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- 1. SLIDESMANIA.COM Kaplan & SadocksSynopsis of Psychiatry, 11th Edition Learning Theory
- 2. SLIDESMANIA.COM Group 6 Girinati, SaikrishnaGonzalo, Odezzey Jeliang, Marry Grace Kammati, Swetha
- 3. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Table of Contents. LearningClassical Learning Cognitive Development 01 - Introduction to Learning Theory 02 - Pavlovian’s Theory 04 - Piaget’s Theory Operant Learning 03 - Skinner’s Theory
- 4. SLIDESMANIA.COM Learning Theory ● Humanbeings and Animals are able to learn and adapt to changes in the environment ● Stimulus to produce a respone ● Behavior influences our way of learning
- 5. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Learning A change inbehavior resulting from repeated practice, in which both the environment and behavior interacts to produce the learned change.
- 6. SLIDESMANIA.COM ❏ Learning playa role in the development of human behavior ❏ Learning can be state dependent, that is, it may occur when the person is in a special internal state (under the influence of drug) or in a special environment ❏ Thus, principles of learning are always operating and always influencing human activity
- 7. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Types of Learning Learningis thought to result from the consequences of a person’s action. Learning is thought to take place as a result of the contiguity of environmental events; when events occur closely together in time, persons will probably come to associate the two. Classic conditioning Operant Conditioning Social Learning Theory Incorporates both classic and operant models of learning, but also considers a reciprocal interaction between the person and the environment
- 8. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM ● Ivan Pavlovis one of the most recognisable names in psychology. ● Pavlov was important in psychology because he laid the foundations of what eventually became a school of of thought of psychology called behaviourism. ● also called respondent conditioning ● learning is thought to take place as a result of the contiguity of environmental events; when events occur closely together in time, persons will probably come to associate the two ● results from the repeated pairing of a neutral (conditioned) stimulus with one that evokes a response (unconditioned) stimulus, such that the neutral stimulus eventually comes to evoke the response Ivan Pavlov (Pavlonian Theory)
- 9. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Key terms · Classicalconditioning:- Refers to a form of learning that occurs through the repeated association of two (or more) different stimuli. –Learning is only said to have occurred when a particular stimulus consistently produces a response that it did not previously produce. · Stimulus:- Any event that elicits (produces) a response from an organism (eg, food) · Response:- A reaction by an organism to a stimulus (eg, salivation) Conditioned reflex:- An automatic response that occurs as the result of previous experience
- 10. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Key terms Unconditioned Response(URS): the natural response to an unconditioned stimulus. · The response which occurs automatically as a result of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). · A reflexive, or involuntary, response is an UCR as it is predictably caused by an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). · For example- Dogs salivate (UCR) at food (UCS) Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that naturally triggers a response. · Any stimulus which produces an unconditioned response (UCR). · For example- Food (UCS) causes salivation (UCR)
- 11. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Pavlonian (Classical learning) ●Ivan Petrovich Pavlov observed this conditioning in his work on gastric secretion ● In which, a dog salivated not only when food was placed in its mouth, but also at the sound of the footsteps of the person coming to feed it, even though the dog could not see or smell the food ● He called the saliva flow that occurred with the sound of footsteps a conditioned response (CR), a response elicited under certain conditions by a particular stimulus
- 12. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Pavlonian (Classical learning) ●a stimulus (S) that had no capacity to evoke a particular response before training, did so after consistent association with another stimulus For example, under normal circumstances, a dog does not salivate at the sound of a bell, but when the bell sound is always followed by the presentation of food, the dog ultimately pairs the bell and the food. Eventually, the bell sound alone elicits salivation, which is then called a conditional response (CR).
- 13. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Pavlonian (Classical learning) ▪the bell, which was originally unable to evoke salivation but came to do so when paired with food, is referred to as a conditioned stimulus (CS) ▪ because the food naturally produces salivation, it is referred to as an unconditioned stimulus (US) ▪ Salivation, a response that is reliably elicited by food (US), is referred to, as an unconditioned response (UR)
- 14. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Pavlonian (Classical learning) ▪Classic conditioning is then diagrammed as follows: Before conditioning: Food (US) = Salivation (UR) Bell (CS) paired with food (US) = Salivation (UR) After conditioning: Bell (CS) = Salivation (CR)
- 15. SLIDESMANIA.COM Scientific Analysis-1 · Salivationin response to food in the dog’s mouth and is not a learned response. Therefore, the salivation is an Unconditional Response. · Food in the dog’s mouth is an Unconditional Stimulus. · The tone is a neutral stimulus because the dog does not salivate upon hearing it. Scientific Analysis-2 · During conditioning, the procedure of presenting the dog with food right after sounding a tone is repeated. · After conditioning, the dog salivates upon hearing the tone. · So the tone that was originally a neutral stimulus is now a Conditional Stimulus. · The dog salivating is now a Conditional Response instead of an Unconditional Response.
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- 17. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM The Nature ofthe learning process ❏ Research beginning in the late 1960s began to uncover some Important details about the learning process behind Pavlovian Conditioning. Several findings proved that conditioning is not an inevitable consequence of pairing a CS ( conditioning stimuli) with a US ( unconditional stimuli ). ❏ Such pairings will not cause conditioning if there is a second CS present that already predicts the US. ❏ This finding (known as blocking) suggests that a CS must provide new information about the US if learning is to occur.
- 18. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM The Nature ofthe learning process ❏ The importance of the CS information value is also suggested by the fact that a CS will not be treated as a signal for the US if the US occurs equally often in the presence and the absence of the CS. ❏ There are also important variants of classical conditioning also called respondent conditioning ❏ Sensory preconditioning and second-order conditioning increase the range of stimuli that can control the conditioned response.
- 19. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM The Nature ofthe learning process ❏ Such intra event associations may play a role in many of the body’s regulatory functions, such that an initial change in some variable (e.g., blood pressure)may come to signal a further increase in that variable and therefore initiate a conditioned compensatory response.
- 20. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM The Nature ofthe learning process ❏ Emotional responses can also be conditioned through observation. For example, a monkey that merely observes another monkey being frightened by a snake can learn to be afraid of the snake. ❏ The observer learns to associate the snake (CS) with its emotional reaction (US/UR) to the other monkey being afraid. Although monkeys readily learn to fear snakes . ❏ This is an example of preparedness in classical conditioning-some stimuli are especially effective signals for some USs because evolution has made them that way.
- 21. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM The Nature ofthe learning process ❏ Another example is the fact that tastes are easily associated with illness but not shock, whereas auditory and visual cues are easily associated with shock but not illness. ❏ Preparedness may explain why human phobias tend to be for certain objects (snakes or spiders) and not others (knives or electric sockets) that may as often be paired with pain or Trauma.
- 22. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM 01 ▪ developed byBurrhus. Frederick Skinner ▪ a form of learning in which behavioral frequency is altered through the application of positive and negative consequences ▪ Occurs when a behavior (instead of stimulus) is associated with a psychologically significant event ▪ As opposed to Pavlov’s, the behavior is said to be an operant because it operates on the environment Operant or Instrumental conditioning
- 23. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Operant or Instrumentalconditioning ▪ related to trial-and-error learning, as described by Edward L. Thorndike ▪ Thorndike's law of effect states that certain responses are reinforced by reward, and the organism learns from these experiences ▪ in trial-and-error learning, a person or animal attempts to solve a problem by trying different actions until one proves successful
- 24. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Operant or Instrumentalconditioning ● Most famous laboratory experiment on operant conditioning is the one in which the rat presses a lever to earn food pellets ● In this method, the rat’s behavior is voluntary, in the sense that it is not compelled to make the response, it can perform it whenever it “wants” to ● If the food pellet, (Reinforcer)- an event that increases the strength of the behavior of which it is made a consequence, were stop to be delivered, the rat would then stop pressing the lever ● But if the experimenter were to allow the lever press to produce larger pellets, the rate of the behavior might increase ● Therefore, operant conditioning is based largely to understand the relation of behavior to its payoff.
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- 26. SLIDESMANIA.COM ● Reinforcement is thekey element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. Operant or Instrumental conditioning
- 27. SLIDESMANIA.COM Positive Reinforcement- aresponse or behavior is strengthened by rewards, leading to the repetition of desired behavior. The reward is a reinforcing stimulus. Negative Reinforcement- termination of an unpleasant state following a response. This is known as negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the animal or person. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience. Punishment - is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it. It is an aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows Operant or Instrumental conditioning
- 28. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Schedule Reinforcement Behaviorists discoveredthat different patterns or shedule of reinforcement had different effects on the speed of learning and extinction. Ferster and Skinner (1957) devised different ways of delivering reinforcement and found that this had effects on 1. The Response Rate - The rate at which the rat pressed the lever (i.e., how hard the rat worked). 2. The Extinction Rate - The rate at which lever pressing dies out (i.e., how soon the rat gave up). Skinner found that the type of reinforcement which produces the slowest rate of extinction (i.e., people will go on repeating the behavior for the longest time without reinforcement) is variable-ratio reinforcement. The type of reinforcement which has the quickest rate of extinction is continuous reinforcement.
- 29. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Schedule Reinforcement (A) ContinuousReinforcement An animal/human is positively reinforced every time a specific behavior occurs, e.g., every time a lever is pressed a pellet is delivered, and then food delivery is shut off. ● Response rate is SLOW ● Extinction rate is FAST (B) Fixed Ratio Reinforcement Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior occurs a specified number of times. e.g., one reinforcement is given after every so many correct responses, e.g., after every 5th response. For example, a child receives a star for every five words spelled correctly. ● Response rate is FAST ● Extinction rate is MEDIUM
- 30. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Schedule Reinforcement (C) FixedInterval Reinforcement One reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least one correct response has been made. An example is being paid by the hour. Another example would be every 15 minutes (half hour, hour, etc.) a pellet is delivered (providing at least one lever press has been made) then food delivery is shut off. ● Response rate is MEDIUM ● Extinction rate is MEDIUM (D) Variable Ratio Reinforcement behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of times. For examples gambling or fishing. ● Response rate is FAST ● Extinction rate is SLOW (very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability)
- 31. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Schedule Reinforcement (E) VariableInterval Reinforcement Providing one correct response has been made, reinforcement is given after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, e.g., on average every 5 minutes. An example is a self-employed person being paid at unpredictable times. ● Response rate is FAST ● Extinction rate is SLOW
- 32. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Jean Piaget (Cognitive Theory) “TheFather of Developmental Psychology” A famous swiss psychologist Introduced: Schemas & Four Stages
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- 35. SLIDESMANIA.COM Piaget’s Theory ofCognitive Development Sensorimotor stage Stage from 2 to 6 years of age in which children use words and images to represent things (mental representations) Preoperational stage Stage from 7 to 11 years of age in which children understand concrete events and analogies logically but lack abstract logic and moral reasoning abilities. Concrete Operational Stage Stage that emerges in adolescence (12 years of age) in which children can think abstractly and reason hypothetically. Formal Operational Stage First stage, from 0 to 2 years of age in which the world is experienced through senses and actions.
- 36. SLIDESMANIA.COM Add on Knowledgefor Learning theory
- 37. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Motivational Factors A stateof being that produces a tendency toward action. May be one of deprivation (e.g., hunger), a value system, or a strongly held belief (e.g., religion). The expectancy factor refers to the subjective probability that by expending sufficient effort, the object can be acquired or the goal reached.
- 38. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Motivational Factors ❏ AsEdward Tolman illustrated in many experiments. ❏ Organisms may flexibly perform any of several actions to get to a goal; instrumental learning thus provides a variable means to a fixed end. ❏ Subsequent research has identified many motivating effects of reward
- 39. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Negative contrast andPositive contrast ❏ For example, organisms that have had experience receiving a small reward may show positive contrast when they are suddenly reinforced with a larger reward. ❏ Conversely, organisms show negative contrast when they are switched from a high reward to a lower reward-their behavior becomes weaker than control subjects who have received the same smaller reward.
- 40. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Negative contrast andPositive contrast ❏ Negative contrast involves frustration and emotionality. ❏ An increase from expectation causes elation, whereas a decrease from expectation causes frustration ❏ Negative contrast is an example of a paradoxical reward effect-a set of behavioral phenomena.
- 41. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Negative contrast andPositive contrast ❏ The best known is the partial reinforcement extinction effect, in which actions that have been intermittently (or "partially") reinforced persist longer . ❏ That is, human and animal participants that have been reinforced for performing effortful responses learn a sort of "industriousness" that transfers to new behaviors.
- 42. SLIDESMANIA.COM SLIDESMANIA.COM Incentive learning ❖ Theprocess of learning about the effects the reinforcer has on the motivational state is called incentive learning. ❖ According to theory, direct experience with a reinforcer's effect on depressed mood might be necessary before the person will be interested in performing actions that help to ameliorate the depressed state.
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