This document discusses various topics related to linguistics including: - Group 1 members Ervina Nur M, Sofiatul bahiroh, and Yenni rahmawati. - Definitions of language including it being a system of communication using sounds and words with meaning. - Characteristics of language including it being systematic, using signs and sounds, having meaning, and being unique yet universal. - Descriptive and prescriptive grammar as well as subdisciplines of linguistics. - Phonetics topics including segmental features, suprasegmental features, places and manners of articulation for consonants and vowels.

1. GROUP 1
 Ervina Nur M
 Sofiatul
bahiroh
 Yenni
rahmawati

2. WHAT IS LANGUAGE
a system of communication
knowledge of the sound system
knowledge of words
arbitrary
the creativity of linguistic knowledge
knowledge of sentences and non-sentences
linguistic competence
linguistic performance

3. THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE
1. language as a system
2. language as a sign
3. language as sounds
4. language is meaningful
5. language is arbitrary
6. language is conventional
7. language is productive
8. language is unique
9. language is universal
10. language is dynamic
11. language varies
12. language is human

4. CHARACTERISTIC OF LANGUAGE
DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR
PRESPECTIVE GRAMMAR
GENERAL LINGUISTIC
SUBS DISCIPLINES OF LINGUISTIC

5. PHONETICS
TOPIC: Segmental Features and Suprasegmental Features

6. VOCAL TRACK
Segmental Features
Phonemes

7. ARTICULATORY PHONETICS
Consonant
Vowels
Consonant phonemes:
Billabial
Labiodental
Interdental
Alveolar
Alveopalatal
Palatal
Velar
Glotal
Voiceless
voiced

8. MANNERS F ARTICULATION
Stops
Fricatives sound
Affricates
Nasals
Glides
Liquids
The flab

9. ALLOPHONE
In phonology, allophones is one of a series of possible sounds pronounced, or telephones, or signs
used to pronounce phonemes single in a particular language. [1] For example, in English, [t] (as in
stop [stɒp]) and aspiration form [tʰ] (as above [ˈtʰɒp]) are allophones for the phoneme / t /,
whereas they are considered different phonemes in several languages ​​such as Thai and Hindi. On
the other hand, in Spanish, [d] (as in dolor [doˈloɾ]) and [ð] (as in tone [ˈnaða]) are allophones for
the phoneme / d /, whereas they are considered separate phonemes in English.

10. SAE CONSONANTAL MINIMAL PAIRS

11. ASPIRATION
The interval of voiceless glottalic noise (like [h]) following the release of the oral closure and
preceding the beginning of voicing for the following vowel.
Indicated in transcription with a small superscript h (a diacritic mark). Aspiration also affects
the two other voiceless plosives: the alveolar /p/ and the velar /k/. In fact, they are affected in
the same way as /t/ when they occur in the same environments.
For example, /p/ is unaspirated when it follows /s/ (e.g. spin /spɪn/ → [spɪn])
but aspirated in a word such as pin, where /pɪn/ → [pʰɪn]. The phoneme /p/,
therefore, has at least two allophones: [p] and [pʰ].

12. AE ALLOPHONES
In SAE, the voiceless stop consonant phonemes /p t k/ have many allophones. When /p t k/
appear in syllable-initial position, they become aspirated, for example,phoneme /t/ has the
allophones which are [t], [th], [tˀ], [ɾ], and [Ɂ].
· /t/ is pronounced as [th] on the syllable-initial position.
· /t/ is pronounced as [t] after s or word- or syllable-finally.
· /t/ is pronounced as [tˀ] or [t] word- or syllable-finally.
· /t/ - mental representation – phoneme/phonemic
Example :
(Still) >> [stɪl]
(Pretty) >> [ʹprɪɾi]

13. VOWELS
The word vowel comes from the Latin vocalis, which means "vowel" (ie related to sound). In
English, the word vowel is usually used to refer to the sound of a vowel and the written symbol
that represents it.
1. Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2011) stated, “Vowels are produced with little restriction of
the airflow from the lungs out the mouth and/or the nose.” (p. 246). There are four
characteristics of vowel sounds.
2. Tongue Height – whether the tongue is high or low in the mouth.
3. Frontness / Backness of Tongue – whether the front or back of the tongue is involved.
4. Tenseness / Laxness – whether the muscles are tense or lax. Lip rounding – whether the lips
are rounded. (Avery & Ehrlich, 1992, p. 28).

14. ARTICULATION
1. Height
Theoretically, vowel height refers to the vertical position of either the tongue or the jaw
(depending on the model) relative to either the roof of the mouth or the aperture of the jaw. In
practice, however, it refers to the first formant (lowest resonance of the voice), abbreviated F1,
which is associated with the height of the tongue. In close vowels, also known as high vowels,
such as [i] and [u], the first formant is consistent with the tongue being positioned close to the
palate, high in the mouth, whereas in open vowels, also known as low vowels, such as [a], F1 is
consistent with the jaw being open and the tongue being positioned low in the mouth. Height is
defined by the inverse of the F1 value: The higher the frequency of the first formant, the lower the
vowel. In John Elsing's usage, where fronted vowels are distinguished in height by the position of
the jaw rather than the tongue, only the terms 'open' and 'close' are used, as 'high' and 'low' refer
to the position of the tongue.

15. ARTICULATION
The International Phonetic Alphabet defines seven degrees of vowel height, but no language is
known to distinguish all of them without distinguishing another attribute:
1. close (high)
2. near-close (near-high)
3. close-mid (high-mid)
4. mid (true-mid)
5. open-mid (low-mid)
6. near-open (near-low)
7. open (low)

16. ARTICULATION
High Vowels
· High vowels are made with a relatively closed mouth.
· The tongue body is very high.
· High vowels in English: [ij], [ɪ], [uw], [ʊ]
Low Vowels
· Produced with the mouth open and the tongue lowered
· Low vowels in English: [æ], [a]

17. ARTICULATION
2. Frontness (tongue advancement)
Advanced tongue root (ATR) is a feature common across much of Africa, the Pacific Northwest,
and scattered other languages such as Modern Mongolian. The contrast between advanced and
retracted tongue root resembles the tense-lax contrast acoustically, but they are articulated
differently. Those vowels involve noticeable tension in the vocal tract.

18. ARTICULATION
3. Tenseness
Unlike the other features of vowel quality, tenseness is only applicable to the
few languages that have this opposition (mainly Germanic languages, e.g.
English), whereas the vowels of the other languages (e.g. Spanish) cannot be
described with respect to tenseness in any meaningful way. One may
distinguish the English tense vs. lax vowels roughly, with its spelling. Tense
vowels usually occur in words with the final silent e, as in mate. Lax vowels
occur in words without the silent e, such as mat. In American English, lax
vowels [ɪ, ʊ, ɛ, ʌ, æ] do not appear in stressed open syllables.

19. ARTICULATION
4. Rounding
Roundedness is named after the rounding of the lips in some vowels. Because lip rounding is easily
visible, vowels may be commonly identified as rounded based on the articulation of the lips.
Acoustically, rounded vowels are identified chiefly by a decrease in F2, although F1 is also slightly
decreased.
In most languages, roundedness is a reinforcing feature of mid to high back vowels rather than a
distinctive feature. Usually, the higher a back vowel, the more intense is the rounding. However, in some
languages, roundedness is independent from backness, such as French and German (with front rounded
vowels), most Uralic languages (Estonian has a rounding contrast for /o/ and front vowels), Turkic
languages (with a rounding distinction for front vowels and /u/), and Vietnamese with back unrounded
vowels.

20. VOWEL LENGTH SYMBOL

21. STRESS AND SCHWA
• Schwa => unstressed syllables e.g. [ə]
• Stressa-’bbre-vi-ate
• English has primary and secondary stress
• The syllable ‘bbre’ carries primary stress, and ‘vi’ and ‘ate’ carry secondary stress

22. DIPTHONGS
· There are (at least) two ways of transcribing diphthongs:
– Sequence of tense vowel and lax vowel [aʊ], [aɪ], [ɔɪ]
– Sequence of vowel and glide [aw], [aj], [ɔj].
· In this class, we will use the second way (with glides). Note: I’m using an off-glide for the
sound in ‘high’ indicated by a [j] and not a [y], unlike your textbook.

23. ISSUES IN PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION
· Vowel length
· Rhotacized vowels
· Nasalized vowels
· Variant pronunciation of [w]
· Aspiration and unreleased stops

24. OTHER DIPTHONGS IN ENGLISH
In English, tense vowels are produced as diphthongs
• We will transcribe [i], [e], [u], and [o] as: – [ij], [ej], [uw], and [ow]
• Contrast the English pronunciation of ‘two’ with the French pronunciation of ‘tous’

25. VOWEL LENGTH
Tense vowels are longer in English than lax vowels— vowel length in this sense is not
manipulated independently of other features
But there are contexts where vowels become lengthened in English
Say: bat and bad
Vowels are lengthened preceding voiced sounds in English.
This is usually marked with ‘long’ symbol [:].
We will use the vowel length symbol only when doing narrow phonetic transcription.

26. VOWEL LENGTH SYMBOL

27. PRONUNCIATIONS OF [W]
· Some English speakers produce different consonants at the beginning of words like: which
and witch.
· For some, words that are spelled with ‘wh’ with a voiceless [w] sound [ʍ].
· When doing detailed phonetic transcription, you should distinguish [w] and [ʍ]
pronunciations.

28. SYLLABIC CONSONANT
Ø These are syllabic consonants, and they only occur when nasals or glides appear after schwa
Ø Note that [ŋ] does not typically appear after schwa—it usually becomes [n] as in singin’ and is
not syllabic.
Ø You have the option of transcribing schwa-liquid/nasal sound sequences as either a
sequence of schwa-liquid/nasal or as a syllabic liquid/nasal.

29. TRANSCRIPTION RULES
Use the IPA symbols only (see chart)
Don’t rely on spelling—it will confuse you!!!
Listen carefully to the pronunciation—be careful to transcribe what you hear and not what you expect to hear.
Know the difference between BROAD and NARROW transcription (go over ‘broad and narrow transcription’
handout).
Transcription Rules
Use the IPA symbols only (see chart)
Don’t rely on spelling—it will confuse you!!!
Listen carefully to the pronunciation—be careful to transcribe what you hear and not what you expect to hear.
Know the difference between BROAD and NARROW transcription (go over ‘broad and narrow transcription’
handout).

30. MORPHOLOGY
The study of information

31. WORD CLASS
Open class
1. Noun
2. Verb
3. Articles
4. Adverb
Closed Class
1. Cunjunction
2. Determiners
3. Articles
4. Demonstratives
5. Quantifiers
6. Possessives
7. Prepotitions
8. Auxiliarry verbs
9. Pronouns

32. CONTENT VS FUNCTION WORDS
1. Content Words
2. Function Words
Morpheme
e.g Undesirability
Ungentlemanliness
Bound and Free Morphemes
Free Morphemes
Bound morphemes

33. PREFIXES VS SUFFIXES
Prefixes
suffixes
Infixes
Not availlable in English
Rules of Word
Formation
1. Derivational Morphology
2. Inflectional Morphology

34. THE HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE
OF WORDS
e.g Unbelievable
Believe : Verb
Un+believe : Unbelieve : Has no meaning
Believable: Adj
Un+believe+able: Adj

35. Adj
Un Adj
V able
Believe

36. BLENDS
Acronyms
Abbreviation
Compunds Containing Bound
Combining Forms

37. SYNTAX
1. Phrases
2. Clauses
3. Sentences

38. PHRASES
Lexical Categories
Det
N
V
Adj
Adv
P/Prep

39. NOUN PHRASES
NP = N (e.g. Books)
NP = (det) N (e.g. my books, the books, these books)
NP =(det(adj) N ( e.g. my lovely )
NP = (det) (adj) N (PP) (e.g. My lovely books in my room)
NP = (det) (adj)* N (PP)* (e.g. My lovely books thick in my room on the table)
NP = pronoun (e.g. He, She, I)
NP = proper noun (e.g. Jaehyun, hyunjin, felix)

40. VERB PHARASES
VP= V (e.g. Read)
VP= V (NP) (e.g. read the books)
VP= (NP) (PP) (e.g. Read the books in a room)
VP=V (NP) (PP*) (e.g. Read the books in a room on the table)
PEPOSITIONAL PHRASES
PP=P+NP (e.g. In the room)

41. CLAUSES
• Main Clauses /independent clauses
•Subordinate clauses/ dependent clauses
Sentences
 S= NP+VP

42. TREE DIAGRAM

48. THANK YOU