This document summarizes a study that explores the relationship between adverse working conditions, job satisfaction, and workers' intentions to quit their jobs using data from Finland. The study finds that workers currently facing adverse working conditions have greater intentions to switch jobs and are more willing to stop working completely. They also search for new jobs more frequently. There is evidence that adverse working conditions increase job dissatisfaction and it is this job dissatisfaction that drives workers' intentions to quit and intensifies actual job searching. The study uses a unique data set that includes detailed information on working conditions reported by individual workers, in addition to measures of job satisfaction and intentions to quit.
The paper examines the antecedents of intentions to quit, job search, and actual job switches during a five-year follow-up period. We use a representative random sample of all Finnish employees (N = 2800). The data both contain information on intentions to quit and on-the-job search from a cross-section survey and records employees’ actual job switches from longitudinal register data that can be linked to the survey. Specifically, we study the contribution of adverse working conditions (harms, hazards, uncertainty, physically and mentally heavy work), work organization (promotion prospects, discrimination, supervisor support) and ease-of-movement factors (mental health, wage level, regional unemployment). According to the estimates, adverse working conditions, poor promotions prospects, discrimination, poor supervisor support and mental health symptoms are positively related to unwillingly staying in a job, since these variables increase the probability of turnover intentions or job search but not actual job switches.
We examine the effects of establishment- and industry-level labor market turnover on employees’ well-being. The linked employer-employee panel data contain both survey information on employees’ subjective well-being and comprehensive register-based information on job and worker flows. Labor market turbulence decreases well-being as experienced job satisfaction and satisfaction with job security are negatively related to the previous year’s flows. We test for the existence of compensating wage differentials by explaining wages and job satisfaction with average uncertainties, measured by an indicator for a high moving average of past excessive turnover (churning) rate. The results are consistent with compensating wage differentials, since high uncertainty increases real wages, but has no effect on job satisfaction.
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan työn vaatimusten, työntekijän vaikutusmahdollisuuksien ja esimiehiltä saatavan tuen vaikutuksia erikseen ja yhdessä työssä koettuun hyvinvointiin. Tulokset osoittavat, että vaikutusmahdollisuudet ja esimiehen tuki ovat merkittäviä työhyvinvoinnin selittäjiä.
We use data on twins matched to register-based information on earnings to examine the longstanding
puzzle of non-existent compensating wage differentials. The use of twin data allows us to remove otherwise unobserved productivity differences that were the prominent reason for estimation bias in the earlier studies. Using twin differences we find evidence for positive compensation of adverse working conditions in the labor market.
The impact of unemployment rate on productivity growth in nigeria an error c...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a journal article that examines the relationship between unemployment rate and productivity growth in Nigeria from 1986 to 2010. It uses cointegration and error correction modeling approaches. The results showed the variables were cointegrated but unemployment had an insignificant influence on productivity growth over the period. The document provides background on debates around the productivity-unemployment nexus. It reviews relevant literature and theories including search theory, real business cycles theory, and real wage rigidities. It describes the methodology and outlines sections on results, conclusions, and recommendations for government actions to address rising unemployment.
Study the effects of antecedents of employee satisfaction in banking sector o...Alexander Decker
The document discusses a study on the factors affecting employee satisfaction in the banking sector of Pakistan. It examines six hypothesized antecedents of employee satisfaction: autonomy, challenge, performance measures, feedback, instrumentality, and stability/security. Data was collected through questionnaires from 180 employees of top banks in Pakistan. The results of the study found that all six factors had a positive and significant correlation with employee satisfaction. Autonomy had the strongest effect, followed by instrumentality, performance measures, challenge, feedback, and stability/security. The study provides evidence that enhancing these workplace factors can increase levels of employee satisfaction in the banking industry.
This document is a literature review on job satisfaction that discusses definitions of job satisfaction, its importance, and factors that influence it. The review examines definitions from various authors that describe job satisfaction as an internal feeling or attitude toward one's work. It discusses the importance of job satisfaction for employee motivation, productivity and company performance. The review also analyzes several models of job satisfaction and identifies factors that can influence satisfaction, such as the nature of work, salary, opportunities for advancement, management, working conditions and social relationships.
The relationship between the five factors of personalityiaemedu
This document summarizes a study on the relationship between the five factors of personality and individual job performance in the Indian corporate sector. The study analyzed 316 employees across manufacturing and service industries. It found that conscientiousness, extraversion, and emotional stability were valid predictors of overall job performance. Conscientiousness and extraversion also impacted components like task performance and adaptability. Neuroticism had a significant relationship with job stress. Most variables did not impact job stress and stability components of performance. The study contributes to the body of research showing the five factor model can predict job performance across cultures.
The paper examines the antecedents of intentions to quit, job search, and actual job switches during a five-year follow-up period. We use a representative random sample of all Finnish employees (N = 2800). The data both contain information on intentions to quit and on-the-job search from a cross-section survey and records employees’ actual job switches from longitudinal register data that can be linked to the survey. Specifically, we study the contribution of adverse working conditions (harms, hazards, uncertainty, physically and mentally heavy work), work organization (promotion prospects, discrimination, supervisor support) and ease-of-movement factors (mental health, wage level, regional unemployment). According to the estimates, adverse working conditions, poor promotions prospects, discrimination, poor supervisor support and mental health symptoms are positively related to unwillingly staying in a job, since these variables increase the probability of turnover intentions or job search but not actual job switches.
We examine the effects of establishment- and industry-level labor market turnover on employees’ well-being. The linked employer-employee panel data contain both survey information on employees’ subjective well-being and comprehensive register-based information on job and worker flows. Labor market turbulence decreases well-being as experienced job satisfaction and satisfaction with job security are negatively related to the previous year’s flows. We test for the existence of compensating wage differentials by explaining wages and job satisfaction with average uncertainties, measured by an indicator for a high moving average of past excessive turnover (churning) rate. The results are consistent with compensating wage differentials, since high uncertainty increases real wages, but has no effect on job satisfaction.
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan työn vaatimusten, työntekijän vaikutusmahdollisuuksien ja esimiehiltä saatavan tuen vaikutuksia erikseen ja yhdessä työssä koettuun hyvinvointiin. Tulokset osoittavat, että vaikutusmahdollisuudet ja esimiehen tuki ovat merkittäviä työhyvinvoinnin selittäjiä.
We use data on twins matched to register-based information on earnings to examine the longstanding
puzzle of non-existent compensating wage differentials. The use of twin data allows us to remove otherwise unobserved productivity differences that were the prominent reason for estimation bias in the earlier studies. Using twin differences we find evidence for positive compensation of adverse working conditions in the labor market.
The impact of unemployment rate on productivity growth in nigeria an error c...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a journal article that examines the relationship between unemployment rate and productivity growth in Nigeria from 1986 to 2010. It uses cointegration and error correction modeling approaches. The results showed the variables were cointegrated but unemployment had an insignificant influence on productivity growth over the period. The document provides background on debates around the productivity-unemployment nexus. It reviews relevant literature and theories including search theory, real business cycles theory, and real wage rigidities. It describes the methodology and outlines sections on results, conclusions, and recommendations for government actions to address rising unemployment.
Study the effects of antecedents of employee satisfaction in banking sector o...Alexander Decker
The document discusses a study on the factors affecting employee satisfaction in the banking sector of Pakistan. It examines six hypothesized antecedents of employee satisfaction: autonomy, challenge, performance measures, feedback, instrumentality, and stability/security. Data was collected through questionnaires from 180 employees of top banks in Pakistan. The results of the study found that all six factors had a positive and significant correlation with employee satisfaction. Autonomy had the strongest effect, followed by instrumentality, performance measures, challenge, feedback, and stability/security. The study provides evidence that enhancing these workplace factors can increase levels of employee satisfaction in the banking industry.
This document is a literature review on job satisfaction that discusses definitions of job satisfaction, its importance, and factors that influence it. The review examines definitions from various authors that describe job satisfaction as an internal feeling or attitude toward one's work. It discusses the importance of job satisfaction for employee motivation, productivity and company performance. The review also analyzes several models of job satisfaction and identifies factors that can influence satisfaction, such as the nature of work, salary, opportunities for advancement, management, working conditions and social relationships.
The relationship between the five factors of personalityiaemedu
This document summarizes a study on the relationship between the five factors of personality and individual job performance in the Indian corporate sector. The study analyzed 316 employees across manufacturing and service industries. It found that conscientiousness, extraversion, and emotional stability were valid predictors of overall job performance. Conscientiousness and extraversion also impacted components like task performance and adaptability. Neuroticism had a significant relationship with job stress. Most variables did not impact job stress and stability components of performance. The study contributes to the body of research showing the five factor model can predict job performance across cultures.
The relationship between the five factors of personality, individual job perf...iaemedu
This document summarizes a study on the relationship between the five factors of personality and individual job performance in the Indian corporate sector. The study analyzed 316 employees across manufacturing and service industries. It found that conscientiousness, extraversion, and emotional stability were valid predictors of overall job performance. Conscientiousness and extraversion also impacted components like task performance and adaptability. Neuroticism had a significant relationship with job stress. Most variables did not impact job stress and stability components of performance. The study contributes to the body of research showing the five factor model can predict job performance across cultures.
Locus of control and job status as mediators of employees’ perception of down...Alexander Decker
This document discusses a study that assessed how employees' perceptions of downsizing relate to their organizational commitment, and whether locus of control and job status mediate this relationship. The study surveyed 604 employees from Nigerian government establishments. It found a significant positive relationship between perception of downsizing and commitment. Locus of control also significantly influenced perception of downsizing, but job status did not. Locus of control significantly mediated the relationship between perception of downsizing and commitment, but job status did not mediate this relationship. The study concluded that employees' perception of downsizing relates to their commitment, and locus of control mediates this relationship.
Using Finnish data this paper examines to what extent the share of all nurses in unemployment, health care employment and being out of the labour market after the exam of a cohort have affected the long-run outcomes of the cohort. The shares are calculated for all cohorts and years and standardised in each year by dividing the cohort specific rate with the average rate for all nurses. These standardised variables are used as dependent variables. The long-term effects are significant at least for the unemployment and the depression have according to the estimates raised the long-run unemployment by more than 2 percentage points for the nurses graduating then. For the employment in the health care industry the effects may be even larger but the estimates are more uncertain.
1) The document analyzes how labor market conditions affect gender discrimination in job advertisements in Mexico.
2) It finds that gender targeting of jobs increases with higher unemployment rates, and male targeting specifically increases, while beauty- and age-targeting decreases.
3) Overall discrimination, as measured by targeting, decreases with higher unemployment rates, suggesting labor market tightness influences discriminatory hiring practices.
This document summarizes a research article that explores hospitality employees' views on dissatisfying working conditions based on interviews. The article discusses how poor working conditions like low pay, difficult supervision, and stressful environments can severely reduce employee motivation and satisfaction according to Herzberg's two-factor theory. When hygiene factors are not met, motivating factors have no effect, leading to high turnover. The study aims to present hospitality workers' own views on how well their needs are met to understand dissatisfaction. Verbatim comments from employees describe problems like unfair treatment, unethical practices, and illegal behavior. The conclusion is that with unmet hygiene factors, employees are unlikely to find work satisfying and will seek other jobs.
This study examines the relationship between corporate social performance (CSP) and corporate financial performance (CFP) for 383 companies in Indonesia over 2002-2003. Specifically, it analyzes whether company size and industry affect the CSP-CFP relationship. Content analysis was used to measure CSP based on dimensions like community, diversity, environment, and products. Financial data came from annual reports. The study aims to add to literature on developing countries and examine the impact of moderating variables on the CSP-CFP relationship. Hypotheses are that the relationship is positive and moderated by size and industry.
This document discusses absenteeism in the context of sociological and social psychological studies of work behavior. It argues that absenteeism is a complex social phenomenon influenced by multiple factors and the relationship between employees and their employer. The author proposes a theoretical model to help structure research on absenteeism. This model considers incentives to continue employment, barriers to adjustment, barriers to attendance, and the psychological tie or commitment between employees and their company. The author illustrates aspects of this model using data from a study of absenteeism rates and employee satisfaction measures across work groups at a Midwestern manufacturing company. The goal is to better understand absenteeism by examining the conditions that shape the psychological connection between workers and their workplace.
Working paper - Industrial Economics (only descriptive statistics)serena boccardo
Enterprise Surveys data gave almost no information on the total factor productivity performances of firms belonging to the former Soviet Union area. An analysis of gender gaps at the top - firm owners and CEOs - was suggested but not yet carried out.
Commitment profiles in Greece, 12th congreess of eawop, 2005Yannis Markovits
1) The study examined commitment profiles in Greece using two samples - private sector employees (Study 1) and public sector employees (Study 2).
2) Across both studies, employees who were highly committed and identified with their organizations reported higher job satisfaction, both intrinsically and extrinsically.
3) Profiles containing identification or affective commitment were linked to greater intrinsic satisfaction, while profiles without these components were more strongly associated with extrinsic satisfaction.
Within occupation wage inequality and task dispersionGRAPE
This document summarizes a study on the relationship between task dispersion within occupations and wage inequality. It finds that occupations with more routine tasks have lower wage dispersion, supporting the first hypothesis. The second hypothesis, that task dispersion within occupations is positively related to wage inequality, receives mixed support, as only non-routine task dispersion seems to matter. The conclusions call for formalizing the intuitions, extending the analysis to other countries, and analyzing changes in task dispersion and wage inequality over time.
This study argues that firms can use profit sharing to raise profits by reducing the risk for inefficient separations by the workers. It is based on the idea of Hall and Lazear (1984) and clarifies their analysis of fixed wage contracts in employment relations of fixed length. It extends their analysis to continuing employment relationships in which the base wage is exogenously given but the firm can unilaterally set a profit sharing parameter. It is argued that the use of down payments, on which the analysis of Hall and Lazear is based, is not possible with continuing employment relationships. Instead the bargaining power will be reflected in the base wage. This reduces the possibilities to adjust the base wage to reduce inefficient separations and may increase the importance of profit sharing. The intuitive positive dependence of the profit sharing parameter on the covariance between the value of the worker’s outside option and his productivity in the firm does not necessarily hold.
Effects of task identity on employee motivation a survey of eldoret polytechn...Alexander Decker
This document discusses a study that examined the relationship between task identity and employee motivation at Eldoret Polytechnic in Kenya. The study used a correlational research design and survey methodology to collect data from 110 employees. The results of a linear regression analysis showed a significant positive correlation between task identity and employee motivation. Specifically, task identity explained 67.9% of the variation in employee motivation levels. The study concludes that structuring jobs to provide employees a strong sense of task identity can help increase motivation. It recommends that organizations consider task identity when designing jobs and formulating human resource policies.
This document summarizes several studies on employee satisfaction and related concepts. It discusses factors that influence employee satisfaction such as job security, compensation, benefits, promotion opportunities, and work environment. It also examines the relationship between employee satisfaction and outcomes like motivation, performance and loyalty. Several models and frameworks for understanding job satisfaction are reviewed. Measures of job satisfaction, such as the Job Descriptive Index and Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, are also summarized.
Using Finnish data this paper examines to what extent the share of a cohort being unemployed, in health care employment and being out of the labour market after the graduation of the cohort have affected the long-run labour market outcomes. The dependent variables are formed by standardising the shares for all cohorts and years. This is done by dividing the cohort specific share with the average share for all nurses in each year. The long-term effects are significant for all three variables. According to the estimates the deep recession of the 1990s raised the long-run unemployment by more than 2 percentage points for the nurses graduating then.
This study examines the relationships between organizational culture, leadership behaviors, organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and job performance in small and medium Taiwanese firms. Surveys were distributed to 1,451 employees across 84 firms, with 749 valid responses. Significant findings include: (1) transformational leadership was positively related to organizational commitment in innovative cultures, (2) organizational commitment mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and job satisfaction across all cultures, and (3) organizational commitment mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and job performance in supportive and bureaucratic cultures.
This document summarizes a research study on how organizational dreaming by employees affects their work performance and contributions to the organization. The study analyzed survey responses from 184 IT employees in India. Key findings include: 1) Managing employees' organizational dreams positively impacts their job fit and commitment; 2) Employees' perceptions of organizational support are shaped by how their dreams align with the organization; 3) Social relations and learning attitudes in the workplace are linked to how employees' dreams are addressed. The study concludes organizational dreaming is natural and employers should understand employees' impressions to maximize occupational contributions over the long run.
This study investigates the role of adverse working conditions in the determination of individual wages and overall job satisfaction in the Finnish labour market. The potential influence of adverse working conditions on self-reported fairness of pay at the workplace is considered as an alternative, indirect measure of job satisfaction. The results show that working conditions have a very minor role in the determination of individual wages in the Finnish labour market. In contrast, adverse working conditions substantially increase the level of job dissatisfaction and the perception of unfairness of pay at the workplace
This document analyzes the connection between working conditions, job satisfaction, retirement intentions, and actual retirement decisions using linked survey and register data from Finland. The survey data contains information on perceived working conditions, job satisfaction, and retirement intentions, while the register data provides information on actual retirement decisions that can be linked to the survey respondents. The study finds that job dissatisfaction arising from adverse working conditions is significantly related to stronger retirement intentions, and retirement intentions are in turn related to earlier actual retirement. New management practices are found to improve job satisfaction and reduce retirement intentions, thereby lengthening working careers.
Human Resource Management Practices And Workers Job SatisfactionKimberly Williams
Human resource management practices and workers’ job satisfaction analyzes the relationship between HRM practices and workers' job satisfaction using data from two British datasets. The study finds that several HRM practices are associated with higher job satisfaction, including practices that promote ongoing learning. However, these effects are only significant for non-union members. Perceived pay inequality within a firm is linked to substantially lower job satisfaction for non-union members.
Sectoral Comparison of Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction for Telecom and F...Huseyin Kiran
The document analyzes factors influencing job satisfaction in the telecom and finance sectors in Turkey. It conducted surveys of employees in these sectors to assess job satisfaction levels and the importance of various motivators and fringe benefits. The key findings were:
- Employees in the telecom sector reported higher overall job satisfaction than the finance sector.
- Intrinsic factors like the work itself were more satisfying to telecom employees, while finance employees were equally satisfied by intrinsic and extrinsic factors.
- The top satisfying factors for each sector differed, such as coworker relationships for finance and autonomy for telecom.
- Fringe benefits were found to impact job satisfaction levels between the sectors.
This paper investigates the links between a number of subjective measures of worker wellbeing and within establishment wage dispersion. These may be linked either because wage dispersion influences the way in which individuals perceive their own relative and prospective income or because they are concerned about fairness in general. The analysis is based on a data set where the Quality of Work Survey is matched with register-based information on individuals and establishments. The results show that there is no significant overall association. Some significant relationships, however, can be found if the method of pay is assumed to be performance pay that is based on individual or group performance. The results also suggest that the question as to whether wages are public knowledge can be of importance.
The relationship between the five factors of personality, individual job perf...iaemedu
This document summarizes a study on the relationship between the five factors of personality and individual job performance in the Indian corporate sector. The study analyzed 316 employees across manufacturing and service industries. It found that conscientiousness, extraversion, and emotional stability were valid predictors of overall job performance. Conscientiousness and extraversion also impacted components like task performance and adaptability. Neuroticism had a significant relationship with job stress. Most variables did not impact job stress and stability components of performance. The study contributes to the body of research showing the five factor model can predict job performance across cultures.
Locus of control and job status as mediators of employees’ perception of down...Alexander Decker
This document discusses a study that assessed how employees' perceptions of downsizing relate to their organizational commitment, and whether locus of control and job status mediate this relationship. The study surveyed 604 employees from Nigerian government establishments. It found a significant positive relationship between perception of downsizing and commitment. Locus of control also significantly influenced perception of downsizing, but job status did not. Locus of control significantly mediated the relationship between perception of downsizing and commitment, but job status did not mediate this relationship. The study concluded that employees' perception of downsizing relates to their commitment, and locus of control mediates this relationship.
Using Finnish data this paper examines to what extent the share of all nurses in unemployment, health care employment and being out of the labour market after the exam of a cohort have affected the long-run outcomes of the cohort. The shares are calculated for all cohorts and years and standardised in each year by dividing the cohort specific rate with the average rate for all nurses. These standardised variables are used as dependent variables. The long-term effects are significant at least for the unemployment and the depression have according to the estimates raised the long-run unemployment by more than 2 percentage points for the nurses graduating then. For the employment in the health care industry the effects may be even larger but the estimates are more uncertain.
1) The document analyzes how labor market conditions affect gender discrimination in job advertisements in Mexico.
2) It finds that gender targeting of jobs increases with higher unemployment rates, and male targeting specifically increases, while beauty- and age-targeting decreases.
3) Overall discrimination, as measured by targeting, decreases with higher unemployment rates, suggesting labor market tightness influences discriminatory hiring practices.
This document summarizes a research article that explores hospitality employees' views on dissatisfying working conditions based on interviews. The article discusses how poor working conditions like low pay, difficult supervision, and stressful environments can severely reduce employee motivation and satisfaction according to Herzberg's two-factor theory. When hygiene factors are not met, motivating factors have no effect, leading to high turnover. The study aims to present hospitality workers' own views on how well their needs are met to understand dissatisfaction. Verbatim comments from employees describe problems like unfair treatment, unethical practices, and illegal behavior. The conclusion is that with unmet hygiene factors, employees are unlikely to find work satisfying and will seek other jobs.
This study examines the relationship between corporate social performance (CSP) and corporate financial performance (CFP) for 383 companies in Indonesia over 2002-2003. Specifically, it analyzes whether company size and industry affect the CSP-CFP relationship. Content analysis was used to measure CSP based on dimensions like community, diversity, environment, and products. Financial data came from annual reports. The study aims to add to literature on developing countries and examine the impact of moderating variables on the CSP-CFP relationship. Hypotheses are that the relationship is positive and moderated by size and industry.
This document discusses absenteeism in the context of sociological and social psychological studies of work behavior. It argues that absenteeism is a complex social phenomenon influenced by multiple factors and the relationship between employees and their employer. The author proposes a theoretical model to help structure research on absenteeism. This model considers incentives to continue employment, barriers to adjustment, barriers to attendance, and the psychological tie or commitment between employees and their company. The author illustrates aspects of this model using data from a study of absenteeism rates and employee satisfaction measures across work groups at a Midwestern manufacturing company. The goal is to better understand absenteeism by examining the conditions that shape the psychological connection between workers and their workplace.
Working paper - Industrial Economics (only descriptive statistics)serena boccardo
Enterprise Surveys data gave almost no information on the total factor productivity performances of firms belonging to the former Soviet Union area. An analysis of gender gaps at the top - firm owners and CEOs - was suggested but not yet carried out.
Commitment profiles in Greece, 12th congreess of eawop, 2005Yannis Markovits
1) The study examined commitment profiles in Greece using two samples - private sector employees (Study 1) and public sector employees (Study 2).
2) Across both studies, employees who were highly committed and identified with their organizations reported higher job satisfaction, both intrinsically and extrinsically.
3) Profiles containing identification or affective commitment were linked to greater intrinsic satisfaction, while profiles without these components were more strongly associated with extrinsic satisfaction.
Within occupation wage inequality and task dispersionGRAPE
This document summarizes a study on the relationship between task dispersion within occupations and wage inequality. It finds that occupations with more routine tasks have lower wage dispersion, supporting the first hypothesis. The second hypothesis, that task dispersion within occupations is positively related to wage inequality, receives mixed support, as only non-routine task dispersion seems to matter. The conclusions call for formalizing the intuitions, extending the analysis to other countries, and analyzing changes in task dispersion and wage inequality over time.
This study argues that firms can use profit sharing to raise profits by reducing the risk for inefficient separations by the workers. It is based on the idea of Hall and Lazear (1984) and clarifies their analysis of fixed wage contracts in employment relations of fixed length. It extends their analysis to continuing employment relationships in which the base wage is exogenously given but the firm can unilaterally set a profit sharing parameter. It is argued that the use of down payments, on which the analysis of Hall and Lazear is based, is not possible with continuing employment relationships. Instead the bargaining power will be reflected in the base wage. This reduces the possibilities to adjust the base wage to reduce inefficient separations and may increase the importance of profit sharing. The intuitive positive dependence of the profit sharing parameter on the covariance between the value of the worker’s outside option and his productivity in the firm does not necessarily hold.
Effects of task identity on employee motivation a survey of eldoret polytechn...Alexander Decker
This document discusses a study that examined the relationship between task identity and employee motivation at Eldoret Polytechnic in Kenya. The study used a correlational research design and survey methodology to collect data from 110 employees. The results of a linear regression analysis showed a significant positive correlation between task identity and employee motivation. Specifically, task identity explained 67.9% of the variation in employee motivation levels. The study concludes that structuring jobs to provide employees a strong sense of task identity can help increase motivation. It recommends that organizations consider task identity when designing jobs and formulating human resource policies.
This document summarizes several studies on employee satisfaction and related concepts. It discusses factors that influence employee satisfaction such as job security, compensation, benefits, promotion opportunities, and work environment. It also examines the relationship between employee satisfaction and outcomes like motivation, performance and loyalty. Several models and frameworks for understanding job satisfaction are reviewed. Measures of job satisfaction, such as the Job Descriptive Index and Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, are also summarized.
Using Finnish data this paper examines to what extent the share of a cohort being unemployed, in health care employment and being out of the labour market after the graduation of the cohort have affected the long-run labour market outcomes. The dependent variables are formed by standardising the shares for all cohorts and years. This is done by dividing the cohort specific share with the average share for all nurses in each year. The long-term effects are significant for all three variables. According to the estimates the deep recession of the 1990s raised the long-run unemployment by more than 2 percentage points for the nurses graduating then.
This study examines the relationships between organizational culture, leadership behaviors, organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and job performance in small and medium Taiwanese firms. Surveys were distributed to 1,451 employees across 84 firms, with 749 valid responses. Significant findings include: (1) transformational leadership was positively related to organizational commitment in innovative cultures, (2) organizational commitment mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and job satisfaction across all cultures, and (3) organizational commitment mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and job performance in supportive and bureaucratic cultures.
This document summarizes a research study on how organizational dreaming by employees affects their work performance and contributions to the organization. The study analyzed survey responses from 184 IT employees in India. Key findings include: 1) Managing employees' organizational dreams positively impacts their job fit and commitment; 2) Employees' perceptions of organizational support are shaped by how their dreams align with the organization; 3) Social relations and learning attitudes in the workplace are linked to how employees' dreams are addressed. The study concludes organizational dreaming is natural and employers should understand employees' impressions to maximize occupational contributions over the long run.
This study investigates the role of adverse working conditions in the determination of individual wages and overall job satisfaction in the Finnish labour market. The potential influence of adverse working conditions on self-reported fairness of pay at the workplace is considered as an alternative, indirect measure of job satisfaction. The results show that working conditions have a very minor role in the determination of individual wages in the Finnish labour market. In contrast, adverse working conditions substantially increase the level of job dissatisfaction and the perception of unfairness of pay at the workplace
This document analyzes the connection between working conditions, job satisfaction, retirement intentions, and actual retirement decisions using linked survey and register data from Finland. The survey data contains information on perceived working conditions, job satisfaction, and retirement intentions, while the register data provides information on actual retirement decisions that can be linked to the survey respondents. The study finds that job dissatisfaction arising from adverse working conditions is significantly related to stronger retirement intentions, and retirement intentions are in turn related to earlier actual retirement. New management practices are found to improve job satisfaction and reduce retirement intentions, thereby lengthening working careers.
Human Resource Management Practices And Workers Job SatisfactionKimberly Williams
Human resource management practices and workers’ job satisfaction analyzes the relationship between HRM practices and workers' job satisfaction using data from two British datasets. The study finds that several HRM practices are associated with higher job satisfaction, including practices that promote ongoing learning. However, these effects are only significant for non-union members. Perceived pay inequality within a firm is linked to substantially lower job satisfaction for non-union members.
Sectoral Comparison of Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction for Telecom and F...Huseyin Kiran
The document analyzes factors influencing job satisfaction in the telecom and finance sectors in Turkey. It conducted surveys of employees in these sectors to assess job satisfaction levels and the importance of various motivators and fringe benefits. The key findings were:
- Employees in the telecom sector reported higher overall job satisfaction than the finance sector.
- Intrinsic factors like the work itself were more satisfying to telecom employees, while finance employees were equally satisfied by intrinsic and extrinsic factors.
- The top satisfying factors for each sector differed, such as coworker relationships for finance and autonomy for telecom.
- Fringe benefits were found to impact job satisfaction levels between the sectors.
This paper investigates the links between a number of subjective measures of worker wellbeing and within establishment wage dispersion. These may be linked either because wage dispersion influences the way in which individuals perceive their own relative and prospective income or because they are concerned about fairness in general. The analysis is based on a data set where the Quality of Work Survey is matched with register-based information on individuals and establishments. The results show that there is no significant overall association. Some significant relationships, however, can be found if the method of pay is assumed to be performance pay that is based on individual or group performance. The results also suggest that the question as to whether wages are public knowledge can be of importance.
The paper examines the effect of innovative work practices on the prevalence of sickness absence and accidents at work. We focus on several different aspects of workplace innovations (self-managed teams, information sharing, employer-provided training and incentive pay) along with the “bundles” of those practices. We use nationally representative individual-level data from the Finnish Quality of Work Life Survey from 2008. Using single equation models, we find that innovative work practices increase short-term sickness absence for blue-collar and lower white-collar employees. In twoequation models that treat innovative workplace practices as endogenous variables we do not find relationship between innovative work practices and sickness absence or accidents at work.
This study examines factors that influence sickness absenteeism and presenteeism using survey data from 725 Finnish union members in 2008. The study finds that presenteeism is much more sensitive to working time arrangements than absenteeism. Permanent full-time work, mismatch between desired and actual working hours, shift/period work, and overlong weekly working hours increase the likelihood of presenteeism. Regular overtime decreases absenteeism but increases presenteeism. The ability to take 3 days of paid sick leave without a doctor's note and easing of efficiency demands decrease presenteeism. Presenteeism is more common in the public sector and among those in shift/period work.
13. Exploring Career And Personal Outcomes And The Meaning Of Career Success ...Bryce Nelson
This document summarizes two qualitative studies on part-time professionals. The first study in 1996-98 interviewed 87 part-time professionals about their careers, personal lives, and reasons for working reduced hours. A follow-up study in 2002-03 re-interviewed 81 of the original participants to understand how their careers and lives evolved over time. The document provides context on changing workforce demographics and pressures, as well as an overview of the research methodology used in the two studies. It aims to help fill gaps in understanding the outcomes and evolving conceptions of career success for professionals who work reduced hours.
This paper investigates the extent and determinants of employer demand for part-time work in the three Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland and Sweden) by making a distinction between establishments’ two main reasons for introducing part-time work, i.e. establishment needs and wishes of employees. We study the importance of different characteristics (such as e.g. size, industry, sector, share of female workers) of establishment to the probability of employerbased and of employee-based part-time work. We also put under scrutiny whether different motivations for part-time work also have different outcomes for companies and workers, and how these reasons shape the nature of part-time work. In the analyses we use the Establishment Survey on Working Time and Work-Life Balance (ESWT) in 21 EU Member States including Finland, Sweden and Denmark.
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan persoonallisuuden vaikutuksia pitkän aikavälin ansioihin ja työllisyyteen. Tarkastelu perustuu suomalaiseen kaksosaineistoon, jonka avulla on mahdollisuus ottaa huomioon perhetaustaan ja genetiikkaan liittyvien muuten havaitsemattomien tekijöiden vaikutus aikaisempia tutkimuksia paremmin. Tutkimuksessa käytetään faktorianalyysia mittaamaan latentteja persoonallisuuden piirteitä vuodelta 1981. Näitä ovat sosiaalisuus, miellyttävyys, suorituskeskeisyys, järjestelmällisyys, aktiivisuus ja rehellisyys. Tutkimuksessa hyödynnetään lisäksi tietoa neuroottisuudesta. Työmarkkinatulemia (työllisyyskuukausia ja ansiotasoa) mitataan vuosien 1990-2009 keskiarvolla. Tulosten mukaan suorituskeskeisten henkilöiden ansiotaso on selvästi korkeampi muihin ryhmiin verrattuna 20-vuoden seurantajakson aikana. Suorituskeskeisyys on myös positiivisessa yhteydessä korkeampiin pääomatuloihin. Tulokset eivät muutu, vaikka henkilöiden koulutus, aiempi terveydentila, negatiiviset elämäntilanteet ja terveyskäyttäytyminen otetaan huomioon.
This document summarizes a study examining the relationship between labor share and unemployment in major OECD countries from 1972 to 2008. It analyzes whether the relationship has changed in a way that could indicate weakened bargaining power for labor. The study uses panel data and statistical methods for non-stationary panels to estimate wage curves and dynamic equations modeling how labor share adjusts to unemployment. Preliminary results suggest labor share declines in most OECD countries cannot be fully explained by rising unemployment and likely reflect weakened bargaining power for labor unions. The nature of the relationship may also differ between countries with varying wage-setting institutions and bargaining coordination.
EMPLOYEE AUTONOMY AND THE WITHIN-FIRM GENDER WAGE GAP: THE CASE OF TRUST-BASE...Structuralpolicyanalysis
This document discusses a study examining the effect of trust-based work time (TBW) on the gender wage gap within firms in Germany. TBW gives employees autonomy over their work schedules. The study uses linked employer-employee data to compare the within-firm gender wage gap before and after some firms adopted TBW between 2006-2008. It finds TBW adoption led to a reduction in the wage gap, driven by absolute wage gains for women. Further analysis suggests this was likely due to an increase in the share of women performing higher-skilled job tasks after TBW adoption, rather than changes to part-time work. The findings indicate organizational flexibility in work hours through TBW can promote gender wage equality.
This paper studies the impact of job contract types on perceived job quality using Finnish 2008 Quality of Work Life Surveys from years 1997, 2003 and 2008. In the analysis job contract types are adjusted to take into account the motive for doing temporary and part-time work. Our results from the Finnish QWLS imply that there are clear differences in job quality and work well-being by the type of job contract. Our results also show the importance of distinguishing between types of temporary and part-time work by the contract preference, i.e. whether these nonstandard employment arrangements are exercised involuntarily or not. Almost without exception involuntary temporary and involuntary part-time workers’ experiences of their job quality are weaker with
respect to core job quality indicators studied in this paper such as training possibilities, participation in employer-funded training, career possibilities, possibilities to learn and grow at work, job autonomy, and job insecurity.
Factors that Influence Turnover among Group IT, Menara TM by Logistics Regres...Nabilah Huda
This document summarizes a study on factors that influence turnover among IT staff at Telekom Malaysia. The study aims to determine the relationship between job satisfaction and employees' intentions to resign, and analyze the effects of work experience, work pressure, work environment, and job satisfaction on resignation intentions. A questionnaire will be used to collect data from IT staff about these variables. Statistical analyses like ANOVA, correlation, and regression will then be performed to analyze the data and test hypotheses about the relationships between the variables. The findings are expected to help Telekom Malaysia reduce employee turnover by identifying its key causes.
We analyse age segregation in hirings and separations using linked employer-employee data from Finland in the period 1990-2004. This allows us to identify at the firm level employees in different age groups that have been hired during the previous year, and employees who have exited the firms.
We analyze firm-level age segregation using segregation curves and Gini indices. The main result is that hirings of older employees have clearly been more segregated than exits or the stock of old employees even though hirings have become slightly less segregated towards the end of the period
in question. At the same time age segregation in exits and stocks has increased and these trends are not sensitive to small unit bias in measurement. We also examine trends in hiring and exit rates using aggregate data. According to our results the oldest age group is again underrepresented in
hirings. There is a positive upward trend in their recruitments related to the increasing cohort size, but it is much weaker than the trend in the relative share of older workers in employment. The exit rate of the older employees indicates cyclical variation while the small number of hirings seems to
be insensitive to changing labour demand. We present a decomposition of employment change by age group and with that decomposition we disentangle the role of hirings and exits from factors related to demographics and cohort effects. The latter factors include the effect of the large babyboom
generation entering the age group of older employees with higher employment rates than earlier cohorts. Finally, our regression analysis shows that larger firms are more likely to hire older employees, but their hiring rates are lower.
Using propensity score matching combined with the differences-in-differences method this paper investigates gender differences in the wage effects of job mobility among young white-collar workers in the Finnish manufacturing sector over the period 1997–2006. A novel feature of our paper is that besides distinguishing between intrafirm and interfirm job changes we also investigate mobility and wage growth by educational level. These refinements prove to be important. Our results indicate that both kinds of mobility boost wage growth, but the positive effects are much higher for interfirm mobility. Also the gender gap in the returns to job changes varies with the type of mobility, the gap being 1.2 percentage points with interfirm mobility and non-existent when job changes within firms are considered. Furthermore, we find that there are differences in the returns to mobility between educational levels. The low-educated women benefit less from mobility than the high-educated women, especially with employer changes. For men, on the other hand, no such variation in the wage effects of mobility across educational levels is observed.
Relationship of Demographic Variables and Job Satisfaction among Married WomenIJLT EMAS
The purpose of this study was to study the relationship
between job satisfaction and demographic variables among
married women who are working in academics. The research
was descriptive and survey study. In this study, women working
in technical educational Institutes, from Indore were studied. for
this 300 working women(N=300) were chosen as per their work
in the Institutes, teaching or Non-teaching. A socio- demographic
questionnaire were used for the purpose. The findings revealed
that on the basis of the age and qualification , there is no relation
between factors studied (work environment, job security, roles &
responsibility etc.) and job satisfaction and on the basis of
designation, income and experience, researcher found the
relation between factors studied (work environment, job
security, roles & responsibility etc.) and job satisfaction.
Low-wage subsidies are often proposed as a solution to the unemployment problem among the low skilled. Yet the empirical evidence on the effects of low-wage subsidies is surprisingly scarce. This paper examines the employment effects of a Finnish payroll tax subsidy scheme, which is targeted at the employers of older, full-time, low-wage workers. The system’s clear eligibility criteria open up an opportunity for a reliable estimation of the causal impacts of the subsidy, using the difference-in-difference-in-differences approach. Our results indicate that the subsidy system had no effects on the employment rate. However, it appears to have increased the probability of part-time workers obtaining full-time employment.
A Comparative Study Of Employee-Attitude Of Permanent And Temporary Employees...Sabrina Green
This document summarizes a study comparing the work attitudes of permanent and temporary employees in selected public sector undertakings in India. It provides background on issues around retaining employees and discusses previous literature on topics like job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job involvement. The study aims to identify differences in work attitudes between permanent and temporary workers. Mann-Whitney and Wilcoxon-W tests were used to analyze survey data from these two groups. The findings section indicates some elements of job satisfaction like communication where significant differences were found between permanent and temporary employees.
Similar to Job Disamenities, Job Satisfaction and on-the-Job Search: Is There a Nexus? (20)
Talous & Yhteiskunta -lehden numero 4/2019 sisältää artikkeleita ja haastattelun, jotka kertovat alueellista keskittymistä käsitelleistä tutkimuksista. Suomen seitsemän suurimman kaupunkiseudun väestö kasvaa nopeimmin, kun taas pienempien kaupunkien ja maaseudun väestöosuus supistuu. Muutos on kuitenkin verrattain hidasta, ja sille on myös vastavoimia.
Talous & Yhteiskunta -lehden numeron 3/2019 teemana on työ ja terveys. Artikkeleissa tarkastellaan Suomen terveydenhuoltojärjestelmän toimivuutta ja pohditaan mitä voitaisiin oppia Ruotsissa jo tehdyistä terveydenhuollon uudistuksista. Muissa artikkeleissa käsitellään terveyskäyttäytymisen ja työmarkkinamenestyksen yhteyttä, työttömien aktivointia, työikäisten eritasoisia terveyspalveluja, työaikajoustojen vaikutusta terveyteen sekä informaatioteknologian ja tekoälyn käyttöä mielenterveyspalvelujen tukena. Haastateltavana on THL:n tutkimusprofessori Unto Häkkinen. Hänen mielestään sote-uudistus on tehtävä, vaikka se vaatiikin vielä monen yksityiskohdan ratkaisemista.
Opiskelijavalinta ylioppilaskirjoitusten nykyarvosanojen perusteella ei ole täysin perusteltua, todetaan Aalto-ylipiston ja Palkansaajien tutkimuslaitoksen uudessa tutkimuksessa. Ylioppilaskirjoitusten arvosanoilla on pitkän ajan vaikutuksia. Hienojakoisempi arvosteluasteikko tekisi opiskelijavalinnasta nykyistä reilumman.
Esimerkkiperhelaskelmissa tarkastellaan seitsemää kotitaloutta. Laskelmat kuvaavat ansiotulojen, tulonsiirtojen sekä verojen ja veronluonteisten maksujen kehityksen vaikutusta perheiden ostovoimaan. Perheille lasketaan Tilastokeskuksen tietoihin perustuvat perhekohtaiset kulutuskorit, jotka mahdollistavat perhekohtaisten inflaatiovauhtien ja reaalitulokehitysten arvioinnin. Ensi vuonna eläkeläispariskunnan ostovoima kasvaa eniten ja työttömien vähiten. Esimerkkiperhelaskelmia on tehty Palkansaajien tutkimuslaitoksella vuodesta 2009 lähtien.
Palkansaajien tutkimuslaitos ennustaa Suomen talouskasvuksi tänä vuonna 1,3 prosenttia ja ensi vuonna 1,1 prosenttia. Kasvua hidastaa eniten yksityisen kulutuksen kasvun hidastuminen. Toisaalta vienti kasvaa tänä vuonna hieman ennakoitua nopeammin, neljä prosenttia, ja ensi vuonnakin vielä kaksi prosenttia. Tuotannollisten investointien kasvu jatkuu maltillisena, mutta rakentamisen vähentyminen kääntää yksityiset investoinnit kokonaisuutena pieneen laskuun ensi vuonna. Hallituksen vuoteen 2023 mennessä tavoittelemien 75 prosentin työllisyysasteen ja julkisen talouden tasapainon toteutumista on vaikea arvioida, koska nämä tavoitteet on määritelty rakenteellisina ja niiden eri arviointimenetelmät saattavat tuottaa hyvin erilaisia tuloksia.
Suomen palkkataso oli 2015 ylempää eurooppalaista keskitasoa. Suomen suhteellinen asema ei ole juurikaan muuttunut 2010-luvun alun tilanteesta. Hintatason huomioiminen kuitenkin heikentää asemaamme palkkavertailussa. Palkkaerot meillä olivat vertailumaiden pienimpiä ja pysyivät melko samalla tasolla koko tarkastelujakson 2007–2015 ajan. EU-maissa havaittiin erisuuntaista kehitystä palkkaeroissa. Suurin osa palkkojen kokonaisvaihteluista selittyi taustaryhmien sisäisillä palkkaeroilla.
Suomessa toteutettiin vuonna 2005 laaja eläkeuudistus, jossa vanhuuseläkkeen alaikärajaa laskettiin. Tutkimuksessa havaitaan, että ikärajan lasku aikaisti eläkkeelle jäämistä. Kun alaraja laskettiin 65:stä 63:een, myös yleinen eläköitymisikä laski. Taloudellisten kannustimien muutosten vaikutukset eläköitymiseen jäivät paljon heikommiksi alaikärajan muuttamiseen verrattuna. Eläköitymisikään voidaan siis vaikuttaa tehokkaasti ja vähäisin kustannuksin lakisääteistä eläkeikää muuttamalla.
Talous & Yhteiskunta -lehden numeron 2/2019 artikkelit ja haastattelu kertovat tutkimuksista, joita on tehty Suomen Akatemian strategisen tutkimuksen neuvoston hankkeessa "Osaavat työntekijät - menestyvät työmarkkinat". Keskeinen kysymys on, miten sopeudutaan teknologisen kehityksen mukanaan tuomaan työn murrokseen.
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan ammattirakenteiden polarisaatiota sekä sitä, että mihin supistuvissa ja rutiininomaisissa ammateissa olevat työntekijät päätyvät hyödyntämällä kokonaisaineistoa vuosille 1970-2014. Ammattirakenteiden polarisaatio on jatkunut Suomessa jo vuosikymmeniä. Ammattirakennemuutoksen kehityskulku on pääosin tapahtunut siten, että keskitason tuotanto- ja toimistotyöntekijät ovat nousseet urapolkuja pitkin asiantuntijatöihin. Viimeaikaista palveluammattien osuutta on puolestaan kasvattanut se, että nuoret siirtyvät työmarkkinoille palvelutöihin. Rutiininomaisia ja kognitiivisia taitoja vaativien ammattien työntekijöillä on kuitenkin suurempi todennäköisyys nousta korkeammille palkkaluokille rutiininomaista ja fyysistä työtä tekeviin työntekijöihin verrattuna. Rutiininomaista ja fyysistä työtä tekevät tippuvat puolestaan suuremmalla todennäköisyydellä matalapalkka-aloille, ja heidän ansiotason kehitys on myös heikompaa.
Palkansaajien tutkimuslaitos on alentanut Suomen talouskasvun ennustettaan kuluvalle vuodelle viimesyksyisestä 2,3 prosentista 1,4 prosenttiin. Kansainvälisen talouden näkymien epävarmuus hidastaa Suomen talouskasvua etenkin kuluvana vuonna. Jos pahimmat uhkakuvat jäävät toteutumatta, kasvu piristyy ensi vuonna hivenen 1,5 prosenttiin. Viime vuonna pysähtynyt viennin kasvu elpyy, ja myös yksityisen kulutuksen kasvu tukee talouskasvua. Suomi on sopeutunut ammattirakenteiden murrokseen yleisesti ottaen hyvin, mutta etenkin perusasteen koulutuksen varassa olevien varttuneiden työntekijöiden työllistämiseen voi olla vaikea löytää työkaluja.
The Labour Institute for Economic Research has lowered its forecast of Finland’s economic growth for the current year from last autumn’s 2.4 per cent to 1.4 per cent. Uncertainty in the international economic outlook will slow Finland’s economic growth, particularly this year. If the worst threats do not materialise, growth will pick up slightly next year to 1.5 per cent. Export growth, which came to a halt last year, will recover and growth in private consumption growth will also provide support to economic growth. In general, Finland has adjusted well to occupational restructuring, but it may be difficult to find means to employ older workers who only have basic education.
Palkansaajien tutkimuslaitos on alentanut Suomen talouskasvun ennustettaan kuluvalle vuodelle vii-mesyksyisestä 2,3 prosentista 1,4 prosenttiin. Kansainvälisen talouden näkymien epävarmuus hidastaa Suomen talouskasvua etenkin kuluvana vuonna. Jos pahimmat uhkakuvat jäävät toteutumatta, kasvu piristyy ensi vuonna hivenen 1,5 prosenttiin. Viime vuonna pysähtynyt viennin kasvu elpyy, ja myös yksityisen kulutuksen kasvu tukee talouskasvua. Suomi on sopeutunut ammattirakenteiden murrokseen yleisesti ottaen hyvin, mutta etenkin perusasteen koulutuksen varassa olevien varttuneiden työntekijöiden työllistämiseen voi olla vaikea löytää työkaluja.
Tämä PT Policy Brief tuo esiin havaintoja Suomen tuloerojen kehityksestä 1990-luvun puolivälin jälkeen. Tällä ajanjaksolla tuloerot ovat kasvaneet. Aluksi kasvu oli hyvin nopeaa, kunnes kehitys tasaantui finanssikriisin myötä. Tämä näkyy tarkasteltaessa kehitystä viiden vuoden ajalta lasketuissa keskituloissa. Taloudessa on tuloliikkuvuutta, ts. tulot vaihtelevat vuodesta toiseen. Havaitsemme, että liikkuvuus tuloportaikossa on vähentynyt. Samalla kun tuloerot ovat kääntyneet kasvuun, on tuloverotuksen progressiivisuus alentunut. Valtion tuloveron alennusten ohella tähän on erityisesti tulojakauman huipulla vaikuttanut pääomatulojen voimakas kasvu.
Julkisen budjetin sopeuttamistoimia toteutetaan usein etuuksien indeksileikkauksina tai tuloverojen korotuksina. Näillä toimenpiteillä on tulonjako- ja työllisyysvaikutuksia. Tämä PT Policy Brief esittää SISU-mallilla lasketut vaikutukset käytettävissä oleviin tuloihin tuloluokittain, jos valtion tuloveroasteikkoa korotettaisiin 0,4 prosenttiyksiköllä tai jos kansaneläkeindeksiä leikattaisiin. Molemmissa toimenpiteissä budjetti vahvistuisi 180 miljoonalla eurolla mutta tulonjakovaikutukset ovat huomattavan erilaiset. Oheisen kuvion mukaisesti indeksileikkaukset kohdistuvat voimakkaasti alempiin tulonsaajakymmenyksiin, kun taas tuloveron korotukset kohdistuvat ylempiin kymmenyksiin. Kun huomioidaan muutosten aiheuttamat työllisyysvaikutukset, kokonaiskuva muuttuu vain hieman.
Makeisvero otettiin käyttöön makeisille ja jäätelölle vuoden 2011 alusta. Virallinen perustelu oli kerätä verotuloja, mutta poliittisessa keskustelussa selvä tavoite oli ohjata kulutusta terveellisempään suuntaan. Makeisvero nosti selvästi makeisten kuluttajahintoja, mutta se ei vaikuttanut makeisten kysyntään. Toisaalta vuonna 2014 virvoitusjuomavero nousi sokerillisille juomille, mutta sokerittomat juomat jäivät alemmalle verotasolle. Tämä muutos alensi sokerillisten juomien kulutusta ja ohjasi kulutusta sokerittomiin juomiin. Onnistunut terveellisiin tuotteisiin ohjailu näyttääkin vaativan riittävän läheisen terveellisempien tuotteiden ryhmän olemassaolon.
Talous & Yhteiskunta-lehden "Suuren vaalinumeron" 1/2019 jutut käsittelevät aiheita, jotka voivat nousta esille kevään vaalikeskusteluissa. Pääpaino on ilmastonmuutoksessa: haastateltavana on Maailman ilmatieteen järjestön pääsihteeri Petteri Taalas, ja kahdessa eri artikkelissa pohditaan metsien hiilinielujen ja yhdyskuntarakenteen merkitystä pyrittäessä hillitsemään ilmaston lämpenemistä. Muut artikkelit käsittelevät tuloerojen kasvua, sotea, eläkkeiden riittävyyttä, maahanmuuttajien työllistymistä, EMUn uudistamista, eurooppalaista palkkavertailua ja kestävyysvajeen sopimattomuutta talouspolitiikan suunnitteluun.
Raportissa tehdään laskelmia korkeakouluopiskelijoille suunnatun opintotuen tulorajojen muutosten vaikutuksista. Opintotuen tulorajojen tavoite on, että suurituloisille opiskelijoille ei makseta opintotukea. Samalla nykyiset tulorajat kuitenkin estävät opiskelijoita tienaamasta niin paljon kuin he haluaisivat. Laskelmissa hyödynnetään simulaatiomallia, jonka avulla voidaan arvioida miten opiskelijoiden tulojakauma muuttuisi eri vaihtoehtoisissa opintotuen tulorajojen muutoksissa. Tulosten mukaan nykyisiä tulorajaoja voisi nostaa esimerkiksi 50 prosentilla, jolloin yhdeksän kuukauden ajan opintotukea nostavan opiskelijan vuosituloraja olisi 18 000 euroa nykyisen noin 12 000 euron sijaan. Laskelmien mukaan tällöin päästäisiin opintotuen nykyisten tulorajojen haitallisista tulovaikutuksista laajasti ottaen eroon, koska vain harva opiskelija tienaisi tätä tulorajaa enempää. Ottaen huomioon verotulot ja tulonsiirrot tämä vaihtoehto lisäisi julkisyhteisöjen nettotuloja arviolta 5,9 miljoonaa euroa vuodessa.
Tässä tutkimuksessa tutkitaan diskreettien valintajoukkojen vaikutusta palkansaajien työn tarjonnan reagoimiseen tuloveroihin. Artikkelin empiirisessä osiossa hyödynnetään opintotuen tulorajojen aiheuttamaa tuloveroissa tapahtuvaa äkillistä nousua, ja reformia, jossa tulorajoja nostettiin. Tulosten mukaan vuoden 2008 reformi, jossa tulorajaa nostettiin 9 opintotukikuukautta nostaneille 9000 eurosta 12000 euroon, aiheutti merkittäviä muutoksia opiskelijoiden tulojakaumassa. Tulojakauma siirtyi korkeammalle tasolle lähtien noin 2000 euron tuloista. Koska opiskelijoiden verojärjestelmässä ei tapahtunut muutoksia näin alhaisella tasolla vuoden 2008 reformissa, eivät työn taloustieteen normaalit mallit pysty selittämään tätä siirtymää. Artikkelissa esitetään empiirisiä lisätuloksia, teoreettisia argumentteja ja simulaatiomalli, jotka kaikki viittaavat siihen, että tuloksen pystyy selittämään diskreettien valintajoukkojen mallilla. Lisäksi artikkelissa esitetään, että verotuksen hyvinvointitappiot voivat olla suuremmat kuin empiirisesti estimoidut, jos valintajoukot ovat diskreettejä, mutta niiden ajatellaan olevan jatkuvia.
Talous & Yhteiskunta -lehden uuteen numeroon sisältyy artikkeleita veropohjasta ja -vajeesta, liikenteen veroista, naisista tulojakauman huipulla, työllisyyden kasvusta, mikrosimulaatiomalleista ja digitalisaatiosta. Lehdessä on myös Helsingin yliopiston professori Uskali Mäen haastattelu, jossa käsitellään tieteenfilosofista näkökulmaa taloustieteeseen.
Tutkimuksessa rakennettiin uusia makrotaloudellisia malleja PT:n ennustetyötä varten. Malleilla tehtiin ennusteita vuosille 2017 ja 2018. Mallien BKT-ennuste vuodelle 2017 on 3,1 prosenttia (vrt. toteutunut 2,8 prosenttia) ja vuodelle 2018 1,8 prosenttia (vrt. PT:n 11.9 ennuste 2,7 prosenttia).
Jennifer Schaus and Associates hosts a complimentary webinar series on The FAR in 2024. Join the webinars on Wednesdays and Fridays at noon, eastern.
Recordings are on YouTube and the company website.
https://www.youtube.com/@jenniferschaus/videos
AHMR is an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed online journal created to encourage and facilitate the study of all aspects (socio-economic, political, legislative and developmental) of Human Mobility in Africa. Through the publication of original research, policy discussions and evidence research papers AHMR provides a comprehensive forum devoted exclusively to the analysis of contemporaneous trends, migration patterns and some of the most important migration-related issues.
Presentation by Julie Topoleski, CBO’s Director of Labor, Income Security, and Long-Term Analysis, at the 16th Annual Meeting of the OECD Working Party of Parliamentary Budget Officials and Independent Fiscal Institutions.
Jennifer Schaus and Associates hosts a complimentary webinar series on The FAR in 2024. Join the webinars on Wednesdays and Fridays at noon, eastern.
Recordings are on YouTube and the company website.
https://www.youtube.com/@jenniferschaus/videos
Jennifer Schaus and Associates hosts a complimentary webinar series on The FAR in 2024. Join the webinars on Wednesdays and Fridays at noon, eastern.
Recordings are on YouTube and the company website.
https://www.youtube.com/@jenniferschaus/videos
Bharat Mata - History of Indian culture.pdfBharat Mata
Bharat Mata Channel is an initiative towards keeping the culture of this country alive. Our effort is to spread the knowledge of Indian history, culture, religion and Vedas to the masses.
The Antyodaya Saral Haryana Portal is a pioneering initiative by the Government of Haryana aimed at providing citizens with seamless access to a wide range of government services
This report explores the significance of border towns and spaces for strengthening responses to young people on the move. In particular it explores the linkages of young people to local service centres with the aim of further developing service, protection, and support strategies for migrant children in border areas across the region. The report is based on a small-scale fieldwork study in the border towns of Chipata and Katete in Zambia conducted in July 2023. Border towns and spaces provide a rich source of information about issues related to the informal or irregular movement of young people across borders, including smuggling and trafficking. They can help build a picture of the nature and scope of the type of movement young migrants undertake and also the forms of protection available to them. Border towns and spaces also provide a lens through which we can better understand the vulnerabilities of young people on the move and, critically, the strategies they use to navigate challenges and access support.
The findings in this report highlight some of the key factors shaping the experiences and vulnerabilities of young people on the move – particularly their proximity to border spaces and how this affects the risks that they face. The report describes strategies that young people on the move employ to remain below the radar of visibility to state and non-state actors due to fear of arrest, detention, and deportation while also trying to keep themselves safe and access support in border towns. These strategies of (in)visibility provide a way to protect themselves yet at the same time also heighten some of the risks young people face as their vulnerabilities are not always recognised by those who could offer support.
In this report we show that the realities and challenges of life and migration in this region and in Zambia need to be better understood for support to be strengthened and tuned to meet the specific needs of young people on the move. This includes understanding the role of state and non-state stakeholders, the impact of laws and policies and, critically, the experiences of the young people themselves. We provide recommendations for immediate action, recommendations for programming to support young people on the move in the two towns that would reduce risk for young people in this area, and recommendations for longer term policy advocacy.
2. PALKANSAAJIEN TUTKIMUSLAITOS •TYÖPAPEREITA
LABOUR INSTITUTE FOR ECONOMIC RESEARCH • DISCUSSION PAPERS
*This study has been funded by the Finnish Work Environment Fund (Työsuojelurahasto).
We are grateful to Roope Uusitalo for comments. Paul A. Dillingham has kindly checked
the language. The usual disclaimer applies.
**Labour Institute for Economic Research. Address: Pitkäsillanranta 3 A, 6. krs. FIN-00530
Helsinki, FINLAND. Phone: +358-9-25357330. Fax: +358-9-25357332.
E-mail: petri.bockerman@labour.fi
***Helsinki School of Economics. E-mail: pekka.ilmakunnas@hkkk.fi
Helsinki 2004
208
JOB DISAMENITIES,
JOB SATISFACTION,
AND ON-THE-JOB
SEARCH: IS THERE
A NEXUS?*
Petri Böckerman**
Pekka Ilmakunnas***
4. ABSTRACT
This study explores the potential role of adverse working conditions at the workplace in
the determination of on-the-job search in the Finnish labour market. The results reveal
that workers currently facing adverse working conditions have greater intentions to switch
jobs and they are also more willing to stop working completely. In addition, those
workers search new matches more frequently. There is evidence that adverse working
conditions consistently increase the level of job dissatisfaction and, in turn, it is job
dissatisfaction that drives workers’ intentions to quit and intensifies actual job search.
JEL Codes: J28, J31, J64
Key words: working conditions, job satisfaction, on-the-job search, intentions to quit
TIIVISTELMÄ
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan epämukavien työolojen vaikutusta työllisten työnetsintään
suomalaisilla työmarkkinoilla. Tulosten mukaan epämukavissa työolosuhteissa työskente-
levillä on enemmän työpaikan vaihtoaikeita ja he ovat myös halukkaampia lopettamaan
kokonaan työnteon. Lisäksi he etsivät aktiivisemmin korvaavaa työpaikkaa. Tulokset tu-
kevat näkemystä, jonka mukaan epämukavat työolot pahentavat työtyytymättömyyttä ja
nimenomaan työtyytymättömyys lisää työpaikan vaihtoaikeita ja korvaavan työpaikan
etsintää.
5. 2
1. INTRODUCTION
In a standard competitive labour market equilibrium there is no particular incentive for
job separations to occur, since the workers could not improve their labour market position
by conducting a switch to another firm from their current matches. In contrast to this
conjecture, there is a great deal of micro-level evidence on the dynamics of labour
markets that points out that market economies are in a state of continuous turbulence (e.g.
Davis and Haltiwanger, 1999; Farber, 1999). Flows of workers between jobs and between
labour market states are large by any reasonable standards.
Search theory and empirical search models typically concentrate on the role of a wage in
explaining job changes. Another potential reason for the existence of on-the-job search is
adverse working conditions, which are without doubt a very important attribute of a job
match. If a wage does not sufficiently compensate for adverse working conditions,
employees can increase their utility by switching jobs from their current ones. Although
non-wage job characteristics can be included in search models (e.g. Blau, 1991; Hwang,
Mortensen, and Reed, 1998; Lang and Majumdar, 2004), this possibility has attracted
more attention in the empirical work that is less directly tied to search models.
Extensive analysis of turnover has been made in human resource management (HRM)
and personnel psychology, where attention centers on the personnel policies and job
attitudes of the employees. There is also, however, an increasing interest in economics to
incorporate information on working conditions and worker attitudes to the analysis of
turnover. This study contributes to the literature by investigating the interactions between
adverse working conditions, job satisfaction, and workers’ intentions to quit.
There are empirical studies that have analyzed directly how individual characteristics and
working conditions or job attributes affect employees’ probability of quitting or job
duration. Adverse working conditions have been found to increase quits. In most of these
studies the data on working conditions are not from individual employees’ workplaces,
but rely on, for example, industry injury rates or work attributes typical of different
occupations (e.g. Viscusi, 1979; Bartel, 1982; Herzog and Schottman, 1990; Gronberg
and Reed, 1994). However, in some studies workplace-specific attributes are used. For
example, Manning (2003) uses information on night shifts to explain job duration.
Another strand of the literature explains quits or job durations directly by means of job
satisfaction scores, the employee’s characteristics, and firm characteristics, but without
6. 3
information on job attributes (e.g. Flanagan, Strauss, and Ulman, 1974; Freeman, 1978;
Clark, Yannis, and Sanfey, 1998; Ward and Sloane, 2000; Clark, 2001; Lévy-Garboua,
Montmarquette, and Simonnett, 2001; Kristensen and Westergård-Nielsen, 2004).1
These
studies generally discover that dissatisfied workers are more likely to quit their current
matches. In other words, the self-reported level of job satisfaction is a good predictor for
job mobility beyond the effect of wages. Working the other way, Akerlof, Rose and
Yellen (1988) show that job changes lead to an increase in job satisfaction and Altonji
and Paxson (1988) present evidence that job mobility leads to more satisfactory working
hours.
This has also been the approach in the HRM literature, where the relationships of job
satisfaction, organizational commitment and withdrawal cognitions to turnover have been
analyzed (e.g. Cotton and Tuttle, 1986; Tett and Meyer, 1993; Griffeth, Hom, and
Gaertner, 2000), using a variety of characteristics of the employees and firms. Variables
that describe working conditions have been included in some of these studies.
Psychological studies show that the intentions of individuals are good predictors of their
actual behaviour (e.g. Tett and Meyer, 1993). Accordingly, Kristensen and Westergård-
Nielsen (2004) report that job search, which is an extreme form of intentions to quit, is a
good predictor of actual quits. Instead of actual separations, the impact of working
conditions and/or job satisfaction on quit intentions or job search has also been examined
some studies in labour economics (van Ophem, 1991; Shields and Price, 2002; Sousa-
Poza and Henneberger, 2002; García-Serrano, 2004). The relationship between job
satisfaction and turnover intentions has also been analyzed from the psychological
perspective (e.g. Hellman, 1997).
Our purpose is to study workers’ intentions to quit using Finnish data. The Finnish case is
interesting in this respect, because the binding collective labour agreements already
contain some pecuniary compensation for adverse working conditions. In principle, one
could therefore think that working conditions may not matter a lot for on-the-job search.
However, the apparent heterogeneity of workplaces makes it hard for the collective labour
agreements to take into account all the relevant aspects of working conditions. Thus,
workers’ subjective valuations about their working conditions can differ greatly from the
ones that have been stipulated in the collective agreements by the central organizations of
1
Johansson (2004) reports by using the ECHP (European Community Household Panel) over the
period 1996-2001 that job dissatisfaction predicts quits in Finland.
7. 4
employees and employers. Our earlier empirical evidence points out that perceived
working conditions have a very minor role in the determination of individual wages in the
Finnish labour market (Böckerman and Ilmakunnas, 2004). In contrast, adverse working
conditions substantially increase the level of job dissatisfaction and the perception of
unfairness of pay at workplaces. It is therefore interesting to study whether this
dissatisfaction gives rise to the desire to find another job.
Our study differs from the earlier ones in this field of research in some important respects.
We have a data set, the Quality of Work Life Survey, that includes not only job
satisfaction scores, but also detailed information on several different aspects of working
conditions at the workplace, not just conditions typical of the occupation or industry. A
drawback of the data set is that it is a single cross-section and therefore actual separations
cannot be observed. On the other hand, there is a variety of information on both perceived
job switch intentions and actual job search, so that different measures of quit intentions
can be compared.
The data make it possible to model the relationships between working conditions,
satisfaction, and on-the-job search. In the first model, we explain alternative binary
indicators of quit intentions by individual characteristics, firm characteristics, and
working conditions. In the second, extended model, we explain binary indicators of
adverse working conditions by various industry, occupation, and firm variables. A binary
indicator of job dissatisfaction is then explained by these working conditions and the
employees’ personal characteristics. Finally, intentions to quit are explained by job
dissatisfaction, wage, and some other personal characteristics. This model forms a system
of probit models that have endogenous dummy explanatory variables. Since the system is
recursive, it can be estimated as a multivariate probit model. This approach is similar to
that used by Shields and Price (2002), but they used only one indicator of working
conditions, racial harassment.
The rest of the study is structured as follows. Section 2 describes the modelling
approaches. Section 3 provides an overview of the data and Section 4 reports the
estimation results. Section 5 concludes.
8. 5
2. MODELLING APPROACHES
2.1. Explaining intentions to quit with job disamenities
We start with models where we explain a binary indicator of intentions to quit directly by
means of working conditions. We have several alternative measures for the intentions,
which are explained in the next section. As explanatory variables we have dummy
variables that describe various aspects of disamenities and various individual and
workplace characteristics. The latent intention and its observation rule are
qi* = Ziγ + Xiβ + εi
qi = 1(qi*>0)
where 1 is an indicator function.2
Z includes job disamenities and X other variables and i
indexes the employees. The error term ε is assumed to be normally distributed, and we
use the probit model.
The choice of variables to be included in X is partly determined by arguments from the
large literature on job search in the labour market (e.g. Eckstein and Van den Berg, 2003).
While much of the work deals with search when unemployed, there have been empirical
analyses on-the-job search by Blau (1992), Pissarides and Wadsworth (1994), and
Manning (2003), among others.
Wage and tenure are the variables that have been given most attention in the literature.
Search theory gives a prediction that a wage should have a negative impact on separations
and on-the-job search, since a high current wage means that the worker is unlikely to find
an offer with a higher wage. The models also typically predict that the probability of
quitting decreases with tenure. The reason for this is that longer current tenure is
consistent with a longer implicit search process that has not yet led to a switch from the
current match. This increases the overall probability that the current match between a
worker and a firm is among the best available in the labour market.
There are other important variables that have a potential influence on on-the-job search.
Empirical studies have demonstrated that there are workers’ characteristics such as age,
2
In a choice model we could think that the latent quit intention was the difference of random utilities in
another job and the present job. However, since we have data only on the attributes of the current job, it
is difficult to justify the model with a random utility framework.
9. 6
sex, marital status, and education that are important determinants of on-the-job search. In
addition, past job changes have been found to predict future separations (Munasinghe and
Sigman, 2004). Controlling for past labour market behaviour may also help in obtaining a
coefficient for tenure that is not affected by worker heterogeneity in the propensity to
quit.
In addition to the individual employees’ characteristics, we also include, among variables
X, various characteristics of the workplace, like indicators of high performance work
practices, plant size, industry, and the regional unemployment rate. A complete list of the
variables is explained in detail in Section 3.
2.2. Interaction of disamenities, dissatisfaction and intentions to quit
The second model is formed in three steps. In the first step we explain K separate discrete
measures of disamenities zj by variables X1. The latent disamenities zj* and their
observation rule are
zji* = X1iβ1j + ε1ji, j=1,…,K
zji = 1(zji*>0)
In the second stage, dissatisfaction is explained by the realized disamenies zj and
variables X2:
di* = Σjγjzji + X2iβ2 + ε2i
di = 1(di*>0)
where d* is latent dissatisfaction and d a binary measure of observed dissatisfaction. In
the final stage, intentions to quit are explained by means of realized job dissatisfaction d
and variables X3:
qi* = δdi + X3iβ3 + ε3i
qi = 1(qi*>0)
where q* is latent intention and q a binary indicator for observed intentions to quit.
It is assumed that in all stages there are unobserved individual characteristics and
therefore the error terms of the different stages are correlated. The unobserved individual
10. 7
characteristics can, for example, be attitudinal factors stressed in the psychological
literature on mobility and individual characteristics that affect occupational choice. The
K+2 equations form a system of discrete dependent variable models with endogenous
dummy explanatory variables. However, the system is recursive, i.e. intentions to quit do
not explain disamenities or satisfaction, and satisfaction does not explain disamenities.
Therefore, the model can be estimated as a multivariate probit model (see Greene, 2003).
We use the Geweke-Hajivassiliou-Keane (GHK) simulated maximum likelihood
estimator implemented to Stata by Cappelari and Jenkins (2003).
To identify the model it is necessary that the variables X1, X2, and X3 are not the same.
In X1 we include occupation and industry dummies that do not appear in the other
equations, and some characteristics of the workplace, like plant size, which may also
appear in the other equations. In X2 we include personal characteristics and some
workplace characteristics. Finally, X3 comprises wages and variables that are related to
the individual, but not included in X2, like the past history of job changes. The last
equation therefore gives, in principle, the wage-satisfaction trade-off. The choice of the
particular variables partly follows the discussion in section 2.1. above.
3. THE DATA
The data set that we are using in this study is the Quality of Work Life Survey (QWLS) of
Statistics Finland. It is conducted at irregular intervals. We use the data from the year
1997. The initial sample for QWLS is derived from a monthly Labour Force Survey
(LFS) of Statistics Finland, where a random sample of the working age population is
selected for a telephone interview. The 1997 QWLS was based on LFS respondents in
September and October who were 15-64-old wage and salary earners with a normal
weekly working time of at least five hours. 3795 individuals were selected for the QWLS
sample and invited to participate in a personal face-to-face interview. Out of this sample,
2978 persons, or around 78 per cent, participated (see Lehto and Sutela, 1999). Owing to
missing information on some variables for some workers, the sample size used in this
study is around 2750 observations.
The QWLS survey contains a number of questions about the subjective views of workers
with respect to their working conditions, as well as about the perceived job satisfaction. In
addition, QWLS includes information on the personal characteristics and work experience
11. 8
of the respondents. Statistics Finland supplements QWLS with information from the LFS
on, for example, working time and exact labour market status. Supplementary information
on the industry and location of the employer as well as annual earnings and the level and
field of education of the respondents was gathered from various registers maintained by
Statistics Finland. The variables that we are using are described in detail in Appendix 1,
and Appendix 2 reports descriptive statistics for the explanatory variables included.
The phenomena that we are interested in explaining are workers’ intentions to quit and
on-the-job search. We have information on those who would change jobs within the same
occupational field, if they could receive the same pay as now (23.5 per cent of
employees), and on those who would switch to another occupational field (24.9 per cent).
From these measures we can derive an indicator of intentions to quit, JOBSWITCH,
which is the sum of the two sub-cases (48.4 per cent). Our second measure of quit
intentions relates to a hypothetical situation where the respondents received so much
money from, for example, a lottery or an inheritance that they could live without having
to work. LOTTOSTOP is an indicator for those who would in this situation stop working
completely (18.8 per cent of employees). The other alternatives were to only do some
work every now and then, to work considerably shorter hours, and to continue working as
now.3
As to actual job search behaviour, we have three measures. JOBSEARCH is a dummy
variable that indicates that the employee has looked for another job at some stage during
the last six months (15.1 per cent of the employees).4
SEARCH4 is a dummy for
employees that have searched for a job during the last four weeks (6.3 per cent of
employees). EMPLOFFICE is a dummy for being a registered job seeker in an
employment office (6.8 per cent). There are some inconsistencies between the measures
that capture actual job search. For example, among those that report having looked for
another job in the last four weeks 14.8 per cent say that they have not looked for another
job in the last six months. There are two explanations for this. It is possible that some
3
We note that there are also some other possible job switch intention measures, like retirement
intentions and aspirations to become an entrepreneur. Hyytinen and Ilmakunnas (2004) examine the
determinants of entrepreneurial intentions using the QWLS data and find that job dissatisfaction
increases entrepreneurial aspirations.
4
In the job search and job switch intention questions missing observations have been interpreted to
indicate that the respondent has not looked for a job or has no intentions to quit. Depending on the
question, there were 4 – 16 such cases (0.1 – 0.5 per cent of observations). In the question of
willingness to switch to the same or a different field, the answer “don’t know” was also interpreted as
indicating that there were no intentions to quit. There were 65 such cases (2 per cent of the
observations). In the “lottery” question there were 1 per cent of “don’t know” answers that were
interpreted as “would not stop working”.
12. 9
respondents have thought that six months is “the last six months, not accounting for the
last four weeks”. Another explanation is that the JOBSEARCH variable comes from the
QWLS questionnaire filled in during a personal interview, whereas the SEARCH4
variable comes from the LFS telephone survey. It is possible that in the different survey
environments the respondents have received somewhat different information on the time
periods that the questions deal with or have forgotten what they answered in the LFS
survey (which is conducted before QWLS). Another inconsistency is that among those
registered as job seekers in an employment office 60 per cent have not been looking for
another job in the last four weeks and 48 per cent not in the last six months. It is likely
that many of those registered as job seekers in an employment office are actually not
active job seekers. Therefore it seems that the employment office variable is a less
reliable measure of workers’ intentions to quit than the job search variables.
These job switch intention and job search intention measures can be compared with actual
job switches. Ilmakunnas and Maliranta (2003) report that the separation rate in the
Finnish business sector varied between 17 and 28 per cent in the 1990s. These figures
underestimate actual turnover, since they are based on comparisons of end-of-the-year
situations at the plant level. Hence, they do not account for short employment spells
within the year, i.e. hiring and separation of a person during the same year. On the other
hand, they include both quits and layoffs, thereby overestimating quits. It is therefore
difficult to tell what the actual proportion of workers quitting is, but it is safe to say that
the actual quit rate is below the share of workers intending to switch jobs or actually
searching for a new job.
The subjective valuations of harms and hazards related to working conditions are
measured in the QWLS survey by the use of different categories. For perceived harms,
there is a five-point scale in which the highest category corresponds to the perception by a
worker that a feature of working conditions is ‘very much’ an adverse factor at the
workplace. For perceived hazards, the highest category among three possibilities is the
one in which the respondent considers a feature at the workplace as ‘a distinct hazard’.
Responses to the questions about adverse working conditions can be aggregated by
forming a dummy variable that equals one if there is at least one clearly adverse factor
(HARM) and a dummy that equals one if there is at least one distinct hazard (HAZARD).
These variables seem to capture different aspects at Finnish workplaces, as implied by the
relative small correlation of 0.31 that prevails between these two key variables that are
used to describe adverse working conditions.
13. 10
We use the following dummy variables as other job disamenities. UNCERTAINTY tells
us that there is at least one clear insecurity factor at the workplace, NOVOICE implies
that there is at least one aspect of work that the worker cannot influence at all, NEGLECT
is a dummy for the existence of at least one aspect where the worker gets no support from
superiors, ATMOSPHERE tells us that the worker experiences at least one negative
aspect in the work atmosphere almost daily, and CONFLICTS is a dummy for at least one
type of conflict that is often experienced at the workplace. Additionally, we have dummy
variables for physically or mentally very demanding work (HEAVYPHYSIC and
HEAVYMENTAL, respectively), poor advancement opportunities (NOPROMOTION),
discrimination at the workplace (DISCRIMINATION), difficulty of taking breaks
(NOBREAK), and for working mostly outdoors (OUTDOORS).
Job dissatisfaction is measured by the alternatives 1 (very satisfied; 30.6 per cent of
respondents), 2 (quite satisfied; 63.1 per cent), 3 (rather dissatisfied; 5.3 per cent), and 4
(very dissatisfied; 1 per cent). We form a dissatisfaction dummy
(JOBDISSATISFACTION) that indicates the two highest dissatisfaction categories 3 and
4. The WAGE variable is a logarithm of hourly earnings.
We include a large set of control variables. There are variables that describe the
employment relationship, pay system, and high performance work practices. We include
dummy variables for working-time-related aspects, like temporary contract
(TEMPORARY), part-time work (PART_TIME), night work (NIGHT), shift work
(SHIFT), and overtime almost daily (MUCHOVERTIME), and for the payment system
(FIXEDPAY, PIECERATE). On-the-job training is measured by the number of days in
training (DAYSTRAINING). Other dummies give an indication of working a high share
of time in teamwork (HIGHTEAM), team-related problems (TEAMPROBLEM), and
managerial tasks (MANAGER).
There are typical human capital variables that are age and its square (AGE and AGE2
),
and dummies for females (FEMALE), union membership (UNION), marital status
(SINGLE), working spouse (SPOUSEWORK), level of education (dummies EDU_1 to
EDU_4), and field of education (dummies EDUHUM, EDUBUS, EDUTECH,
EDUCARE). The number of children is included as a continuous variable (CHILDREN).
In addition, we include work history variables, a dummy for those that have had over 3
different occupations (OVER3PROFS), the number of job switches (SWITCHES) in the
past, the unemployment history of a worker (dummies UMOS_1 to UMOS_4 for the
14. 11
length of past unemployment), tenure and its square (TENURE and TENURE2
), a dummy
for second job holders (SECONDJOB), and dummies for 10 occupation groups.
There is some information available on the health of the worker, the number of absences
(SICKABSENCE) and self-assessment of work capacity (CONDITION, in scale 0 to 10).
Information on the employer includes dummies for the public sector and foreign private
owners (PUBLIC, FIRMFOREIGN), plant size group (dummies PSIZE_1 to PSIZE_4),
and dummies for employment growth (EMPGROWTH), unstable financial situation
(FIRMUNSTABLE), and the high share of female workers (FEMSHARE). Finally, we
include industry dummies (14 industries), and the regional unemployment rate (UN) for
capturing the possible regional variation.
4. THE RESULTS
4.1. Basic results
We estimated probit models for workers’ intentions to quit from their current matches,
their willingness to stop working completely, and actual on-the-job search. The marginal
effects from the models are reported in Tables 1 and 2. The results reveal that workers
currently facing adverse working conditions tend to have more intentions to change their
matches. In particular, those workers are more willing to change their jobs (holding wage
constant) who face at least one notable harm or factor of uncertainty, have mentally heavy
work, feel that they have no promotion chances or face discrimination (Table 1, column
1).5
Workers who have at least one notable hazard at the workplace, feel neglect or a bad
working atmosphere, have mentally heavy work, or have team-work-related problems are
more willing to stop working completely if they win in a lottery (Table 1, column 2).
Moreover, the marginal effects are quite large. For example, those having clear harms at
the workplace have a 5.7 per cent higher probability of having job switch intentions.
Uncertainty, poor promotion prospects, and discrimination all lead to at least an 8 per cent
higher probability of intentions to quit.
5
We also experimented with alternative definitions of the disamenity variables. In our basic definition
of perceived harm and hazard dummies the variables are equal to one if the worker reports at least one
significant adverse factor at the workplace. A specification of the HARM and HAZARD variables as a
sum of reported significant harms and hazards at the workplace also yields evidence that adverse
working conditions increase workers’ intentions to quit.
15. 12
In addition, workers currently facing adverse working conditions tend to search new
matches more frequently (Table 2, columns 1-2). Uncertainty, poor promotion chances,
and discrimination have a clear positive impact on both job search variables. Job search
during the last six months is also affected by the feel of neglect and job search during the
last four weeks by perceived harms and the difficulty of taking breaks. In contrast, the
results for the employment office variable show no clear empirical evidence for the role
of adverse working conditions, since only the uncertainty variable obtains a significant
coefficient. However, as discussed in the earlier section, this particular variable is
probably not a good measure of workers’ quit behaviour. The marginal effects of the
disamenity variables on actual job search are lower than on job switch intentions, as could
be expected. In addition, the pseudo R2
of the models is higher for the models in which
actual on-the-job search is explained. This means that unobservable idiosyncratic factors
are more important in the determination of intentions.
All in all, the results are in line with the perspective that labour markets are in
disequilibrium at any given point of time in the sense that workers located in adverse
working conditions are forced to look for outside opportunities in order to improve their
labour market position. This is inconsistent with the existence of adequate compensating
wage differentials for adverse working conditions, but consistent with frictions and non-
competitive labour markets.
We briefly summarize some interesting results on the control variables included. Against
a priori beliefs, workers with higher hourly wages have more intentions for changing
their jobs, and holding their current wage constant (Table 1, column 1). This result may
arise, for example, because there are certain unobservable disamenities in high-paying
occupations that are not captured in the questions by the QWLS. However, in the job
search equations (Table 2, columns 1-2) wage has a significant negative coefficient.6
Singles have more intentions of changing their jobs, because their labour market
behaviour is not restricted by family-related reasons. Also, those whose spouses work are
more inclined to switch jobs. These variables are also significant in the equation for job
search during the last four weeks. More educated workers are less willing to stop working
completely (the model for LOTTOSTOP). In this sense, money seems to matter less for
them, compared with the content of work. Education has, however, a positive impact on
6
The wage plays a role in search behaviour in the labour market despite the fact that the Finnish wage
distribution is highly compressed by its nature in comparison with many other European countries (see
Moisala, 2004).
16. 13
actual job search. It is likely that more educated workers have more opportunities in the
labour market. Workers who assess themselves to be in a good condition to work are
more inclined to search for a new job, but interestingly they are less likely to have job
switch intentions or to stop working completely.
Work history seems to matter, although the results vary somewhat across models. Tenure
has an inverted U-shaped effect on job switch intentions, but it is not significant in the
other models. Previous changes in occupation and previous job switches predict current
on-the-job search, which is in accordance with the hobo syndrome reported by
Munasinghe and Sigman (2004). Workers with temporary contracts and part-time workers
search for new jobs more frequently, and part-timers also have more job switch
intentions.7
Unemployment experiences are positively related to job search through an
employment office, as expected.
Workers in foreign-owned companies and in companies that are financially unstable have
more job switch intentions. The only other significant firm or plant variables are dummies
for smaller plants. They obtain negative coefficients in the equation for search through an
employment office. This indicates that workers in smaller firms may be more inclined to
use informal job search channels or that in larger firms there are more workers at an risk
of layoff and therefore registered at an employment office.
Workers search less in regional labour markets with a high unemployment rate. This may
be a sign of the discouraged worker effect.8
However, workers seem to search more from
employment offices in high unemployment regions at the same time. On the other hand,
unemployment does not have an effect on job switch intentions.
Overall, the results vary across the models. This shows that our different measures of
intentions to quit describe slightly different kinds of labour market behaviour. However,
the influence of working conditions is more consistent across the models than the impact
of specific worker or firm characteristics.
7
These findings are in line with the literature. For example, Pissarides and Wadsworth (1994) discover
that temporary or part-time employment encourages on-the-job search by men but not women. In
addition, skilled workers search more than the unskilled do in Britain.
8
Kristensen and Westergård-Nielsen (2004) report for Denmark by using the European Community
Household Panel (ECHP) that the level of average job satisfaction increases as there is an increase in
unemployment. Thus, in addition to the discouraged worker effect, high unemployment should also
yield fewer intentions to quit because an increase in the level of job satisfaction dampens workers’ quit
behaviour.
17. 14
4.2. Results from recursive models
We estimated the recursive models by concentrating on the three work disamenities that
had the most consistently significant effect in the basic models in the previous section.
These are HARM, HAZARD, and UNCERTAINTY. Furthermore, we estimated three-
equation models where only one disamenity at a time was included. We also estimated
models with two or three disamenities at the same time, but the results are not shown in
the table and we only briefly discuss them below. Finally, we estimated the multivariate
probit model separately for four alternative quit intention measures, excluding the
employment office variable.
In all the models the explanatory variables for the disamenity (HARM, HAZARD, or
UNCERTAINTY) were occupation dummies (10), PUBLIC, FIRMFOREIGN, PSIZE_2
to PSIZE_4, FIRMUNSTABLE, and industry dummies (14). The variables in the
JOBDISSATISFACTION equation were the disamenity in question, WAGE, FEMALE,
AGE, AGE2
, EDU_2 to EDU_4, EDUHUM, EDUBUS, EDUTECH, EDUCARE,
TENURE, TENURE2
, FIXEDPAY, PIECERATE, PART_TIME, DAYSTRAINING,
MANAGER and CONDITION. Finally, the quit intention variable (JOBSWITCH,
LOTTOSTOP, JOBSEARCH, or SEARCH4) was explained by
JOBDISSATISFACTION, WAGE, FEMALE, AGE, AGE2
, OVER3PROFS,
SWITCHES, CHILDREN, EDU_2 to EDU_4, TENURE, TENURE2
, UMOS_1 to
UMOS_4, TEMPORARY, PART_TIME and UN.
The estimation results for the joint model for disamenities, dissatisfaction and quit
behaviour based on multivariate probit models are summarized in Tables 3-5. The results
are reported in the following way. We have three disamenity variables out of which only
one at a time is included. On the other hand, we have four alternative quit intention
variables. This means that we have 12 different models to estimate. The tables report the
coefficients of the disamenities in the dissatisfaction equation (Table 3), the coefficients
of dissatisfaction in the quit intention equation (Table 4) and the coefficient of wage in
the quit intention equation (Table 5). Each of the tables has 12 entries, reflecting the
different models estimated. The coefficients of the other explanatory variables are not
reported in the tables. Note that the figures are the estimated coefficients, not the marginal
effects, which would vary between different combinations of outcomes for quit intentions,
dissatisfaction and disamenity.
18. 15
The results reveal that job disamenities consistently increase the probability of job
dissatisfaction and, in turn, it is job dissatisfaction that tends to increase the probability of
job switch intentions and actual job search. For example, the HARM variable gets the
coefficient 0.70 (with corresponding t-statistics of 3.48) in an equation in which job
dissatisfaction is explained in the second stage. In the third stage of the same recursive
model, a dummy variable for job dissatisfaction gets the coefficient 0.85 (with
corresponding t-statistics of 5.13) in an equation in which the JOBSWITCH variable is
explained. This means that the prevalence of perceived harms at the workplace increases
job dissatisfaction among employees and job dissatisfaction drives workers’ quit
intentions. The results for the other disamenity and quit intention variables are fairly
similar.
We also estimated the models by including equations for two of the job disamenity
variables at the same time. In this case, we had to estimate four probit models as a
recursive system. These results showed that job disamenities consistently increase the
level of job dissatisfaction. In addition, we included all three disamenity variables
(HARM, HAZARD and UNCERTAINTY) in the model at the same time. In this
extension the UNCERTAINTY variable turned out to be statistically insignificant in the
dissatisfaction equation, but otherwise the results remained the same.
The results of the wage variable in Table 5 reveal the same pattern as earlier. Wage
obtains a significant negative coefficient for job search equations (JOBSEARCH and
SEARCH4), but its coefficient is positive in the JOBSWITCH equation and insignificant
in the LOTTOSTOP equation. Moreover, the coefficients of the wage variable are
relatively low even in the search models. In principle, we could use the coefficients of
wage and dissatisfaction in the search equations to evaluate the monetary value of job
satisfaction, i.e. wage compensation that would be needed to compensate for
dissatisfaction to keep the probability of job search constant (see e.g. Herzog and
Schottman, 1990). However, the figure calculated in this way is too large to be a
reasonable estimate. (The coefficients of dissatisfaction in column 3 of Table 4 are
approximately ten times the absolute value of the corresponding coefficients of (log)
wage in column 3 of Table 5.) It is likely that the discrete nature of the dissatisfaction
variable makes it difficult to estimate the exact monetary value of dissatisfaction.9
9
We also had access to the QWLS from the year 2003. However, we did not have information on
annual earnings and some of the questions have slightly changed from the previous survey. We
estimated recursive models with these data by using a self-reported wage category as the wage variable
19. 16
5. CONCLUSIONS
This study has explored the role of adverse working conditions for on-the-job search in
the Finnish labour market. We took advantage of the Quality of Work Life Survey, which
includes not only job satisfaction scores, but also detailed information on several different
aspects of working conditions at the workplace, not just conditions typical of the
occupation or industry. The evidence points out that those workers facing adverse
working conditions have more job switch intentions and they are more willing to stop
working completely, if they win in a lottery. In addition, those workers search for a new
job more frequently. However, the other determinants of the alternative measure of quit
intentions vary, showing that they represent different kinds of search processes. The
results from recursive models reveal that adverse working conditions increase the level of
job dissatisfaction and, in turn, it is the perception of job dissatisfaction that drives
workers’ job change intentions and intensifies actual job search. The results emerge
despite the fact the unemployment rate was high (12.7 per cent) during the year in which
the survey was conducted, which discourages workers’ intentions to quit.
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27. 24
Table 3. Effect of job disamenities on job dissatisfaction.
Coefficient of job disamenity in the job dissatisfaction equation
Dependent variable in quit intention equation
Dependent variable in job
disamenity equation
JOBSWITCH LOTTOSTOP JOBSEARCH SEARCH4
HARM 0.696
(3.48)***
0.715
(3.69)***
0.695
(3.49)***
0.694
(3.50)***
HAZARD 0.569
(3.00)***
0.578
(3.12)***
0.553
(2.93)***
0.572
(3.04)***
UNCERTAINTY 0.817
(4.47)***
0.798
(4.40)***
0.804
(4.38)***
0.807
(4.42)***
Robust z statistics in parentheses
* significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%
Each cell of the table reports the coefficient of job disamenity in the job dissatisfaction equation from a different
specification of the multivariate probit model. The variables included are explained in the text.
Table 4. Effect of job dissatisfaction on intentions to quit.
Coefficient of job dissatisfaction in the quit intention equation
Dependent variable in quit intention equation
Dependent variable in job
disamenity equation
JOBSWITCH LOTTOSTOP JOBSEARCH SEARCH4
HARM 0.852
(5.13)***
0.706
(4.05)***
1.139
(5.89)***
0.977
(3.92)***
HAZARD 0.865
(5.21)***
0.635
(3.60)***
1.071
(5.47)***
0.969
(3.89)***
UNCERTAINTY 0.887
(5.42)***
0.689
(3.95)***
1.142
(6.02)***
1.963
(3.88)***
Robust z statistics in parentheses
* significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%
Each cell of the table reports the coefficient of job dissatisfaction in the job mobility equation from a different
specification of the multivariate probit model. The variables included are explained in the text.
28. 25
Table 5. Effect of wage on intentions to quit.
Coefficient of wage in the quit intention equation
Dependent variable in quit intention equation
Dependent variable in job
disamenity equation
JOBSWITCH LOTTOSTOP JOBSEARCH SEARCH4
HARM 0.054
(2.00)**
0.016
(0.45)
-0.106
(3.44)***
-0.105
(2.86)***
HAZARD 0.055
(2.03)**
0.014
(0.40)
-0.106
(3.45)***
-0.105
(2.85)***
UNCERTAINTY 0.053
(1.97)**
0.016
(0.45)
-0.107
(3.48)***
-0.106
(2.90)***
Robust z statistics in parentheses
* significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%
Each cell of the table reports the coefficient of wage in the job mobility equation from a different specification of
the multivariate probit model. The variables included are explained in the text.
29. 26
Appendix 1. Description of the variables.
Variable Definition/measurement
Job switch intentions:
JOBSWITCH Would change jobs at the same level of pay = 1, otherwise = 0 (sum of
SWITCHSAME and SWITCHOTHER)
SWITCHSAME If could change jobs at the same level of pay, would change to the same
occupational field = 1, otherwise = 0
SWITCHOTHER If could change jobs at the same level of pay, would change to a different
occupational field = 1, otherwise = 0
LOTTOSTOP If received so much money from, for example, a lottery win or inheritance that
could live comfortably without having to work, would stop working completely =
1, otherwise = 0
Actual on-the-job search:
JOBSEARCH Has looked for another job in the last 6 months = 1, otherwise = 0
SEARCH4 Has looked for another job during the last four weeks = 1, otherwise = 0
EMPLOFFICE Currently registered as job seeker at an employment office = 1, otherwise = 0
Working conditions:
HARM At least one adverse factor that affects work ‘very much’ (includes heat, cold,
vibration, draught, noise, smoke, gas and fumes, humidity, dry indoor air, dust,
dirtiness of work environment, poor or glaring lighting, irritating or corrosive
substances, restless work environment, repetitive, monotonous movements,
difficult or uncomfortable working positions, time pressure and tight time
schedules, heavy lifting, lack of space, mildew in buildings) = 1, otherwise = 0
HAZARD At least one factor is experienced as ‘a distinct hazard’ (includes accident risk,
becoming subject to physical violence, hazards caused by chemical substances,
radiation hazard, major catastrophe hazard, hazard of infectious diseases, hazard of
skin diseases, cancer risk, risk of strain injuries, risk of succumbing to mental
disturbance, risk of grave work exhaustion, risk of causing serious injury to others,
risk of causing serious damage to valuable equipment or product) = 1, otherwise =
0
UNCERTAINTY Work carries at least one insecurity factor (includes transfer to other duties, threat
of temporary dismissal, threat of permanent dismissal, threat of unemployment,
threat of becoming incapable of work, unforeseen changes) = 1, otherwise = 0
NOVOICE ‘Not at all’ able to influence at least one factor in work (includes contents of tasks,
order in which tasks are done, pace of work, working methods, division of tasks
between employees, choice of working partners, equipment purchases) = 1,
otherwise = 0
NEGLECT At least one supportive factor ‘never’ experienced in work (includes advice or
help, support and encouragement from superiors, support and encouragement from
co-workers, feel of being a valued member of work community, opportunity to
plan work, opportunity to apply own ideas in work, feel of own work as productive
and useful) = 1, otherwise = 0
ATMOSPHERE Experiences at least one negative aspect of work atmosphere ‘daily or almost daily’
or positive aspect ‘never’ (includes negative aspects conflicts or argument with
someone else in work community or with a customer, being subject or threatened
by physical violence, use of unfriendly words or gestures by co-workers or
superiors, and positive aspects praise for work from co-workers or customers,
opportunities for learning new things and developing in one’s occupation) = 1,
otherwise = 0
CONFLICTS At least one type of conflict appears in work unit ‘a lot’ (includes competitive
spirit, conflicts between superiors and subordinates, conflicts between employees,
conflicts between employee groups) = 1, otherwise = 0
HEAVYPHYSIC Current tasks physically ‘very demanding’ = 1, otherwise = 0
HEAVYMENTAL Current tasks mentally ‘very demanding’ = 1, otherwise = 0
NOPROMOTION Advancement opportunities in current workplace ‘poor’ = 1, otherwise = 0
DISCRIMINATION Has fallen subject to at least one type of unequal treatment or discrimination in
current workplace (includes time of hiring, remuneration, career advancement
opportunities, access to training arranged by employer, receiving information,
attitudes of co-workers or superiors) = 1, otherwise = 0
NOBREAKS Can take breaks or rest periods ‘far too seldom’ = 1, otherwise = 0
30. 27
OUTDOORS Does principally outdoor work = 1, otherwise = 0
Job satisfaction:
JOBDISSATISFACTION Job dissatisfaction is measured by means of alternatives 1 (very satisfied), 2 (quite
satisfied), 3 (rather dissatisfied), and 4 (very dissatisfied). The
JOBDISSATISFACTION variable gets value one for the two highest
dissatisfaction categories 3 and 4, otherwise = 0.
Wage:
WAGE Logarithm of hourly earnings that is calculated based on the annual earnings (FIM)
obtained from tax registers and by using regular weekly hours from LFS.
Working time:
TEMPORARY Fixed-term employment relationship = 1, otherwise = 0
PART_TIME Part-time work = 1, otherwise = 0
NIGHT Night work = 1, otherwise = 0
SHIFT Uninterrupted 3-shift work = 1, otherwise = 0
MUCHOVERTIME Does almost daily overtime for which receives compensation = 1, otherwise = 0
Payment systems:
FIXEDPAY Fixed monthly or hourly pay (including shift work supplement) = 1, otherwise = 0
PIECERATE Payment system is based on only piece-work or commission pay = 1, otherwise = 0
Training and work organization:
DAYSTRAINING Number of days attended courses while being paid by employer during the last 12
months
HIGHTEAM Works in teams ‘almost all the time’ or ‘about three quarters of the time’ = 1,
otherwise = 0
TEAMPROBLEM There is at least one problematic aspect in the work group (includes ‘totally untrue’
that group selects its leader, group decides about division of responsibilities,
productiviness of work improves in group work, or work pressure becomes evenly
distributed, and ‘totally true’ that group work causes conflicts) = 1, otherwise = 0
MANAGER Tasks involve supervision of work of others or delegation of tasks = 1, otherwise =
0
Personal background characteristics:
FEMALE 1 = female, 0 = male
AGE Age of an employee
AGE2
Age squared
UNION Member of trade union = 1, otherwise = 0
SINGLE Not married=1, otherwise=0
SPOUSEWORK Spouse is working = 1, otherwise = 0
CHILDREN The number of children under 18 living at home
EDU_1 Comprehensive education = 1, otherwise = 0 (reference)
EDU_2 Upper secondary or vocational education = 1, otherwise = 0
EDU_3 Polytechnic or lower university degree = 1, otherwise = 0
EDU_4 Higher university degree = 1, otherwise = 0
EDUHUM Field of education is humanities or teachers’ education = 1, otherwise = 0
EDUBUS Field of education is business, law or social science = 1, otherwise = 0
EDUTECH Field of education is technical, natural science or computer science = 1, otherwise
= 0
EDUCARE Field of education is health care, social work, etc. = 1, otherwise = 0
Past labour market experience:
OVER3PROFS Has been in more than three distinctly different kinds of occupations during his/her
life = 1, otherwise = 0
SWITCHES Number of job switches during the past five years
UMOS_1 Number of unemployment months during the past five years 1-6 = 1, otherwise = 0
UMOS_2 Number of unemployment months during the past five years 7-12 = 1, otherwise =
0
31. 28
UMOS_3 Number of unemployment months during the past five years 13-24 = 1, otherwise
= 0
UMOS_4 Number of unemployment months during the past five years 25 or more = 1,
otherwise = 0
TENURE Number of years in the current firm
TENURE2
TENURE squared
SECONDJOB Has a second job = 1, otherwise = 0
Health and absenteeism:
SICKABSENCE Number of absences from work due to illness in the last 6 months
CONDITION Self-assessment of working capacity. The variable is scaled from 0 (total inability
to work) to 10 (top working capacity)
Information about employer:
PUBLIC Employer is state or municipality = 1, otherwise = 0
FIRMFOREIGN Employer is private, mainly foreign-owned enterprise = 1, otherwise = 0
PSIZE_1 Size of plant under 10 employees = 1, otherwise = 0 (reference)
PSIZE_2 Size of plant 10-49 employees = 1, otherwise = 0
PSIZE_3 Size of plant 50-499 employees = 1, otherwise = 0
PSIZE_4 Size of plant over 499 employees = 1, otherwise = 0
EMPGROWTH The number of employees has increased in the plant during the past three years = 1,
otherwise = 0
FIRMUNSTABLE Financial situation is ‘unstable’ = 1, otherwise = 0
FEMSHARE Share of females in the company is ‘high’ = 1, otherwise = 0
Regional variable:
UN The regional unemployment rate based on 21 NUTS3-regions (Source: Labour
Force Survey by Statistics Finland).
Dummy variables:
Industries 14 dummies based on Standard Industry Classification
Occupations 10 dummies based on the classification of occupations by Statistics Finland