-to reference volume on effective outreach FLE that you will
use for years to come.
This first chapter provides a foundational and philosophical discus
sion of FLE in outreach settings. We begin with a brief discussion of the
definition and history of outreach FLE, as well as the role universities and
communities have played in the movement. We next turn to a discussion
of contemporary developments also making FLE his.
Culture, Identity, Learning, and EqualityLearning Objec.docxfaithxdunce63732
Culture, Identity, Learning,
and Equality
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
• Analyze the impact of culture on everything we do, including communication and learning.
• Evaluate the relationship between learning, culture, and education.
• Describe the interactions between various forms of identity and student learning.
• Analyze the tension between supporting students’ culture, identity and language, and making sure all
students are treated equally.
5
AP Photo/Havre Daily News/Nikki Carlson
war81073_05_c05.indd 129 8/30/13 10:16 AM
CHAPTER 5Pre-Test
Introduction
In this chapter we examine culture’s impact on everything people do, including com-municating, learning, and teaching. For educators, it is important to remember that the students and families they serve may come from very different cultures than that of the
school or their own.
While it is very important to consider the diverse backgrounds of all students and their
families, school personnel must remember that diversity comes in many rich and complex
combinations. Children’s unique cultural, linguistic, gender, disability, and other identi-
ties must be honored, respected, and supported.
However, schools need to make sure they support equality and integration, and sometimes
it is difficult to balance these two perspectives. Grouping students to target instruction and
develop group solidarity is often the best way to support students’ unique identities and
to meet their educational needs. However, this approach can produce negative and unin-
tended consequences. Schools must continually struggle to balance supporting unique
cultures and identities while providing multicultural activities, exposure, and knowledge.
Pre-Test
1. In these types of cultures, social and cultural contexts in which words are used
often communicate more than the words themselves. These are known as
a. highly verbal cultures.
b. low-context cultures.
c. high-context cultures.
d. legalistic cultures.
2. In the 1960s, who first introduced to the United States a four-stage, biological
view of how children learn?
a. Jean Piaget
b. Noam Chomsky
c. Lawrence Kohlberg
d. Sigmund Freud
3. A child’s beliefs about how competent he or she is in achieving a task and activ-
ity and in learning a new skill or concept, is called
a. self-image.
b. self-esteem.
c. self-efficacy.
d. self-concept.
4. When students are segregated due to some inadvertent consequence, practice, or
activity, this is termed
a. intentional segregation.
b. unintentional integration.
c. unintentional consequences.
d. unintentional segregation.
war81073_05_c05.indd 130 8/30/13 10:16 AM
CHAPTER 5Section 5.1 Influence of Culture on Everything We Do
Answers
1. c. high-context cultures. The answer can be found in Section 5.1.
2. a. Jean Piaget. The answer can be found in Section 5.2.
3. c. Self-efficacy. The answer can be found in Section 5.3.
.
CAINE’S ARCADE 2
Caine’s Arcade
1. What are Caine's funds of knowledge?
Culture builds creativity. Funds of knowledge refer to fundamental cultural practices and bodies of knowledge which are rooted in the day to day activities and routines of families (Hogg, 2011). Caine loves arcades and would not pass one without shopping. He loves tickets, playing games, and prizes. He spent his summer vacation building the cardboard arcade, perfecting his game design, making toy cars, and designing security systems for his Fun Pass. His funds of knowledge were influenced by his surrounding as his father had an auto spare shop which rovided necessary resources for Caine to build his arcade.
2. If Caine were your student, in what ways would you be able to capitalize on Cain's Fok?
Capitalizing on a student’s fok enhances learning and the learner’s engagement to make a student perform excellently in his academics. To capitalize on Caine’s funds of knowledge, I would carry out a visit to his home to learn about the day to day activities that influence his thinking. Also, I would interact with his community to learn about their culture and use the knowledge to assist Caine to perform better in class. In class, I will create a creativity session whereby Caine and other students can freely express their funds of knowledge. I will give Caine the necessary resources needed to make his fok successful and use illustrations that he best understands to enhance his learning.
3. How would you incorporate Cain's fok into your teaching?
To incorporate Caine’s fok into teaching, I would research about his community so as to understand his funds of knowledge. This way, I will gather necessary information to assist him exploit his capabilities. I will then draft a course outline that will create an opportunity for Caine to fully use his funds of knowledge. I would provide him with the necessary resources and assist him where necessary.
4. How would you identify the utilize one of your student's funds of knowledge?
A student’s line of thought is shaped by the environment that surrounds him. I would identify the use of a student’s funds of knowledge in his creativity, for example in creative writing or artwork. This is because in creative writing, the student will write something that he has experienced or has been made to believe. In art, the student will come up with artworks that depict his funds of knowledge.
References
Hogg, L. (2011). Funds of knowledge: An investigation of coherence within the literature. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(3), 666-677.
Van Niel, J. J. (2010). Eliciting and activating funds of knowledge in an environmental science community college classroom: An action research study (Doctoral dissertation, University of Rochester).
Sexuality & Gender Contents
Youtube:
1. Parents allow transgender child to choose gender
2. T ...
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Essay about Cultural Experience
Effects of Social Class on Academic Achievement Hermela Assefa
The Future of Public Education. This was the name of a course I took my first year at Franklin and Marshall College that changed my life. This course exposed me to the harsh realities of our public education system. As I continually reflect on my experiences within this system from K-12 I always look past the significant impact my socioeconomic status had on my experience. Having immigrant parents that did not go through a formal education system shaped me to become a student who is not afraid to ask for help. I strive to provide assistance to students in my position who come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. This paper allowed me to explore my curiosities and review the works of many scholars that have dedicated their time to explore the impact of social class on students' academic achievement.
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1.1 Why a Family-Centered ApproachTraditionally, schools through.docxpaynetawnya
1.1 Why a Family-Centered Approach
Traditionally, schools throughout the world have been institutions in which teachers, social workers, and educational specialists are considered the sole source of knowledge, information, and expertise, and parents are expected to support and implement the advice of these experts. Until recently, in contrast with schools, early childhood care and education programs followed a parent-oriented approach in which parents assumed a more active role. Families got together to care for each other's children; sometimes the older women in a community cared for the young children, and mothers rotated care in mother's-day-out programs. One example of high-quality family-oriented child care in the United States can be found in the Kaiser Shipyards during WWII, where mothers worked in factories building ships. These programs provided family medical care and even meals for mothers to take home after their shift in the factory (Hurwitz, 1998). However, over the years, many early childhood programs became more like schools, expecting parents to listen passively to their advice and to help implement their programs (Keyser, 2006).
The development of a family-centered early care and education approach can be traced to the federal early childhood program Head Start. Formed in 1965 as part of President Lyndon B. Johnson's War on Poverty, Head Start was developed as a comprehensive program for low-income families with preschool-age children, with a focus on parent involvement and community collaboration (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [HHS], 2012). The architects of Head Start recognized the need to work in an equal partnership with families of low-income children (Greenberg, 1969). To this end, the program was designed with very specific roles and responsibilities for parents. Program Performance Standards outline overall standards to be met in each component area. These are critical quality indicators used to ensure the program meets the unique needs of the communities and families the program serves. Component areas that must meet these performance standards include specific requirements for parent activities, such as opportunities for parents to follow a career path to become teachers in the local program. Additionally, all local Head Start programs have a governing body, known as a policy council, which must include parents. This body has direct responsibilities in a variety of areas, including approval of hiring and firing of all staff, budget and program component approval, and overall program evaluation (HHS, 2012).
The design of local Head Start programs led more and more early childhood programs to consider a shared approach to power and control. Other early childhood models (such as Waldorf, Montessori, Reggio Emilia, and local community-based programs) practice different degrees of the family-centered approach, depending on their unique philosophy, history, and ownership. With a family-centered approach ...
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology1991, Vol. 59, .docxcroysierkathey
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
1991, Vol. 59, No. 6,799-812
Copyright 1991 by the American Psychological Association. Inc.
0022-006X/91/S3.00
Cultural Diversity and Treatment of Children
Roland G. Tharp
University of California, Santa Cruz
The increasing cultural diversity of child clients has produced a cascade of new issues and concerns
for psychological practice, theory, and research. Available evidence and pertinent theory are re-
viewed on such topics as the predictive utility and treatment consequences of ethnic membership,
whether treatments should be generic or specific to cultural groups, the degree of privilege that
should be accorded to same-culture therapists, and the relative desirability of different modalities
of treatment for children of different cultural groups. The concept of cultural compatibility of
treatment is explored and evaluated. A broad agenda of hypotheses for research and development is
suggested, and some guidelines for clinical practice and policy are proposed. It is concluded that
insofar as possible, treatment for all children should be contextualized in their family's and commu-
nity's structure of meanings, relationships, and language.
The culturally diverse society that our nation has become
provides a challenge to our politics, our schools, our science,
and our profession. As reiterated by concerned commissions,
agencies, professional organizations, and review articles in-
cluding the current Guidelines for Providers of Psychological
Services to Ethnic andCulturatty Diverse Populations (American
Psychological Association, 1990), we are instructed that "Psy-
chologists should recognize ethnicity and culture as significant
parameters in understanding psychological processes" (p. 4)
before delivering services. What will be necessary to satisfy this
new imperative? Self-examination? New specialized training?
Anthropological indoctrination, religious and spiritual relativ-
ism, multilingualism, "politically correct" thought? And most
to the point, what are the required practical clinical actions? In
discussing these questions, Pedersen and Marsella (1982) con-
clude that to know all and do all that a psychologist should is a
goal that accelerates beyond us.
The task is to bring some order out of this cascade of new
issues and concerns, in the light of available research evidence
and pertinent theory. I will suggest here that some broad out-
lines for strategy are emerging, with enough clarity at least to
pose an agenda of hypotheses for research and development,
and possibly even to provide an initial set of guidelines for
clinical practice and policy. These strategies can be stated
clearly enough to allow them to be tested by both formal evalua-
tion and clinical experience.
Not to overpromise, it should be said that research on cul-
tural issues in clinical treatment is scant, particularly research
addressing such issues with children. We must rely on evidence
from other age grou ...
Respond to discussion in 250-275 words (at least 1 credible sour.docxcarlstromcurtis
Respond to discussion in 250-275 words (at least 1 credible source required)
There are a few similarities and differences between the American culture and the Chinese culture. One that strikes me the most is that they value their elders dearly. Although we all know that different cultures have ways on managing traditions and also have separate approach to aging. In the Chinese culture, respecting the elderly is actually a law that everybody follows (Sung, 2000). They value their elders and practice honor in terms of dealing with them. The American culture however, has a different approach to this. Rapidly growing senior living communities are filled with elders and are left there. With both having different approaches to family, I believe that Americans are more independent versus Chinese people who values tradition throughout every generation.
Family Roles & Organization
Family roles in the Chinese culture are more precise than the American culture. Chinese family roles are followed by which fathers being the head of the family are known to provide and take care of their children (Hu, & Scott, 2014). On the other hand, the American culture is on the broad side for being modeled in different figures and sizes. Some of which are single parent, multiple parent, or have an extended family member. Although viewed differently, both cultures still value family with respect and dignity considering the factors affecting the situation.
High-Risk Behaviors
In the American culture it is known that a few numbers of people are open to the reality of any high-risk behaviors. The approach is openly discussed and treatment is readily available. In the Chinese culture, it is discourage to display any signs of negative emotions thus can mean displaying a personal weakness. In terms of coping with any high-risk behaviors, it is hard for the Chinese culture to express their feelings towards something because of the shame and fear that they can get from other people (Guo et. al, 2019).
Reflect on the similarities and differences as they relate to your future profession as a healthcare practitioner. Discuss how this self-reflection may contribute to your cultural competence.
The similarities and differences can relate to my future profession as a healthcare practitioner knowing that every culture has different approaches to things and that learning this can help me be more diverse in dealing with every particular cases I might be involved in. Some might find this as a hindrance to their professional, but personally I find this an exciting challenge to actually learn and be more flexible with any changes. Also, with learning comes experiences that can help in making my future profession be more diverse and considerate of other’s culture. It is important that continuing education for diversity of cultures be more implemented for awareness and likewise to respond to the increasing demand of healthcare (Purnell, & Fenkl, 2019).
References
Guo, L., Wang, T ...
Assessment for cultural learning in contexts for students learning. By an interchange for minimun needs. Indeed this can enhange your qualifications in social studies habilities in language. By Vielka Reece D.
Cultural Differences in Caring for InfantsThe major assumpti.docxdorishigh
Cultural Differences in Caring for Infants
The major assumptions of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development are that infants are active agents in constructing knowledge and that the interaction of experience and biology leads to growth and development. The cultural-contextual view agrees with these assumptions but adds two more: (1) other people make active contributions to infant development, and (2) cultural practices, which reflect the dominant beliefs and values of a culture, shape infant interaction with others and, ultimately, shape cognitive development. Variations in sleeping and feeding behaviors reflect the role of infants in a culture. Beliefs about babies in different cultures determine how they are treated, who interacts with them, and, consequently, how babies experience their world.
Choose a culture other than your own, and fill in the chart with details contrasting how the 2 cultures care for infants. Use at least 2 resources, cited using APA style, to support your assertions about the different culture’s ways of caring for infants. Before completing this assignment, be sure that you understand the definition of culture. Here is a resource that may be helpful.
What is culture?
Your references need to relate to concepts learned about culture and child care and must be scholarly/academic in nature. Use of .com websites is not appropriate.
.
Locally-Raised Students Are Still Primarily Influenced By Their Culture.hussanisoyat
Uptown International school has been hosting a study abroad students in a variety of countries for the past 10 years. Now, with seventy programs and four academic offices to help you home, studying anywhere internationally is made easy and affordable. We are leading schools in the Taaleem Family of Schools! UIS is a co-educational day and boarding school for students aged 6 to 18.
In a two- to three-page paper (excluding the title and reference pag.docxrock73
In a two- to three-page paper (excluding the title and reference pages), explain the purpose of an income statement and how it reflects the firm’s financial status. Include important points that an analyst would use in assessing the financial condition of the company. Also, analyze Ford Motor Company’s income statement from its
2012 Annual Report
.
Your paper must be formatted according to APA style, and must include citations and references for the text and at least two scholarly sources.
.
In a substantial paragraph respond to either one of the following qu.docxrock73
In a substantial paragraph respond to either one of the following questions:
1.) Choose one source of energy, explain its origins, how does it impact our Earth, and what effect does it have on our planet?
OR
2.) Explain, with details, how geology influences the distribution of natural resources.
NO MINIMUM WORD LENGTH REQUIRED.
.
More Related Content
Similar to Assignment Instructions Week 2During weeks 1 and 2 you have ex.docx
CAINE’S ARCADE 2
Caine’s Arcade
1. What are Caine's funds of knowledge?
Culture builds creativity. Funds of knowledge refer to fundamental cultural practices and bodies of knowledge which are rooted in the day to day activities and routines of families (Hogg, 2011). Caine loves arcades and would not pass one without shopping. He loves tickets, playing games, and prizes. He spent his summer vacation building the cardboard arcade, perfecting his game design, making toy cars, and designing security systems for his Fun Pass. His funds of knowledge were influenced by his surrounding as his father had an auto spare shop which rovided necessary resources for Caine to build his arcade.
2. If Caine were your student, in what ways would you be able to capitalize on Cain's Fok?
Capitalizing on a student’s fok enhances learning and the learner’s engagement to make a student perform excellently in his academics. To capitalize on Caine’s funds of knowledge, I would carry out a visit to his home to learn about the day to day activities that influence his thinking. Also, I would interact with his community to learn about their culture and use the knowledge to assist Caine to perform better in class. In class, I will create a creativity session whereby Caine and other students can freely express their funds of knowledge. I will give Caine the necessary resources needed to make his fok successful and use illustrations that he best understands to enhance his learning.
3. How would you incorporate Cain's fok into your teaching?
To incorporate Caine’s fok into teaching, I would research about his community so as to understand his funds of knowledge. This way, I will gather necessary information to assist him exploit his capabilities. I will then draft a course outline that will create an opportunity for Caine to fully use his funds of knowledge. I would provide him with the necessary resources and assist him where necessary.
4. How would you identify the utilize one of your student's funds of knowledge?
A student’s line of thought is shaped by the environment that surrounds him. I would identify the use of a student’s funds of knowledge in his creativity, for example in creative writing or artwork. This is because in creative writing, the student will write something that he has experienced or has been made to believe. In art, the student will come up with artworks that depict his funds of knowledge.
References
Hogg, L. (2011). Funds of knowledge: An investigation of coherence within the literature. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(3), 666-677.
Van Niel, J. J. (2010). Eliciting and activating funds of knowledge in an environmental science community college classroom: An action research study (Doctoral dissertation, University of Rochester).
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2. T ...
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Essay about Cultural Experience
Effects of Social Class on Academic Achievement Hermela Assefa
The Future of Public Education. This was the name of a course I took my first year at Franklin and Marshall College that changed my life. This course exposed me to the harsh realities of our public education system. As I continually reflect on my experiences within this system from K-12 I always look past the significant impact my socioeconomic status had on my experience. Having immigrant parents that did not go through a formal education system shaped me to become a student who is not afraid to ask for help. I strive to provide assistance to students in my position who come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. This paper allowed me to explore my curiosities and review the works of many scholars that have dedicated their time to explore the impact of social class on students' academic achievement.
Cultural Diversity in America Essay
Cultural Diversity Essay
Cultural Diversity Essay
Cultural Diversity Essay
Cultural Diversity Essay
Cultural Diversity Essay
Cultural Diversity Essay
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Cultural Diversity Essay
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Cultural Diversity Presentation Essay
Cultural Diversity Essay
1.1 Why a Family-Centered ApproachTraditionally, schools through.docxpaynetawnya
1.1 Why a Family-Centered Approach
Traditionally, schools throughout the world have been institutions in which teachers, social workers, and educational specialists are considered the sole source of knowledge, information, and expertise, and parents are expected to support and implement the advice of these experts. Until recently, in contrast with schools, early childhood care and education programs followed a parent-oriented approach in which parents assumed a more active role. Families got together to care for each other's children; sometimes the older women in a community cared for the young children, and mothers rotated care in mother's-day-out programs. One example of high-quality family-oriented child care in the United States can be found in the Kaiser Shipyards during WWII, where mothers worked in factories building ships. These programs provided family medical care and even meals for mothers to take home after their shift in the factory (Hurwitz, 1998). However, over the years, many early childhood programs became more like schools, expecting parents to listen passively to their advice and to help implement their programs (Keyser, 2006).
The development of a family-centered early care and education approach can be traced to the federal early childhood program Head Start. Formed in 1965 as part of President Lyndon B. Johnson's War on Poverty, Head Start was developed as a comprehensive program for low-income families with preschool-age children, with a focus on parent involvement and community collaboration (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [HHS], 2012). The architects of Head Start recognized the need to work in an equal partnership with families of low-income children (Greenberg, 1969). To this end, the program was designed with very specific roles and responsibilities for parents. Program Performance Standards outline overall standards to be met in each component area. These are critical quality indicators used to ensure the program meets the unique needs of the communities and families the program serves. Component areas that must meet these performance standards include specific requirements for parent activities, such as opportunities for parents to follow a career path to become teachers in the local program. Additionally, all local Head Start programs have a governing body, known as a policy council, which must include parents. This body has direct responsibilities in a variety of areas, including approval of hiring and firing of all staff, budget and program component approval, and overall program evaluation (HHS, 2012).
The design of local Head Start programs led more and more early childhood programs to consider a shared approach to power and control. Other early childhood models (such as Waldorf, Montessori, Reggio Emilia, and local community-based programs) practice different degrees of the family-centered approach, depending on their unique philosophy, history, and ownership. With a family-centered approach ...
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology1991, Vol. 59, .docxcroysierkathey
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
1991, Vol. 59, No. 6,799-812
Copyright 1991 by the American Psychological Association. Inc.
0022-006X/91/S3.00
Cultural Diversity and Treatment of Children
Roland G. Tharp
University of California, Santa Cruz
The increasing cultural diversity of child clients has produced a cascade of new issues and concerns
for psychological practice, theory, and research. Available evidence and pertinent theory are re-
viewed on such topics as the predictive utility and treatment consequences of ethnic membership,
whether treatments should be generic or specific to cultural groups, the degree of privilege that
should be accorded to same-culture therapists, and the relative desirability of different modalities
of treatment for children of different cultural groups. The concept of cultural compatibility of
treatment is explored and evaluated. A broad agenda of hypotheses for research and development is
suggested, and some guidelines for clinical practice and policy are proposed. It is concluded that
insofar as possible, treatment for all children should be contextualized in their family's and commu-
nity's structure of meanings, relationships, and language.
The culturally diverse society that our nation has become
provides a challenge to our politics, our schools, our science,
and our profession. As reiterated by concerned commissions,
agencies, professional organizations, and review articles in-
cluding the current Guidelines for Providers of Psychological
Services to Ethnic andCulturatty Diverse Populations (American
Psychological Association, 1990), we are instructed that "Psy-
chologists should recognize ethnicity and culture as significant
parameters in understanding psychological processes" (p. 4)
before delivering services. What will be necessary to satisfy this
new imperative? Self-examination? New specialized training?
Anthropological indoctrination, religious and spiritual relativ-
ism, multilingualism, "politically correct" thought? And most
to the point, what are the required practical clinical actions? In
discussing these questions, Pedersen and Marsella (1982) con-
clude that to know all and do all that a psychologist should is a
goal that accelerates beyond us.
The task is to bring some order out of this cascade of new
issues and concerns, in the light of available research evidence
and pertinent theory. I will suggest here that some broad out-
lines for strategy are emerging, with enough clarity at least to
pose an agenda of hypotheses for research and development,
and possibly even to provide an initial set of guidelines for
clinical practice and policy. These strategies can be stated
clearly enough to allow them to be tested by both formal evalua-
tion and clinical experience.
Not to overpromise, it should be said that research on cul-
tural issues in clinical treatment is scant, particularly research
addressing such issues with children. We must rely on evidence
from other age grou ...
Respond to discussion in 250-275 words (at least 1 credible sour.docxcarlstromcurtis
Respond to discussion in 250-275 words (at least 1 credible source required)
There are a few similarities and differences between the American culture and the Chinese culture. One that strikes me the most is that they value their elders dearly. Although we all know that different cultures have ways on managing traditions and also have separate approach to aging. In the Chinese culture, respecting the elderly is actually a law that everybody follows (Sung, 2000). They value their elders and practice honor in terms of dealing with them. The American culture however, has a different approach to this. Rapidly growing senior living communities are filled with elders and are left there. With both having different approaches to family, I believe that Americans are more independent versus Chinese people who values tradition throughout every generation.
Family Roles & Organization
Family roles in the Chinese culture are more precise than the American culture. Chinese family roles are followed by which fathers being the head of the family are known to provide and take care of their children (Hu, & Scott, 2014). On the other hand, the American culture is on the broad side for being modeled in different figures and sizes. Some of which are single parent, multiple parent, or have an extended family member. Although viewed differently, both cultures still value family with respect and dignity considering the factors affecting the situation.
High-Risk Behaviors
In the American culture it is known that a few numbers of people are open to the reality of any high-risk behaviors. The approach is openly discussed and treatment is readily available. In the Chinese culture, it is discourage to display any signs of negative emotions thus can mean displaying a personal weakness. In terms of coping with any high-risk behaviors, it is hard for the Chinese culture to express their feelings towards something because of the shame and fear that they can get from other people (Guo et. al, 2019).
Reflect on the similarities and differences as they relate to your future profession as a healthcare practitioner. Discuss how this self-reflection may contribute to your cultural competence.
The similarities and differences can relate to my future profession as a healthcare practitioner knowing that every culture has different approaches to things and that learning this can help me be more diverse in dealing with every particular cases I might be involved in. Some might find this as a hindrance to their professional, but personally I find this an exciting challenge to actually learn and be more flexible with any changes. Also, with learning comes experiences that can help in making my future profession be more diverse and considerate of other’s culture. It is important that continuing education for diversity of cultures be more implemented for awareness and likewise to respond to the increasing demand of healthcare (Purnell, & Fenkl, 2019).
References
Guo, L., Wang, T ...
Assessment for cultural learning in contexts for students learning. By an interchange for minimun needs. Indeed this can enhange your qualifications in social studies habilities in language. By Vielka Reece D.
Cultural Differences in Caring for InfantsThe major assumpti.docxdorishigh
Cultural Differences in Caring for Infants
The major assumptions of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development are that infants are active agents in constructing knowledge and that the interaction of experience and biology leads to growth and development. The cultural-contextual view agrees with these assumptions but adds two more: (1) other people make active contributions to infant development, and (2) cultural practices, which reflect the dominant beliefs and values of a culture, shape infant interaction with others and, ultimately, shape cognitive development. Variations in sleeping and feeding behaviors reflect the role of infants in a culture. Beliefs about babies in different cultures determine how they are treated, who interacts with them, and, consequently, how babies experience their world.
Choose a culture other than your own, and fill in the chart with details contrasting how the 2 cultures care for infants. Use at least 2 resources, cited using APA style, to support your assertions about the different culture’s ways of caring for infants. Before completing this assignment, be sure that you understand the definition of culture. Here is a resource that may be helpful.
What is culture?
Your references need to relate to concepts learned about culture and child care and must be scholarly/academic in nature. Use of .com websites is not appropriate.
.
Locally-Raised Students Are Still Primarily Influenced By Their Culture.hussanisoyat
Uptown International school has been hosting a study abroad students in a variety of countries for the past 10 years. Now, with seventy programs and four academic offices to help you home, studying anywhere internationally is made easy and affordable. We are leading schools in the Taaleem Family of Schools! UIS is a co-educational day and boarding school for students aged 6 to 18.
Similar to Assignment Instructions Week 2During weeks 1 and 2 you have ex.docx (20)
In a two- to three-page paper (excluding the title and reference pag.docxrock73
In a two- to three-page paper (excluding the title and reference pages), explain the purpose of an income statement and how it reflects the firm’s financial status. Include important points that an analyst would use in assessing the financial condition of the company. Also, analyze Ford Motor Company’s income statement from its
2012 Annual Report
.
Your paper must be formatted according to APA style, and must include citations and references for the text and at least two scholarly sources.
.
In a substantial paragraph respond to either one of the following qu.docxrock73
In a substantial paragraph respond to either one of the following questions:
1.) Choose one source of energy, explain its origins, how does it impact our Earth, and what effect does it have on our planet?
OR
2.) Explain, with details, how geology influences the distribution of natural resources.
NO MINIMUM WORD LENGTH REQUIRED.
.
In a study by Dr. Sandra Levitsky, she considers why the economic,.docxrock73
In a study by Dr. Sandra Levitsky, she considers why the economic, physical, and emotional challenges of providing chronic care for a family member have not produced more salient political demands for aggressive policy intervention (Hudson, 2014).
Discuss her findings as well as your own theory on why there has not been a stronger demand from the public for policy intervention to assist caregivers.
Support your statements with evidence from the Required Studies and your research. Cite and reference your sources in APA style.
References
Hudson, R. (Ed). (2014).
The new politics of old age policy
(3rd ed.). Baltimore, John Hopkins.
.
In a response of at least two paragraphs, provide an explanation o.docxrock73
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In a minimum 200 word response, describe some ways how the public .docxrock73
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Dempsey, J. S., & Forst, L. S. (2011, Pg. 213-214).
Police
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In a weekly coordination meeting, several senior investigators from the state crime lab request that AB Investigative Services (ABIS) prepare a standard operations procedure document concerning the general processing of computer evidence. Recent forensic investigator actions during the processing of computer evidence have failed to show understanding of how computer data are created, modified, and stored. In addition, the investigators have not understood the underlying technical issues tied to evidence processing and associated security issues. Provide four general evidence processing guidelines to ensure investigators understand the steps of processing evidence and the results when standard operating procedures are not followed.
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In a memo, describe 1) the form and style of art as well as 2) the e.docxrock73
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In a minimum 200 word response explain the problems that law enforce.docxrock73
In a minimum 200 word response explain the problems that law enforcement officials have faced regarding the issues of federal, state, and local jurisdictions attempting to intervene in tribal policing. How has this issue contributed to confusion and discontent with law enforcement? Dempsey, J. S., & Forst, L. S. (2011, Pg. 22-25). Police. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar.
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In a minimum 200 word response explain some of the reasons why, in.docxrock73
In a minimum 200 word response explain some of the reasons why, in the context of span of control, it is more beneficial to
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What factors can affect how many employees are supervised at one time?
Dempsey, J. S., & Forst, L. S. (2011, Pg.
Pg. 35-40
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Police
. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar.
.
In a maximum of 750 words, you are required to1. Summarize the ar.docxrock73
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in a two- to- three page paper (not including the title and referenc.docxrock73
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In a two- to three-page paper (not including the title and reference.docxrock73
In a two- to three-page paper (not including the title and reference pages), explain the purpose of a balance sheet and how it reflects the firm’s financial status. Analyze Ford Motor Company’s balance sheet from its
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In a group, take a look at the two student essays included in this f.docxrock73
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BASEBALLRuns Scored (X)Wins (Y)7086987590654797048078795730716678661963867976457455667707918559674381731946418965471735797357361556
Develop a position paper on best practices for teaching English Learners. This paper should contain the student’s personal beliefs about and the best models to practice. Statements must be supported with research data. There must be at least THREE references. The textbook may serve as ONE reference (Education English Learners for a Transformed World) The paper must be typed using APA style, double spaced, and with a title page and a reference page. The paper should be no less than three pages in length.
The positon paper: why two way is the best method in Bilingual Education
1) Please explain the components of the Prism Model and why these components are important in creating a welcoming school that promotes success for English Learners.
2) There have been many programs and ideas in the US Public schools for how best to serve English Learners and close the gap between those who enter school speaking English and those who have to learn English along the way.
Following is a list of Bilingual Education Models that have been tried. According to the text book and the research of Virginia Collier and Wayne Thomas, please rate the following programs from 1-6 with 1 being the most effective program for student success and 6 being the least effective program for learning English:
__________Maintenance Bilingual Ed., Self-Contained
__________Transitional Bilingual Ed.
__________One-way Dual Language
__________Pull-out Bilingual Ed.
__________Two-way Dual Language
__________Enrichment Bilingual Education (30 min. per day)
The following programs are designed for ELs who do not live in an area where bilingual ed. is available or do not qualify for bilingual education due to the language they speak. Please rate the following ESL programs on a scale of 1-4 with 1 being the most successful way to teach English and 4 being the least effective program:
__________ESL Pull-out
__________Sheltered Instruction in the regular classroom
__________Total emersion with no language support
__________English enrichment, 30 minutes per day, by classroom teacher
3) Please explain the difference between a 50/50 model and a 90/10 model of Dual Language Education.
4) Why does 2-way Dual Language Education usually have better results than 1-way Dual Language Education?
5) In order to have an effective Dual Language program, there are two important things teachers should not do. What are they?
6) What does it mean to see other cultures not as a deficit but as a difference? Why is this idea important to your classroom?
7) We are required to have many formal assessments in our educational curriculum. However, informal assessment can be much more informative to the teacher of language learners. Please explain why Informal Assessments might be a better way for the teacher to know the true level of the student.
...
Based on Santa Clara University Ethics DialogueEthics .docxrock73
Based on Santa Clara University Ethics Dialogue
Ethics case studies
This is an extra credit assignment that I am offering for the first time this term. In this booklet, you will find 38 separate case studies. You are free to respond to any or all of these cases.
You may earn up to 5 extra credit points per question, based on the complexity of the case and the logic of your response. You may not earn more than 100 points (10 percent of your final grade).
You may find it helpful to read the paper “Four Tough Ethical Dilemmas” prior to responding.
While these are your opinions, citations are not expected; however, if you make use of the work of others, include APA style citations for complete credit.
Either cut and paste the cases you select to a separate file or use this file for your submission. If you use this file to submit a response, please delete those cases to which you are not responding.
Dr. Frick
Case 1: Family Loyalty vs. Meritocracy
A man was appointed president of the newly-acquired Philippine subsidiary of a large American company. He was reviewing the organization with the company's head of human resources. One thing the president noted was that the same names reoccurred frequently in several departments. "It is our tradition," commented the HR head. "Families take care of their own. If one family member gets a good job in a Philippine company, other members of the family apply to join that company and the first member there can help the whole family become successful by helping them get hired and by coaching them to be successful. The company benefits. Our costs of recruiting are lower, we know more about the people we hire, and the commitment to family success results in fewer performance and discipline problems because family members want to please their older relatives."
The president wondered how these practices would be regarded in a large American firm, and whether or not he should take action to change them.
1. Nepotism is not illegal, but is it ethical?
2. If the business is family-owned, does that make a difference?
3. How does national culture affect this discussion?
Case 2: Is the Two-Tier System Ethically Problematic
Employees at a cereal makers plant were “locked-out” from their jobs producing cereal for over 3 months. Company management and the union representing the employees reached a stalemate in negotiations resulting in the lockout. The union claims that the primary issue is the company’s demand of dramatically increasing the number of temporary workers, who would earn $6 less per hour and receive fewer benefits. Critics claim this effectively creates a two-tier system at the plant. Under the current agreement, the company may use temporary workers for up to 30% of the workforce, but the union claims the company is now pushing for 100%. The workers, who have had their health insurance suspended, fear that their jobs will either be replaced entirely by temporary workers, or they will be f ...
Barbara Corcoran Learns Her Heart’s True Desires In her.docxrock73
Barbara Corcoran Learns Her Heart’s True Desires
In her hilarious and lighthearted book, Shark Tales: How I Turned $1,000 Into a
Billion Dollar Business, Barbara Corcoran demonstrates the importance of knowing what
you really want out of life (Corcoran & Littlefield, 2011). As her title suggests, Barbara
founded her real estate company, The Corcoran Group, with only $1,000 and some big
dreams. Shortly after founding the company, Barbara took out a piece of paper and wrote
down some big goals for herself and the company. In 1978, she had only 14 sales agents
working for her, who earned a total of $250,000 in commissions. She set a goal of
doubling the number of agents and the commissions every year. So she put down 28 sales
people for 1979, 56 for 1980, and so on, all the way up to 1,792 salespeople in 1985 with
total commissions of $32,000,000. Barbara was amazed when she saw the fantastic sums
projected for 1985, and of course many people, when they see such amazing sums, would
dismiss the calculations as fantasy But as Barbara put it, she went to work the next day
hustling hard for her $32 million.
Real estate agents are paid largely by commission, which is about as close as you
can get to a pure form of contingent reward for performance. However, Barbara didn’t
rely solely on the commissions to motivate her workers. She threw theme parties and held
numerous social events to build a committed workforce. Good sales agents could always
move to another firm, but not every firm had Barbara’s positive attitude and fun-filled
atmosphere. In the early years of the firm, when money was tight, Barbara and her
relatives did the cooking for the outings and parties, and she found clever ways to
entertain people with skating parties and other lively activities. As the firm became larger
and more profitable, she even hired professional entertainers for the company’s midweek
picnics, which included elephant shows, daring rides on hot air balloons, horses, or
Harley Davidsons, etc. Barbara stated “I built my company on pure fun, and believe that
fun is the most underutilized motivational tool in business today. All of my best ideas
came when I was playing outside the office with the people I worked with” (Corcoran &
Littlefield, 2011, p. 283). What did she get in return for the fun atmosphere? She had the
“most profitable real estate company per person in the United States” (p. 284). By the
time she sold her agency in 2001, she had 1,000 agents working for her, and she had the
largest real estate agency in New York – clearly her motivational strategies attracted a
large number of productive employees.
Barbara Corcoran had sold her firm for $66 million. She thought that would make
her happy, but instead, it made her sad. Although she pretended to be happy with her new
wealth and freedom, she was “secretly miserable” (Corcoran & Littlefield, 2011, p. 232).
She had lost her purpose ...
Bapsi Sidhwa’s Cracking India
1947 Partition
Deepa Mehta’s earth (1998)
Characters
Aamir Khan - Dil Navaz, the Ice Candy Man
Nandita Das - Shanta, the Ayah
Rahul Khanna - Hassan, the Masseur
Maia Sethna - Lenny Sethna
Shabana Azmi - older Lenny, narrator
Kitu Gidwani - Bunty Sethna
Arif Zakaria - Rustom Sethna
Kulbhushan Kharbanda - Imam Din
Kumar Rajendra - Refugee Police
Pavan Malhotra - Butcher
IN Deepa Mehta’s words
I wanted desperately to make CRACKING INDIA into a film, a particular film, EARTH, which would be the second in my trilogy of the elements of Fire, Earth and Water.
Tracing Bapsi was no easy task but persevere we did and soon I was talking to Bapsi on the phone, hoping that the film rights to her book were still available. Two months later, thanks to David Hamilton's unwavering belief in the project, we owned the rights, had development funds, and I was sitting at my kitchen table, writing the screenplay of EARTH.
David and Anne Masson and I had worked together on FIRE and we re-assembled the team to begin the detailed planning of the production.
During this phase Bapsi became a friend and was exceedingly generous with information and old photographs. She would talk with me for hours about what it was like growing up in Lahore during those times. Lenny, after all, was based on Bapsi. In fact, Lenny was Bapsi.
The irony of our situation hasn't escaped Bapsi or myself. Bapsi is from Pakistan and now a US citizen. I'm from India and now living in Canada. If neither of us had moved from our respective homelands, the film just wouldn't have been possible. Pakistan and India, since the Partition of 1947, are sworn enemies. Not only have they fought three major wars against each other, but also, as I write this, both countries talk blithely about their nuclear capabilities and continue their militant aggression against each other across the still- disputed Kashmir border.
Fallen Women in the novel and film
Abducted women like Ayah and Hamdia, Lenny’s new nanny are viewed with suspicion from Lenny.
Page 226
“It isn’t a jail, Lenny baby…it’s a camp for fallen women.”
“What are fallen women?”
“Hai! The questions you ask! Your mother won’t like such talk…Now keep quiet”
“Are you a fallen woman?”
Fallen women – Abducted and raped women
In the aftermath of the 1947 declaration of Indian independence, the roughly drawn new state boundaries triggered what may have been the biggest migration in human history.
Historical consensus supports a figure of 12 million people displaced, although the BBC suggests figures as high as 14.5 million people. An undeclared civil war erupted as communities of Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs fought one another to establish their own identities in their redefined homelands. And, in the process, the Indian government estimates, 83,000 women were abused and abducted. Others put the number even higher.
“Rather than being raped and abandoned,” Yasmin Khan writes in The Great Partition: The ...
Barriers of therapeutic relationshipThe therapeutic relations.docxrock73
Barriers of therapeutic relationship:
The therapeutic relationship between patient and nurse is often filled with barriers that can generate obstacles for the relationship and, in the end, the health system as a whole (Sfoggia et al.,2014). There are many factors that hinder building a therapeutic relationship: language, professional jargon, communication impairment, and cultural diversity (ibid).
Language:
Language can be an obstacle to nurse-patient communication because a patient may not be able to speak the same language and therefore communication is not possible (Levin,2006). The best way to overcome this barrier is providing a translator who can explain a professional facilitator's message easily to the patient(ibid). For instance, if the nurse only speaks English but the patient is only able to speak Arabic, a translation to the patient of what the professional facilitator is saying leads to less chance of misunderstanding (ibid). Translation also allows a patient to feel comfortable through being able to speak in their own language (ibid).
Medical jargon:
Jargon is a technical language that is comprehended by people in a specific industry or area of work (Leblanc et al.,2014). Health professionals often use jargon to communicate with each other(ibid). For example, T.B. disease stands for tubercle bacillus and HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus (Mccrary & Christensen,1993). Jargon often makes sense to health professionals but a patient who does not understand these acronyms will not understand such communication, leading to a barrier in therapeutic relationship between patient and health professional (Leblanc et al.,2014).
Communication impairment:
Patients with communication impairment such as blindness, deafness and speech impairment often feel isolated, frustrated and self-conscious (O’Halloran et al.,2009). Some patients are born with such disabilities or have developed them as a result of disease (ibid). Therefore, nurses should provide enough time in order to describe any issue to such patients so that they do not feel uncomfortable or censured by health professionals, who must remain impartial (ibid).
Cultural diversity:
Patients often have various differences (Leblanc et al.,2014).Some of these differences are due to a patient's illness, social status, economic class, education and personality(ibid). However, according to Kirkham (1998), the deepest differences might be cultural diversity. Beheri (2009) points out that many nurses believe if they just treat patients with respect, they will avoid most cultural issues. Nevertheless, avoiding misunderstanding can be achieved through some knowledge of cultural customs, which might help and enable nurses to provide better health care to patients (ibid).
Facilitators of therapeutic relationship:
UNCRPD (2006) states that the most fundamental human right in hospital is communication. Patients are required to be provided with an effective communication method by nurs ...
Barada 2Mohamad BaradaProfessor Andrew DurdinReligions of .docxrock73
Barada 2
Mohamad Barada
Professor Andrew Durdin
Religions of the World Hum 201-02
March 23rd, 2018
References:
1. Rachel. Rachel’s Musings: Buddhism is a Religion. Retrieved from https://www.rabe.org/thoughts-on-buddhism/buddhism-is-a-religion/
2. Winfield, Pamela. The Conversation: Why so many Americans think Buddhism is just a philosophy. Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/why-so-many-americans-think-buddhism-is-just-a-philosophy-89488
Critical Analysis of the religious nature of Buddhism
The religious community often debates on whether Buddhism is categorized as a religion or as philosophical teaching. The answer to the question varies depending on an individual’s point of view. There are three main types of Buddhism practices across the world with each of them having smaller branches with slights variances in their teachings and beliefs. The different styles of Buddhist mainly encompass Theravada Buddhism, Vajrayana Buddhism, and Mahayana Buddhism. The various forms often have deities that are worshipped while others do not. Some often have scriptures while others do not usually believe in any physical form of the Buddhist teachings. The first article is authored by Rachel, a blogger, presenting the argument that Buddhism is a religion (Rachel, 1). On the other hand, the second article authored by Pamela Winfield recognizes Buddhism as a philosophy. Analyzing and comparing the two pieces having divergent views on the religious nature of Buddhism is crucial for understanding whether it is a religion or philosophy.
Summary of the articles
Rachel in her article considers Buddhism as a religion. The author acknowledges the fact that Mahayana Buddhism which is often found in greater part of Asia that includes Japan, Korea, and China often teaches on attaining enlightenment (Rachel, 1). The Mahayana often accept that every individual wishes to ensure the effective attainment of enlightenment and thus end the cycle of rebirth which others recognize as “Karma.” The article proceeds to state that Buddha is the greatest of the deities but is not worshipped. Instead, Buddha often inspires all those who practice doing as he once did. The author states that Buddhism often requires that the individuals that choose the wrong path attempt to re-accomplish these tasks in their next life alongside other punishments imposed on them by karma. The characteristics of this type of Buddhism thus often play a significant role in showing the religious nature of Buddhism. The author concludes by stating that Buddhism often contains all the different elements of a religion. Moreover, the article associates Buddhism with fallacies that characterize other religions and just as dangerous as other religions as well. A quote proves the claim on the dangerous nature of Buddhism that the author uses to summarize the teachings of Buddhism.
On the other hand, Winfield tends to focus on enlightening the readers on some of the aspects of Buddhism that ensures its a ...
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Assignment Instructions Week 2During weeks 1 and 2 you have ex.docx
1. Assignment Instructions
Week 2
During weeks 1 and 2 you have explored how parenting
expectations, experiences and styles are influenced by many
factors. The learning resources suggest several ways to provide
parenting information and related family supports. For
Assignment 1 due Week 2 you will use this information to
create an enticing flyer for a parenting class that is designed to
help prepare new parents. Your flyer should include:
1. The purpose of the parenting class – including why it is
important
2. At least 5 distinct topics that will be addressed in the class
noting why each is important. Be sure to cite resources to back
this up.
3. Be creative – how would you entice parents or parents to be
to come?
Flyer length minimum 500 words, 2 academic references used,
MS word or RTF format only.
Possible grade
Student grade
The paper addresses the issues specified by the assignment - 5
parenting topics described.
20
The author shows insight and sophistication in thinking and
writing
30
Two academic references were used with corresponding
citations in the body of the paper
20
Paper was well organized and easy to follow. Paper was the
2. required length. Cover page, paper body, citations and
Reference list were in the American Psychological Association
format.
20
Few to no spelling, grammar, punctuation or other writing
structure errors
10
TOTAL
100
HELPFUL CLASS REQUIRED READING
https://edge.apus.edu/access/content/group/education-
common/Universal/CHFD/331/elf/lesson-1/elf_index.html
https://edge.apus.edu/access/content/group/education-
common/Universal/CHFD/331/elf/lesson-2/elf_index.html
READING 2.pdf
PARENTING: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE, 12: 212–221, 2012
ISSN: 1529-5192 print / 1532-7922 online
DOI: 10.1080/15295192.2012.683359
Cultural Approaches to Parenting
Marc H. Bornstein
3. SYNOPSIS
This article first introduces some main ideas behind culture and
parenting and next addresses
philosophical rationales and methodological considerations
central to cultural approaches to
parenting, including a brief account of a cross-cultural study of
parenting. It then focuses
on universals, specifics, and distinctions between form
(behavior) and function (meaning)
in parenting as embedded in culture. The article concludes by
pointing to social policy
implications as well as future directions prompted by a cultural
approach to parenting.
INTRODUCTION
Every culture is characterized, and distinguished from other
cultures, by deeply rooted
and widely acknowledged ideas about how one needs to feel,
think, and act as a
functioning member of the culture. Cross-cultural study affirms
that groups of people
possess different beliefs and engage in different behaviors that
may be normative in
their culture but are not necessarily normative in another
culture. Cultural groups thus
embody particular characteristics that are deemed essential or
advantageous to their
members. These beliefs and behaviors tend to persist over time
and constitute the val-
ued competencies that are communicated to new members of the
group. Central to a
concept of culture, therefore, is the expectation that different
cultural groups possess
4. distinct beliefs and behave in unique ways with respect to their
parenting. Cultural
variations in parenting beliefs and behaviors are impressive,
whether observed among
different, say ethnic, groups in one society or across societies in
different parts of the
world. This article addresses the rapidly increasing research
interest in cultural dif-
ferences in parenting. It first takes up philosophical
underpinnings, rationales, and
methodological considerations central to cultural approaches to
parenting, describes
a cross-cultural study of parenting, and then addresses some
core issues in cultural
approaches to parenting, namely, universals, specifics, and the
form-versus-function
distinction. It concludes with an overview of social policy
implications and future
directions of cultural approaches to parenting.
THE CULTURE–PARENTING NEXUS
Culture isusefully conceived of as theset ofdistinctive patterns
ofbeliefs and behaviors
that are shared by a group of people and that serve to regulate
their daily living. These
beliefsandbehaviorsshapehowparentscarefortheiroffspring.Thus,
havingexperienced
This article not subject to US copyright law.
CULTURAL APPROACHES TO PARENTING 213
unique patterns of caregiving is a principal reason that
5. individuals in different cultures
are who they are and often differ so from one another. Culture
helps to construct
parentsandparenting,andcultureismaintainedandtransmittedbyinf
luencingparental
cognitions that in turn are thought to shape parenting practices
(Bornstein & Lansford,
2010; Harkness et al., 2007). Children’s experiences with their
parents within a cultural
context consequently scaffold them to become culturally
competent members of their
society. For example, European American and Puerto Rican
mothers of toddlers believe
in the differential value of individual autonomy versus
connected interdependence,
a contrast that in turn relates to mothers’ actual caregiving
(Harwood, Schoelmerich,
Schulze,&Gonzalez,
1999):WhereEuropeanAmericanmothersusesuggestions (rather
thancommands)andotherindirectmeansofstructuringtheirchildren
’sbehavior,Puerto
Rican mothers use more direct means of structuring, such as
commands, physical
positioning and restraints, and direct attempts to recruit their
children’s attention.
Parents normally organize and distribute their caregiving
faithful to indigenous cul-
tural belief systems and behavior patterns. Indeed, culturally
constructed beliefs can
be so powerful that parents are known to act on them, setting
aside what their senses
might tell them about their own children. For example, parents
in most societies speak
tobabiesandrightlysee themascomprehending interactivepartners
longbefore infants
6. produce language, whereas parents in some societies think that
it is nonsensical to talk
to infants before children themselves are capable of speech
(Ochs, 1988).
Cultural cognitionsandpractices instantiate themes
thatcommunicateconsistentcul-
tural messages (Quinn & Holland, 1987). For example, in the
United States personal
choice is firmly rooted in principles of liberty and freedom, is
closely bound up with
howindividualsconceiveof themselvesandmakesenseof their
lives, and isapersistent
and significant construct in the literature on parenting (Tamis-
LeMonda & McFadden,
2010). Moreover, culture-specific patterns of childrearing can
be expected to adapt to
eachsociety’sspecificsettingandneeds.Forexample,younginfantsa
mongthenomadic
hunter-gatherer Aka are more likely to be held and fed in close
proximity to their care-
givers than are infants from Ngandu farming communities who
are more likely to be
left by themselves, even though these two traditional groups
live close to one another in
central Africa (Hewlett, Lamb, Shannon, Leyendecker, &
Schölmerich, 1998). Aka par-
ents are reasoned to maintain closer proximity to infants
because the group moves in
search of food more frequently than do Ngandu.
Generational, social, and media images—culture—of caregiving
and childhood play
formative roles in generating parenting cognitions and guiding
parenting practices
(Bornstein & Lansford, 2010). Parenting thus embeds cultural
7. models and meanings
into basic psychological processes which maintain or transform
the culture (Bornstein,
2009). Reciprocally, culture expresses and perpetuates itself
through parenting. Parents
bring certain cultural proclivities to interactions with their
children, and parents inter-
pret even similar characteristics in children within their
culture’s frame of reference;
parents then encourage or discourage characteristics as
appropriate or detrimental to
adequate functioning within the group.
CULTURAL STUDY AS A PRIMARY APPROACH IN
PARENTING SCIENCE
The move toward a culturally richer understanding of parenting
has given rise to a set
of important questions about parenting (Bornstein, 2001). What
is normative parenting
214 BORNSTEIN
and to what extent does it vary with culture? What are the
historical, economic, social,
or other sources of cultural variation in parenting norms? How
does culture embed into
parenting cognitions and practices and manifest and maintain
itself through parenting?
There is definite need and significance for a cultural approach
to parenting science.
Descriptively it is invaluable for revealing the full range of
human parenting. The study
8. of parenting across cultures also furnishes a check against an
ethnocentric world view
of parenting. Acceptance of findings from any one culture as
“normative” of parent-
ing is too narrow in scope, and ready generalizations from them
to parents at large are
blindingly uncritical. Comparison across cultures is also
valuable because it augments
anunderstandingof theprocesses
throughwhichbiologicalvariables fusewithenviron-
mental variables and experiences. Parenting needs to be
considered in its socio-cultural
context, and cultural study provides the variability necessary to
expose process.
Cultural Methods in Parenting Science
Some culture research in parenting compares group means on
variables of inter-
est, like parenting cognitions and practices or their child
outcomes, using analyses of
variance statistics. Other research looks at how culture
moderates patterns of associa-
tions between variables across cultural groups. Both approaches
require indicators that
are clearly defined and measured in consistent ways. Cultural
science, in addition to
requirements of any good science, also brings with it unique
issues and requirements
(translation, sampling, and measurement equivalence, for
example), and risks associ-
ated with this research are enhanced when it is conducted
without full awareness and
sensitivity to these specific concerns. For example, studies that
compare cultural groups
often require the collection of data in different languages, and
9. the instruments used in
such comparisons must be rendered equally valid across cultural
groups (Peña, 2007).
Furthermore, with any test of between-group differences, there
is a chance that mea-
sures are not equivalent in the groups. Equivalences at many
levels are important, and
steps need to be taken to promote not only cross-linguistic
appropriateness but also
cross-cultural validity of instruments to achieve at least
“adapted equivalence” (van de
Vijver&Leung,1997). Indeed, failure todosocreatesproblems in
interpretationof find-
ings that are as serious as lack of reliability and validity
(Vandenberg & Lance, 2000).
If test measurement invariance is not tested and ensured,
additional empirical and/or
conceptual justification that the measures used have the same
meaning in different
cultural groups is required.
Cultural comparisons of parenting usually involve quasi-
experimental designs, in
which samples are not randomly selected either from the world
population or from
national populations or (obviously) assigned to cultures.
Interpreting findings is much
more challenging in such designs than in experiments that are
based on random assign-
ment of participants. A major challenge that confronts cultural
comparisons concerns
how to isolate source(s) of potential effects and identify the
presumed active cultural
ingredient(s) thatproduceddifferences.Samples
indifferentculturescandifferonmany
personologicalor sociodemographic characteristics
10. thatmayconfoundparentingdiffer-
ences. For example, parents in different cultural groups may
vary in modal patterns
of personality, acculturation level, education, or socioeconomic
status (Bornstein et al.,
2007; Bornstein et al., 2012a). Various procedures are available
to untangle rival expla-
nations for cultural comparisons, such as the inclusion of
covariates in the research
design to confirm or disconfirm specific alternative
interpretations. By ruling out com-
plementary accounts, it is possible to draw conclusions that are
more firmly situated in
CULTURAL APPROACHES TO PARENTING 215
culture. For example, culture influences teaching and
expectations of children in moth-
ersofAustralianversusLebanesedescentall living inAustraliaapart
fromchildgender,
parity, and socioeconomic class (Goodnow, Cashmore, Cotton,
& Knight, 1984).
Other methodological questions threaten the validity of cultural
comparisons
(Matsumoto&vandeVijver, 2011).Forexample,
itmatterswhoisdoing thestudy, their
culture, their assumptions in asking certain questions, and so
forth. Whether collaborat-
ing scientists are “on the ground” in the culture and undertake
adequate preliminary
study to generate meaningful questions are also pertinent.
Similarity and Difference in Parenting across Cultures
11. The “story” of the cultural investigation of parenting is largely
one of similarities,
differences, and their meaning. In an illustrative study, we
analyzed and compared
natural mother-infant interactions in Argentina, Belgium, Israel,
Italy, and the United
States (Bornstein et al., 2012b). Differences exist among the
locales we recruited from
in terms of history, beliefs, languages, and childrearing values.
However, the samples
were more alike than not in terms of modernity, urbanity,
economics, politics, living
standards, even ecology and climate. Thus, they created the
possibility of identifying
culture-uniqueand-general
conclusionsaboutchildrearing.Motherswereprimiparous,
at least 18 years of age, and from intact families; infants were
firstborn, term, healthy,
and 5 months old. Our aims were to observe mothers and their
infants under eco-
logically valid, natural, and unobtrusive conditions, and so we
studied their usual
routines in the familiar confines of their own homes. We
videorecorded mother–baby
dyads and then used mutually exclusive and exhaustive coding
systems to compre-
hensively characterize frequency and duration of six maternal
caregiving behavioral
domains (nurture, physical, social, didactic, material, and
language) and five corre-
sponding infantdevelopmentaldomains (physical, social,
exploration,vocalization,and
distress communication).
One question we asked concerned cultural similarities and
differences in base rates
12. of parenting in the six caregiving domains. We standardized
maternal behavior fre-
quency in terms of rate of occurrence per hour, pooled,
normalized, and disaggregated
the data by country, finally analyzing country means for parallel
comparisons for dif-
ferent domains. Mothers differed in every domain assessed.
Moreover, mothers in no
one country surpassed mothers in all others in their base rates
of parenting across
domains.Thefact thatmaternalbehaviorsvarysignificantlyacross
thesemodern, indus-
trialized, and comparable places underscores the role of cultural
influence on everyday
human experiences, even from the start of life. Of course, even
greater variation is often
revealed in starker contrasts. For example, mothers in rural
Thailand do not know that
their newborns can see, and so during the day swaddle infants in
fabric hammocks that
allow babies only a slit view of ceiling or sky (Kotchabhakdi,
Winichagoon, Smitasiri,
Dhanamitta, & Valyasevi, 1987). Awareness of alternative
modes of development also
enhances understanding of the nature of variation across
cultures; cross-cultural com-
parisons show how. For example, U.S. mothers are often
thought of as being highly
verbal, but U.S. mothers actually fell at the bottom of our five-
culture comparison.
A second question we asked concerned relations between
parent-provided experi-
ences and behavioral development in young infants (Bornstein
et al., 2012b). Across
13. cultures, mothers and infants showed a noteworthy degree of
attunement and speci-
ficity. Mothers who encouraged their infants’ physical
development more had more
216 BORNSTEIN
physically developed infants as opposed to other outcomes;
mothers who engaged
infantsmoresociallyhadinfantswhopaidmoreattentiontothem;mot
herswhoencour-
aged their infants more didactically had infants who explored
more properties, objects,
and events in the environment, as did babies whose mothers
outfitted their environ-
ments in richerways.That is,mothersand infantsarenotonly in
tunewithoneanother,
but their correspondences tend to be domain specific. Thus,
specific correspondences
in mother–infant interaction patterns were widespread and
similar in different cultural
groups.
This kind of study continues the story of cultural approaches to
parenting in terms of
their traditional dual foci on similarities and differences.
Mothers in different cultures
differ in their mean levels of different domains of parenting
infants, but mothers and
infants in different cultures are similar in terms of mutual
attunement of caregiving
on the part of mothers and development in corresponding
domains in infants. A shift
in focus to the meaning of those similarities and differences
14. advances the culture and
parenting narrative.
CULTURAL UNIVERSALS, SPECIFICS, AND FORM–
FUNCTION
RELATIONS IN PARENTING
Culture-Common and Culture-Specific Parenting
The cultural approach to parenting has as one main goal to
evaluate and com-
pare culture-common and culture-specific modes of parenting.
Evolutionary thinking
appeals to the species-common genome, and the biological
heritage of some psycho-
logical processes presupposes their universality (Norenzayan &
Heine, 2005) as do
shared historical and economic forces (Harris, 2001). At the
same time, cultural psychol-
ogy explores variation in core psychological processes by
investigating the competing
influences of divergent physical and social environments
(Bornstein, 2010; van de
Vijver & Leung, 1997). Psychological constructs, structures,
functions, and processes
like parenting can be universal and simultaneously reflect
cultural moderation of their
quantitative level or qualitative expression. Language illustrates
this essential duality.
An evolutionary model posits a language instinct from the
perspective of an inborn
and universal acquisition device, but diversity of environmental
input plays a strong
role in the acquisition of any specific language (Pinker, 2007).
Some demands on par-
ents are universal. For example, parents in all societies must
15. nurture and protect their
young (Bornstein, 2006). Other demands vary greatly across
cultural groups. For exam-
ple, parents in some societies play with babies and see them as
interactive partners,
whereas parents in other societies think that it is senseless for
parents to play with
infants (Bornstein, 2007).
Culture-specific influencesonparentingbegin
longbeforechildrenareborn,andthey
shape fundamental decisions about which behaviors parents
should promote in their
children and how parents should interact with their children
(Bornstein, 1991; Whiting,
1963). Thus, caregiving varies among cultures in terms of
opinions about the full range
ofcaregivingandchilddevelopment,
includingthesignificanceofspecificcompetencies
for children’s successful adjustment, the ages expected for
children to reach develop-
mental milestones, when and how to care for children, and the
like. For example, the
UnitedStatesandJapanarebothchild-
centeredmodernsocietieswithequivalentlyhigh
CULTURAL APPROACHES TO PARENTING 217
standards of living and so forth, but U.S. American and
Japanese parents value differ-
ent childrearing goals which they express in different ways
(Bornstein, 1989; Bornstein
et al., 2012a; Morelli & Rothbaum, 2007). American mothers
try to promote auton-
16. omy, assertiveness, verbal competence, and self-actualization in
their children, whereas
Japanese mothers try to promote emotional maturity, self-
control, social courtesy, and
interdependence in theirs.
Many parenting cognitions and practices are likely to be similar
across cultures;
indeed, similarities may reflect universals (in the sense of being
common) even if they
vary in form and the degree to which they are shaped by
experience and influenced
by culture. Such patterns of parenting might reflect inherent
attributes of caregiving,
historical convergences in parenting, or they could be a by-
product of information
dissemination via forces of globalization or mass media or
migration that present par-
ents today with increasingly similar socialization models,
issues, and challenges. In the
end, all peoples must help children meet similar developmental
tasks, and all peo-
ples (presumably) wish physical health, social adjustment,
educational achievement,
and economic security for their children, and so they parent in
some manifestly sim-
ilar ways. Furthermore, the mechanisms through which parents
likely affect children
are universal. For example, social learning theorists have
identified the pervasive roles
that conditioning and modeling play as children acquire
associations that subsequently
form the basis for their culturally constructed selves. By
watching or listening to oth-
ers who are already embedded in the culture, children come to
think and act like them.
17. Attachment theorists propose that children everywhere develop
internal working mod-
els of social relationships through interactions with their
primary caregivers and that
these models shape children’s future social relationships with
others throughout the
balance of the life course (Sroufe & Fleeson, 1986). With so
much emphasis on identifi-
cation of differences among peoples, it is easy to forget that
nearly all parents regardless
of culture seek to lead happy, healthy, fulfilled parenthoods and
to rear happy, healthy,
fulfilled children.
Form and Function in Cultural Approaches to Parenting
These general considerations of universals and specifics lead to
a logic model that
contrasts form with function in parenting. By form, I mean a
parenting cognition or
practice as instantiated; by function, I mean the purpose or
construal or meaning
attached to the form. A proper understanding of the function of
parenting cognitions
and practices requires situating them in their cultural context
(Bornstein, 1995). When
a particular parenting cognition or practice serves the same
function and connotes the
same meaning in different cultures, it likely constitutes a
universal. For example, care-
givers in (almost) all cultures routinely adjust their speech to
very young children
making it simpler and more redundant, presumably to support
early language acqui-
sition; child-directed speech constitutes a universal that adults
find difficult to suppress
18. (Papoušek&Bornstein,
1992).Thesameparentingcognitionorpractice canalsoassume
different functions in different cultural contexts. Particular
parental practices, such as
harsh initiation rites, deemed less harmful to children in some
cultures may be judged
abusive in others. Conversely, different parenting cognitions
and practices may serve
the same function in different cultural contexts. For example, an
authoritative parent-
ing style (high warmth, high control) leads to positive outcomes
in European American
school children, whereas an authoritarian parenting style (low
warmth, high control)
218 BORNSTEIN
leads to positive outcomes in African American and Hong Kong
Chinese school chil-
dren (Leung, Lau, & Lam, 1998). When different parenting
cognitions or practices serve
different functions in different settings, it is evidence for
cultural specificity. Many dif-
ferent parenting practices appear to be adaptive but differently
for different cultural
groups (Ogbu, 1993). Thus, cultural study informs not only
about quantitative aspects
but also about qualitative meaning of parents’ beliefs and
behaviors.
SOCIAL POLICY AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN
CULTURAL
APPROACHES TO PARENTING
19. It is imperative to learn more about parenting and culture so
that scientists, educators,
and practitioners can effectively enhance parent and child
development and strengthen
families in diverse social groups. Insofar as some systematic
universal relations obtain
betweenhowpeopleparentandhowchildrendevelop,
thepossibilityexists for identify-
ing some “best practices” in how to promote positive parenting
and child development.
Differences attached to the cultural meanings of particular
behaviors can cause prob-
lems, however. For example, immigrant children may have
parents who expect them to
behave in one way that is encouraged at home (e.g., averting
eye contact to show defer-
ence and respect) but then find themselves in a context where
adults of the mainstream
culture attach a different (often negative) meaning to the same
behavior (e.g., appearing
disinterested and unengaged with a teacher at school).
Other possible future directions for a cultural parenting science
would consti-
tute a long agendum. Some will be procedural. Many studies
rely on self-reports,
and many survey parenting at only one point in time.
Observations of actual prac-
tices constitute a vital complementary data base (Bornstein,
Cote, & Venuti, 2001),
and a developmental perspective offers insights into temporal
processes of encul-
turation, parents tracking differential ontogenetic trajectories,
and highlights inter-
generational similarities and differences in parents and children
from different cul-
20. tures (Bornstein et al., 2010). Parenting modifies social and
cognitive aspects of the
developing individual and so the design of the brain. For
example, assistance con-
stitutes an important feature of family relationships for
adolescents but has distinc-
tive values in Latino and European heritage cultures. Youth in
both ethnic groups
show similar behavioral levels of helping but, via functional
magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI), different patterns of neural activity within the
mesolimbic reward
system: Latinos show more activity when contributing to
family, and European
Americans show more activity when gaining cash for
themselves (Telzer, Masten,
Berkman, Lieberman, & Fuligni, 2010). A future behavioral
neuroscience of parent-
ing will profitably include cultural variation (Barrett &
Fleming, 2011; Bornstein,
2012).
Parenting is thought to differ in mothers and fathers (and for
girls and boys), but
mostparentingresearchstill focusesonmothers. Inmanycultures,
childrenspend large
amounts of time with caregivers other than parents, and all
contribute to the caregiving
environment of the child. How caregiving is distributed amongst
different stakeholders
across cultures is not well understood, and future cultural
research in parenting will
benefit from an enlarged family systems perspective (Bornstein
& Sawyer, 2006).
Thinking about parent–child relationships often highlights
parents as agents of
21. socialization; however, caregiving is a two-way street. Parent
and child activities are
CULTURAL APPROACHES TO PARENTING 219
characterized by intricate patterns of sensitive mutual
understandings and unfolding
synchronous transactions (Bornstein, 2006, 2009). Moreover,
children’s appraisals of
their parents affect parenting and child adjustment. Future
research needs to attend to
child effects, cultural normativeness, and construals of
parenting as well as how culture
moderates each. Parenting styles that are congruent with
cultural norms appear to be
effective in transmitting values from parents to children,
perhaps because parenting
practices that approach the cultural norm result in a childrearing
environment that is
more positive, consistent, and predictable and in one that
facilitates children’s accurate
perceptions of parents; children of parents who behave in
culturally normative ways
arealso likely toencounter similarvalues insettingsoutside the
family (e.g., in religious
institutions, in the community) that reinforce their parenting
experiences.
CONCLUSIONS
Research on dynamic relations between culture and parenting is
increasingly focused
on which aspects of culture moderate parenting cognitions and
22. practices and how they
do so, as well as on when and why links between parenting
cognitions and practices
and children’s development are culturally general versus
culturally specific. These new
directions will move the field toward a deeper understanding,
not just of which simi-
larities obtain and which differences can be identified, but also
of why, in whom, and
under which conditions.
The cultural study of parenting is beneficially understood in a
framework of nec-
essary versus desirable demands. A necessary demand is that
parents and children
communicate with one another. Normal interaction and
children’s healthy mental and
socioemotional development depend on it. Not unexpectedly,
communication appears
to be a universal aspect of parenting and child development. A
desirable demand is that
parents and children communicate in certain ways adapted and
faithful to their cul-
tural context. Cultural studies tell us about parents’ and
children’s mutual adjustments
in terms of universally necessary and contextually desirable
demands. Assumptions
about the specificity and generality of parenting, and relations
between parents and
children,areadvantageously tested throughcultural
researchbecauseneitherparenting
nor children’s development occurs in a vacuum: Both emerge
and grow in a medium of
culture. Variations in what is normative in different cultures
help us to question our
assumptions about what is universal and informs our
23. understanding of how parent–
childrelationshipsunfold
inwaysbothculturallyuniversalandspecific.Thatadmirable
goal notwithstanding, methodological challenges unique to this
line of research loom
large.
It has been said that only two kinds of information are
transmitted across genera-
tions: genes and culture. Parents are the final common pathway
of both. We can ask,
however, Which is the more meaningful and enduring? The
biological view is that we are
“gene machines,” created to pass on our genes. A child, even a
grandchild, may resem-
ble a parent in facial features or in a talent for music. However,
as each generation
passes the contribution of any parent’s genes is halved and it is
pooled with those
of many other parents. It does not take long to reach negligible
proportions. Genes
may be immortal, but the unique collection of genes which is
any one parent crum-
bles away (Dawkins, 1976). Rather, what parents do, and how
they prepare the next
220 BORNSTEIN
generation in their cultures, can live on, intact, long after their
genes dissolve in the
common pool.
AFFILIATION AND ADDRESS
24. MarcH.Bornstein,ChildandFamilyResearch,EuniceKennedyShriv
erNational Institute
of Child Health and Human Development, Suite 8030, 6705
Rockledge Drive, Bethesda
MD 20892-7971, USA. E-mail: [email protected]
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Research supported by the Intramural Research Program of the
NIH, NICHD. I thank
P. Horn and C. Padilla.
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READING.pdf
Factors influencing parenting in early childhood: a
prospective longitudinal study focusing on changecch_1037
198..207
A. Waylen* and S. Stewart-Brown†
*Department of Oral and Dental Science, Bristol Dental School,
University of Bristol, Bristol, and
†Health Sciences Research Institute, Warwick Medical School,
University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
Accepted for publication 7 August 2009
Keywords
ALSPAC, causal factors,
longitudinal analysis,
parent–child relationship
Correspondence:
Andrea Waylen PhD,
Department of Oral and
Dental Science, Bristol
Dental School, Lower
Maudlin Street, Bristol
31. BS1 2LY, UK
E-mail:
[email protected]
Abstract
Background Parenting influences child outcomes but does not
occur in a vacuum. It is influenced
by socio-economic resources, parental health, and child
characteristics. Our aim was to investigate
the relative importance of these influences by exploring the
relationship between changing
parental health and socio-economic circumstances and changes
in parenting.
Methods Data collected from the Avon Longitudinal Study of
Parents and Children were used to
develop an eight-item parenting measure at 8 and 33 months.
The measure covered warmth,
support, rejection, and control and proved valid and reliable.
Regression analysis examined changes
in financial circumstance, housing tenure, marital status, social
support, maternal health and
depression, and their influence on parenting score. The final
model controlled for maternal age,
education, and baseline depression.
Results Most mothers reported warm, supportive parenting at
both times. Maternal depression was
32. the only variable for which both positive and negative change
was associated with changes in
parenting score. Less depression was associated with better
parenting scores and more depression
with worse parenting scores. Improvements in social support
and maternal general health were both
associated with improved parenting scores, but for neither of
these variables was deterioration asso-
ciated with deterioration in parenting scores. Worsening
financial circumstances predicted deteriora-
tion in parenting score, but improvements were not predictive of
improvements in parenting.
Conclusions Programmes aiming to improve parental health and
social support are likely to return
greater dividends with regard to improving parenting than
programmes that aim to reduce family
poverty.
Introduction
Parenting is important for a variety of child outcomes. Warm,
supportive parenting is associated with positive cognitive,
behavioural, emotional, and physical child outcomes (Bradley &
Caldwell 1995; Atzaba-Poria & Pike 2005; Barber et al. 2005;
33. Dallaire & Weinraub 2005; Seaman et al. 2005; Waylen et al.
2008) whereas harsh, abusive, and/or emotionally neglectful
parenting is associated with emotional, behavioural, mental,
and physical health problems in childhood and adulthood
(Repetti et al. 2002). Parenting accounts for 20–50% of the
vari-
ance in some child outcomes (Elder et al. 1984), but child out-
comes and aspects of parenting are influenced by economic and
social factors and parental health. Economic hardship in par-
ticular is associated with deteriorating parent–child relation-
ships and increased behavioural problems (McLoyd 1998;
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
Early Child Care Research Network 2005).
Parenting is also influenced by the parent’s life history,
culture, and neighbourhood (Bronfenbrenner 1979; Holden &
Miller 1999; Sellstrom et al. 2000), marital conflict (Bronstein
et al. 1993; Cummings et al. 2006), poor parental health (Frank
Child: care, health and development
Original Article doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2009.01037.x
35. tion of associated changes in parenting over time.
Methods
Participants
The ALSPAC (see http://www.alspac.bris.ac.uk) (Golding et al.
2001) is a geographically representative, population-based
study investigating social, environmental, biological, and
genetic influences on the health and development of children.
All pregnant women in the former Avon Health Authority (UK)
with an expected delivery date between April 1991 and Decem-
ber 1992 were invited to take part. The final cohort consisted of
14 541 pregnancies. Since enrolment, self-report information
has been collected from the mothers both ante- and post-natally
on an annual basis. In addition, mothers continue to complete a
bi-annual questionnaire about the study child’s health, behav-
iour, and development. Mothers consented to join the study at
recruitment and they consent to return each questionnaire. All
aspects of the study conform to the ethical regulations of both
the ALSPAC Law and Ethics Committee and local research and
36. ethics committees.
In this study we used parenting data collected at 8 and 33
months. At each of these timepoints, parenting and socio-
demographic data were gathered on all families participating in
the study and relevant items were asked in exactly the same
way.
Data were available for 11 314 study children (78%) at 8
months
and for 9687 study children (67%) at 33 months.
Statistical analyses
All analyses were undertaken using Intercalated STATA 9.0
(1985). Correlational analyses measured the strength of associa-
tions between variables. Factor analysis was used to investigate
the feasibility of aggregating items to develop a parenting
measure. c2- and t-tests were used to examine differences in
circumstance and parenting at 8 months between those who
dropped out of the study and those who continued to parti-
cipate. The strength of evidence for changes in parenting asso-
ciated with socio-demographic and health variables was
examined using c2-tests. Finally, to examine whether and how
37. parenting changed over time and how any changes related to
changing social and health factors, univariate and multivariate
regression analyses were undertaken. The final models were
adjusted for maternal age, education, and parenting score and
maternal depression score at baseline. To account for multiple
testing, we used a conservative P-value of 0.008 (Bonferroni’s
a = 0.05/6 = 0.008).
Development of the parenting measure
The ALSPAC Study has collected data on a variety of behav-
ioural and developmental variables. We were interested in those
measuring warmth and support, rejection and control in early
parent–child relationships. Various items relating to parenting
quality were identified in data collected during the first 3 years
of life (see Appendix 1). From this list we identified eight
mater-
nal self-report items administered in exactly the same way at
both 8 and 33 months, which were unambiguous in their inter-
pretation (see Table 1).
Parental warmth and support was measured according to
38. reported levels of enjoyment, confidence, pleasure, and fulfil-
ment with respect to caring for the child (items 1–4) and rejec-
tion and control was measured according to maternal report of
preferring not to have had the child at that time, dislike of the
child’s crying and surrounding mess and lack of time for herself
(items 5–8). Scores for items 1–4 were reverse coded so that,
for
all items, a score of 4 represented warm, supportive parenting.
Scores for all items were added together (range = 8–32); higher
scores indicated more supportive parenting. We were unable to
include other items listed in Appendix 1, e.g. measures of disci-
pline and time spent teaching the child because relevant ques-
tions were either asked only once, asked in a slightly different
way each time or did not reflect unequivocally positive or nega-
tive parenting.
Factor analysis of the eight items indicated a single factor
solution explaining 34% and 33% of the variance at 8 and 33
months, respectively. Factor loadings are shown in Table 1. In
Table 2 we report correlations between scores on the derived
40. +17. A negative score (higher at 8 than 33 months) indicates
deterioration in parenting over time and vice versa.
Identification of factors predicting parenting
Correlations were obtained between parenting scores and
various socio-demographic and parental variables available for
the cohort children and indicated as relevant in the literature.
Key predictors of parenting score were maternal age and edu-
cation. Ethnic group was not a significant predictor possibly
because there were several ethnic categories with very small
membership. Amongst the range of potentially changeable
factors, financial circumstances, housing tenure, marital status,
social support (emotional, financial, and practical support from
partner, family, friends, or the state), and maternal general
health and depression [as measured by the Edinburgh Post-
Natal Depression Scale – EPDS (Matthey et al. 2001)]
correlated
with parenting scores (P < 0.001). Each of these variables was
dichotomized: (1) mothers either found it difficult to afford
three or more from a list of five items or not; (2) they owned
their own homes or not; (3) they were married or not; (4) they
41. perceived little or no social support (emotional, practical or
financial) or not; (5) they rated themselves as being always or
mostly well or not; and (6) they were depressed (scoring 12
or over on the EPDS) or not. Circumstances across time were
classified as having either: (1) remained stable; (2) worsened;
or
(3) improved over time.
Table 1. Factor analysis: parenting measures and data collection
time points
Concept
8 months 33 months
Mean (SD) Skewness Kurtosis Factor loading Mean (SD)
Skewness Kurtosis Factor loading
1. I really enjoy this child Warmth 1.31 (0.53) 1.49 4.51 0.70
1.31 (0.54) 1.57 4.77 0.70
2. I feel confident with my child Support 1.20 (0.47) 2.66 11.45
0.45 1.23 (0.52) 2.44 9.34 0.58
3. It is a great pleasure to watch
my child develop
Support 1.08 (0.33) 4.58 28.02 0.50 1.14 (0.41) 3.45 17.02 0.52
4. Having this child makes me
feel fulfilled
42. Warmth 1.81 (0.92) 0.86 2.70 0.57 1.78 (0.91) 0.86 2.69 0.57
5. I would have preferred that
we had not had this baby /
child when we did
Rejection 3.85 (0.45) -3.76 19.53 -0.39 3.85 (0.52) -4.05 20.30 -
0.26
6. I can’t bear hearing the child
cry
Control 3.20 (0.73) -0.90 4.11 -0.39 3.15 (0.77) -0.83 3.63 -0.29
7. I dislike / hate the mess that
surrounds the child
Control 3.59 (0.61) -1.54 5.65 -0.35 3.30 (0.64) -0.63 3.70 -0.36
8. I feel I have no time to myself Rejection 2.94 (0.75) -0.72
3.72 -0.51 2.89 (0.76) -0.72 3.62 -0.44
Eigenvalues 2.71 2.64
Cronbach’s alpha 0.69 0.67
All responses were measured on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = feel
exactly, 2 = often feel, 3 = sometimes feel, 4 = never feel) –
items 1–4 reverse scored.
Table 2. Correlations between the derived parenting score and
existing measures of parenting and child behaviour in the
ALSPAC study
Derived parenting score
(8 months)
HOME score (adapted)†
44. Attrition analysis
At 8 months, mothers who would drop out of the study by 33
months were more likely than those who remained to have
financial difficulties [10.4% (N = 233) vs. 8.0% (N = 725),
respectively; (c2 = 12.83, P < 0.001)]; be unmarried [6.8% (N
= 153) vs. 5.0% (N = 451); (c2 = 9.92, P = 0.002)] and be living
in rented accommodation [36.9% (N = 824) vs. 19.4%
(N = 1750); (c2 = 300.18, P < 0.001)]; to perceive little or no
social support for themselves [7.1% (N = 140) vs. 4.0% (N =
337); (c2 = 37.35, P < 0.001)]; and to be depressed [14.6% (N
= 326) vs. 10.5% (N = 939); (c2 = 27.88, P < 0.001)]. Mothers
who dropped out of the study had a slightly lower parenting
score at 8 months [28.1 vs. 28.3; (N = 11 068); (t = 2.95, P <
0.001)] than those who remained. There were no differences in
the general health of remaining mothers compared with those
who dropped out: 94.1% (N = 2138) compared with 94.6% (N
= 8563) rated themselves as always or mostly well (c2 = 5.11, P
= 0.164). Results reported here concern families with data at
both 8 and 33 months.
Changes in circumstance over time
Between 8 and 33 months, marital status changed for 3% (N =
252) of mothers: 2% (163) were no longer in a marital rela-
tionship by 33 months whereas 1% (89) entered a relationship.
Depression status changed for 15% (1360) of mothers: 9.8%
(895) became depressed by 33 months whereas 5.1% (465)
45. recovered from depression. General health worsened over time
for 4% (358) of mothers and improved for 4% (344). Finan-
cial circumstances changed for 10% (930) of families between
8 and 33 months: circumstances worsened for 5.4% (492) and
improved for 4.8% (438). Housing tenure changed for 7% of
families: 3.1% (286) changed from owning their home to
renting whereas 3.6% (329) changed from tenants to owners.
Around 4% of mothers experienced changing social support
over the period: 1.8% (151) had less support by the end
compared with 2.5% (218) who reported increased levels of
support.
Changes in parenting as a function of changes
in circumstance
Mean parenting scores were relatively stable over time and dif-
ferences by maternal age and educational level were small
(Table 3).
Table 4 shows the proportion of families for whom parenting
score decreased, remained stable, or improved between 8 and 33
46. months as socio-economic circumstances changed. c2-statistics
and P-values are given in the table. Overall, parenting scores
did
not vary with changes in financial circumstances and changes in
neither housing tenure nor marital status significantly predicted
changes in parenting.
Changes in social support influenced parenting but the level
of statistical significance failed to reach our conservative value
of 0.008. Changes in mother’s general health and depression
score had an influence with parenting score decreasing for the
majority of families when maternal health worsened. When
maternal general health or depression improved, parenting
score improved for most families.
Multi-variable modelling of changes in parenting
over time
Table 5 shows the results of analyses predicting change in
parenting score over time using the original (non-categorized)
parenting score. Changes in financial circumstance, social
support, and maternal general health and depression were
entered into the model independently (univariate analysis) and
103. riorations in depression score predicted changes in parenting
as expected: an improvement in (lessening of ) depression
increased parenting score by 0.20 [95% CI (0.18–0.29); P <
0.001] and worsening depression reduced the parenting score
by -0.14 [95% CI (-0.23–0.04); P = 0.004]. Parenting score
increased by 0.11 [95% CI (0.02–0.20); P = 0.02] when general
health improved, but there was no effect on parenting score
when general health worsened (P = 0.548).
Discussion
On average, parenting scores varied with maternal age and edu-
cation to a small extent and changed very little over the period
of time examined in this study. Mothers mainly reported warm,
supportive parenting at both time points, a finding consistent
with earlier research showing stability of positive parenting in
early childhood (Dallaire & Weinraub 2005). Where changes in
parenting occur, they represented a reduction in score over
time. This may reflect the age and stage of the child (Holden &
Miller 1999; Verhoeven et al. 2007): as children get older they
may be perceived as being less easy to look after.
Within the context of these relatively small changes, results
104. suggest that the most important, potentially remediable deter-
minant of parenting is maternal health, particularly depression.
Change in maternal depression score was the only variable to
independently influence parenting in both a positive and nega-
tive direction and the extent of change predicted by lessening
depression was greater than that observed for any other vari-
able. We adjusted for baseline depression despite the potential
for over-adjustment to ensure we were not over-stating the
influence of depression on parenting given that depressed
mothers might be more inclined to report things from more a
negative perspective.
In contrast to the findings with maternal depression, changes
in other variables only predicted change in parenting in one
direction. Notably, improvements in financial circumstances
had no influence on parenting. For social support and general
health, deterioration in scores had no influence on parenting.
Limitations of the study
This study was based on prospective, longitudinal data from a
105. large birth cohort. Over a 2-year period, parenting data were
collected from mothers who were heterogeneous regarding: age,
ethnic group, marital, and socio-economic status. During this
period the children underwent developmental change and some
families dropped out of the study. Mothers who dropped out
were more likely to have experienced adverse socio-
demographic conditions than those who remained. They also
had lower parenting scores at 8 months than those who contin-
ued to participate. This attrition from the most deprived pro-
portion of the cohort reduced variation amongst participants
thus reducing the chances of significant effects. Our negative
finding with regard to the effect of improving financial circum-
stances might be attributable to such losses. We cannot rule out
the possibility that improving financial circumstances might
improve parenting in families with the most financial problems
and least favourable parenting. However, suboptimal parenting
was relatively common amongst the families remaining in the
study making the population attributable risk for suboptimal
106. parenting high.
This study is limited in its reliance on maternal self-report
data and is at risk of bias towards socially desirable responding
and shared method variance whereby depressed mothers might
report from more a negative perspective. However, whilst
subject to these limitations, self-report data are a reasonable
proxy measure with predictive validity for child outcomes (Case
et al. 2005). They also allow reporting of feelings, attitudes,
and
behaviours which may not be directly observable (Verhoeven
et al. 2007). Shared method variance is an issue faced by all
questionnaire studies. Its effect can be mitigated to some extent
by multi-variable analysis in which reported results are adjusted
for all other variables including maternal depression.
The parenting measure we created was limited to items
included in the questionnaires. As is often the case with cohort
studies, these items do not correspond to those that would be
asked in contemporary studies benefiting from recent research.
108. 1995)]. The HOME Inventory focuses on aspects of parenting
relating to cognitive development as opposed to relationship
quality and so the modest correlation we observed was appro-
priate. More impressively, our measure predicted behavioural
outcomes in later childhood accounting for 10% of the variance
in SDQ scores (Goodman 2001) with the 33-month measure
being more predictive than the 8-month measure. This finding
suggests that, despite limitations, our measure captured aspects
of parenting relevant to child outcomes and early years policy.
Worsening parental health (Frank 1989; Armistead et al.
1995) has been associated with disrupted parenting and our
findings regarding depression are consistent with these earlier
studies. Our results are also consistent with studies showing
that
financial deprivation is associated with deterioration in parent-
ing (Conger et al. 1992, 1993; McLoyd 1998; National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care
Research Network 2005). Amongst families whose financial cir-
cumstances improved, some may have returned to a predepri-
109. vation level of parenting. However, other mothers are likely to
have been parenting as well as they were able. The lack of
overall
change in parenting in the group whose financial circumstances
improved suggests that failure to improve amongst the latter
outweighed any improvement amongst the former.
Implications
Much social policy relating to early childhood is predicated on
the assumption that reducing childhood poverty will improve
child outcomes. In our study, this assumption did not hold true
for outcomes determined by parenting. Our findings do not
indicate that policies to reduce childhood poverty have no
value. There are many reasons why such policies are beneficial
to families. However, whilst the conclusions drawn would be
strengthened by further studies in other cohorts and by exam-
ining parenting at different child ages, results suggest that alle-
viating poverty is unlikely to improve parenting. In contrast,
policy and practice to improve the mental and physical health of
110. parents is relatively sparse, yet if the results of this study hold
true these should be at the forefront of programmes to improve
parenting.
Conclusions
Policies to promote and support the mental and physical health
of parents are likely to have a beneficial impact on parenting
and
on child outcomes which parenting influences. The gain in
parenting from such policies is likely to be much greater than
the gain achieved by policies to reduce childhood poverty.
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by a grant from the Joseph Rowntree
Foundation awarded to Andrea Waylen and Sarah Stewart-
Brown. A full report on the study is available at http://
www.jrf.org.uk/bookshop/details.asp?pubID=967.
We are grateful to the mothers who took part and to the
midwives for their cooperation and help. The ALSPAC study
team comprises interviewers, computer technicians, laboratory
technicians, administrators, researchers, volunteers, and man-
111. agers. The ALSPAC study is part of the WHO-initiated
European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood.
Thanks are also due to Jane Barlow for her comments on this
manuscript.
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119. 3. I really enjoy this child‡ Mother 8 33 Included
4. I feel confident with my child‡ Mother 8 33 Included
5. It is a great pleasure to watch my child develop‡ Mother
Partner
8
8
33
21
Included
Timing
6. Having this child makes me feel fulfilled‡ Mother 8 33
Included
7. I try to teach the child§ Mother 8 33 Difficult to interpret
impact
8. I would have preferred that we had not had this baby /
child when we did‡
Mother
Partner
8
8
33
21
Included
Timing
9. I can’t bear hearing the child cry‡ Mother
Partner
120. 8
8
33
21
Included
Timing
10. I dislike / hate the mess that surrounds the child‡ Mother
Partner
8
8
33
21
Included
Timing
11. I feel I have no time to myself‡ Mother 8 33 Included
12. I ignore the child’s tantrums¶ Mother 18 30 Timing
13. I send the child to his room during tantrums¶ Mother 18 30
Timing
14. I shout at the child during tantrums¶ Mother 18 42 Timing
15. I smack the child during tantrums¶ Mother 18 42 Timing
†Agree, probably agree, probably disagree, disagree.
‡Feel exactly, often feel, sometimes feel, never feel.
§No – child is too young, no – no time, yes, sometimes, yes,
often.
¶Often, sometimes, never.
Appendix 2a: Derived parenting measure (8 months) and SDQ
scores at 47 and 81 months
121. 1. Adjusted (demographic:
age and education)
2. Adjusted (demographic, health,
economic & support)
3. Adjusted (demographic, health,
economic, support & child temperament)
Block Coeff 95%CI P R2 Coeff 95%CI P R2 Coeff 95%CI P R2
SDQ: 47 months
Parenting -0.559 -0.591
to -0.528
<0.001 0.155 -0.515 -0.500 to -0.481 <0.001 0.156 -0.455 -
0.497 to -0.413 <0.001 0.170
Maternal physical
health
0.500 0.053 to 0.946 0.028 0.550 0.013 to 1.087 0.045
Housing 0.759 0.487 to 1.030 <0.001 0.754 0.433 to 1.075
<0.001
Maternal mental
health
0.699 0.355 to 1.042 <0.001 0.549 0.152 to 0.946 0.007
Financial difficulties 0.467 0.093 to 0.839 0.014 0.080
Social support -0.742 -1.266 to -0.218 0.006 0.192
SDQ: 81 months
Parenting -0.503 -0.539
126. involve both mediating and moderating mechanisms. Fourth,
one of the most significant
challenges in human studies of parenting is to isolate the roles
of individuals in rela-
tionship formation. Within-family studies provide an important
mechanism to achieve this.
INTRODUCTION
The articles in this Special Issue speak to the issue of the
person-by-context transac-
tions that are the basis of human development (Sameroff &
Mackenzie, 2003). Multiple
perspectivesare represented in thepapers.Sometreatparentingas
theoutcomeof inter-
est (Bornstein, 2012), and others look at the influence of
parenting on child functioning
(Pollak, 2012). Findings on the transgenerational effects of
early experience on subse-
quent generations show us that studying influences on parents
or parents’ influences
on offspring merely tells us about different points on the same
trajectory. Experiences
in childhood influence the ways that parents relate to their
offspring. The following
commentary raises four themes that cross papers: themultilevel
structure of experience,
cognitive and biological embedding, intergenerational
continuities, and designs in the
study of parenting.
A MULTILEVEL FRAMEWORK
Themoststrikingaspectof thesepapers is their
spanfromthebiologicalpathwaysto the
macro influences that affect parenting. A multilevel perspective
127. is necessary to account
for nested influences. Biological and cognitive systems are
nested within individuals,
with individuals nested within complex social environments.
With respect to macro level influences, Bornstein (2012) shows
that culture has a
profound impact on parenting. He notes that mothers who
encourage physical devel-
opment have babies who are more physically developed.
Mothers who were didactic
in their teaching had children who were more focused on the
properties of objects. He
MULTILEVEL DYNAMICS OF PARENTING 255
concludes that parents prepare children for the specific
environment in which they live.
A multilevel model of parenting that incorporates ecological
influences shows us that
the meaning of parental behavior, and thus its effect on
children, must be interpreted
from within the culture that gave rise to it. Pleck (2012) shows
similarly that father
involvement is a complex integration of factors related to the
immediate and macro
social context in which the father operates.
Between the micro-environment and the individual, we have
similarly embedded
influences operating. Jensen Peña and Champagne (2012) and
Pollak (2012) describe the
way in which experiences with parents influence the
development of biological systems
128. in offspring affecting neuroendocrine pathways and brain
structures. McGuire, Segal,
and Hershberger (2012) demonstrate the bi-directional processes
involved in this multi-
level framework.Theyshowthatgeneticallybased, childeffects,
influence theparenting
that children receive.
Of importance here is that in the complex environments of
humans, processes at
many different levels of the environment and the organism, are
operating simulta-
neously, with the following implications. First, effect sizes for
any one risk-outcome
relationship, or for the contingencies that operate across
different components of the
system, tend to be small in magnitude. This is not a statement
about the unimpor-
tance of small effects, but rather of the need to build models of
development that focus
on the ways in which small effects combine. Second, bi-
directional influences operate
across levels of this multilevel process. We see from the present
papers that environ-
ments become embedded in the biology, cognition, and
relationship propensities of the
individual and that individuals use these embedded propensities
in constructing their
environment. Third, compensatory or protective effects have
been identified within the
proximal environment. For instance, children are protected from
the development of
internalizingpsychopathologybyhavingasiblingwithwhomtheyare
closeevenwhen
theyareexposed tonegative lifeevents (Gass,
Jenkins,&Dunn,2007).Doweseesimilar
129. compensatory processes within the biological pathways? Can
structural brain changes
in the orbitofrontal cortex, described by Pollak, be moderated
by an unimpaired neu-
roendocrinesystemsuchthat thesocialbehaviorunder
investigationappearsunaffected
by abuse exposure? As we gain an understanding of the
biological pathways related to
environmental risk, we need to consider the possibility of
compensatory effects in the
prediction of behavior.
BIOLOGICAL AND COGNITIVE EMBEDDING OF
EXPERIENCE
One of the very exciting elements of this Special Issue is that
investigators have
traced pathways from environmental experience to biological
and cognitive processes
in the child. Jensen Peña and Champagne (2012) describe
several mechanisms for the
embedding of experience into biology. In the rat model poor
mothering has been
defined by low licking of pups. One effect of this is seen in the
stress response sys-
tem, which becomes hyperactive. Another pathway influences
oxytocin and estrogen.
Rats that have received low licking show reduced estrogen
receptor alpha protein and
decreased oxytocin receptor levels, with oxytocin and estrogen
known to be impor-
tant for later parenting. Similarly they show that the receipt of
low licking in the rat
pups, results in epigenetic changes. Such changes alter DNA
expression without alter-
ing thegenesequence.DNAmethylation isoneof theseepigenetic
130. changes. JensenPeña
256 JENKINS
and Champagne (2012) show that rats that experience low
licking and grooming by
their mothers have reduced expression of hippocampal
glucocorticoid receptors and
increased DNAmethylation within theglucocorticoid promoter
region. This means that
the effect of a stressful environment has been to “silence” the
gene. The elegant desig-
nation of these pathways illustrates the way in which
environmental influences become
embedded into the functioning of the organism. Pollak (2012)
presents data across mul-
tiple brain systems showing effects of abusive environments.
Effects are evident in
volumeof theorbital frontalcortexaswellas thecerebellum,
theneuroendocrinesystem
(including both oxytocin and the arginine vasopressin [AVP]
system) as well as neural
responses to the processing of anger. Perceptual and attentional
biases develop such
that abused children identify anger more rapidly, they attend to
it more, they have trou-
ble disengaging from angry faces, and, as a consequence of
privileging anger within the
cognitive system, other aspects of cognition become less
efficient. Like Bornstein (2012),
Pollak (2012) shows us that the organism changes to be able to
meet the demands of the
specific environment to which it is exposed. Research programs
that cross the bound-
131. aries of physiology and cognition (Haley, Grunau, Weinberg,
Keidar, & Oberlander,
2010; Pollak, 2012) allow us to gain a more holistic
understanding of the way in which
the whole organism is affected by a stressful environment.
Processes of biological embedding raise the issue of stability in
behavior. Once an
environmental effect has become embedded in the biology or
cognition of the individ-
ual, we tend to think of the effect as resistant to environmental
influence. Evidence for
plasticity and reversals in animal work (Barrett & Fleming,
2011; McEwen & Magarinos,
2004) suggests that plasticity in biological systems is
considerable. With respect to cog-
nitive, emotional and behavioral stabilities in the human work,
we see stabilities in
personality (Costa & McCrae, 1988) and psychopathology
(Broidy et al., 2003; Colman,
Ploubidis, Wadsworth, Jones, & Croudace, 2007), but we also
see enormous variation
(Rutter, 1996), with surprising turning points in the lives of
individuals as they are
faced with new opportunities (Crosnoe & Elder, 2002). Sroufe
(1997) described a path-
ways model suggesting that the probability of particular
outcomes changes the further
along a particular pathway one travels. We can see this in the
treatment literature
for conduct disorder in children. When children are a little way
along this path dur-
ing the preschool period, a short burst of training parents to
react in specific ways to
children’s aversive behavior reduces the child’s aggression
(Baker-Henningham, Scott,
132. Jones, & Walker, 2012). By the time aggressive children are
adolescent, with problems
in evidence for years, they need treatment that is more
intensive, operating across
manyenvironments(family,peers,
schools,neighborhoods,andindividuals;Henggeler,
2011).
Cascade models (Dodge et al., 2009) may be helpful in thinking
about where con-
tinuities within complex systems reside. These models can
capture the variety of
environmental, biological and cognitive influences that feed
into a behavior as well
as indirect effects (an environmental influence affects a
biological system which in
turn influences a behavioral system). It would be wonderful to
combine the design of
large-scale longitudinal studiesofbehaviorwith
themoredetailedandmechanisticneu-
roendocrine, psychophysiological, and functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI)
designs. This would allow us to examine whether the embedding
in cognition and biol-
ogy described by Pollak (2012), Jensen Peña and Champagne
(2012), and others (Barrett
& Fleming, 2011) represents stages in a cascade model such that
behavioral trajectories
show enhanced continuities as a function of these biological
organizations.
MULTILEVEL DYNAMICS OF PARENTING 257
INTERGENERATIONAL INFLUENCES ON PARENTING
133. Conger in humans and Champagne in rats focus on mechanisms
that explain inter-
generational continuity. Conger, Schofield, and Neppl (2012)
show that continuity in
harsh parenting is partly a function of the partners that one
chooses. People who have
been harshly parented in childhood are more likely to partner
with those who parent
harshly, which in turn increases the parent’s own risk of harsh
parenting. This is sim-
ilar to the finding for selection effects in antisocial behavior.
Antisocial adolescents are
more likely to befriend (Dishion & Tipsord, 2011) and partner
with other people who
are antisocial (Krueger, Moffitt, Caspi, Bleske, & Silva, 1998),
which partly explains
the risk of ongoing antisocial behavior in the next generation
(Jenkins, Shapka, &
Sorenson,2006).Againwemustrememberthatmanyprocessescontri
bute tomateselec-
tion (luckily!), with harsh parenting in childhood representing
one small component
of this.
Oneof theubiquitousfindings
intherelationbetweenriskyenvironmentsandbehav-
ioraloutcomes is the importanceofmoderating
factors.Congeretal. (2012) showusthat
the negative effects on subsequent parenting of experiencing
harsh parenting in child-
hood are potentiated by choosing a partner who parents harshly.
These “moderation”
effects show that an environmental risk is only a risk under
certain conditions (Jenkins,
2008).Luckily for thespecies,whenonecomponentof
134. theenvironment isnegative, chil-
drenandadults findameans of compensation, pulling
fromtheenvironment what they
need to flourish.
Mostversionsofmoderationhavebeenseenasvariantsonthediathesis
stressmodel.
The premise underlying this model is that individuals are
differentially susceptible
to environmental stress. A more recent reworking of this idea is
the differential sus-
ceptibility argument (Ellis, Boyce, Belsky, Bakermans-
Kranenburg, & van IJzendoorn,
2011). The premise is that a subset of individuals is more
susceptible to environmen-
tal influence than another subset of individuals (orchids vs.
dandelions). Their greater
susceptibility based on physiological reactivity is reactive to
both good and bad envi-
ronmental events (Bakermans-
Kranenburg&vanIJzendoorn,2011).Thus,withinavery
nurturant environment wewould expect to see thesevery reactive
children doing better
than their non-reactive counterparts.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MULTISIBLING AND
MULTIPERSON
DESIGNS IN THE STUDY OF PARENTING AND
FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS
The largest challenge in human studies to understanding the role
of parenting on
development is that individuals contribute to the quality of
relationships that subse-
quently affect them. Most studies of parenting, using a between-
135. family design, cannot
distinguish the effect of each individual within the dyad from
the relationship that
emerges between the members of the dyad. Why is this issue
important in parenting
research? One of the conclusions from this Special Issue is that
adversity in childhood
leads to more negative parenting. Although this is clearly true
when we consider only
the statistical mean, the consideration of within family variance
enables a more nuanced
conclusion. On the basis of McGuire’s work, even though she
does not measure
258 JENKINS
environmental influences directly (e.g., adverse childhood
experience), two aspects of
her data lead us to the conclusion that parenting is strongly
influenced by the character-
istics of children. First, she shows that parenting is influenced
by the genetic similarity
of children.ThusMZtwins receiveparenting that is
considerablymoresimilar than that
received by DZ twins, which is, in turn, more similar than that
received by unrelated
siblings (of similar age). The second observation is that
children are not parented very
similarly in absolute terms. Even when siblings are 100%
similar genetically, parents
still treat these twinsquitedifferently.Whenweextendthese
findings tosiblingdesigns
in which the environmental adversity is directly measured, we
do see that as risk
136. exposure to the parent increases (e.g., poverty, adverse
childhood experiences, marital
conflict) so too does the within-family variance in parenting
(Atzaba-Poria & Pike, 2008;
Jenkins, Rasbash, & O’Connor, 2003). This means that parents
with adversity in their
backgrounds are highly negative with one of their children, but
not another. When
we examine the factors that explain why one sibling elicits more
positivity and less
negativity than another, factors such as child temperament play
a role (Jenkins et al.,
2003).Thisdifferentialbehavioronthepartofparents,
indicativeofdifferential resource
allocation, may be based on parental expectations of fitness
(Beaulieu & Bugental, 2008;
Schlomer, Del Giudice, & Ellis, 2011).
The social relations model (Kenny, Kashy, & Cook, 2006)
allows us to examine the
extent to which individuals are the same in their behavior across
multiple relation-
ship partners. This model can be usefully integrated into
parenting research to more
effectively distinguish the individual influences of parent and
child on the dyadic rela-
tionship. Through the use of round-robin data (everyone in the
family interacts with
everyone else) and through cross-classified multilevel models,
it allows us to examine
the extent to which an individual is the same in their behavior
across multiple rela-
tionship partners (as well as model factors that explain such
differences). One study
has isolated these influences for the interactional behavior of
parents and children and