Interview Handout Selling yourself During the interview, you are selling yourself. You need to explain how you are the best match for the job. At the beginning of the interview, listen to the interviewers. Let them explain the job, the duties, and the interview process. Use immediacy behaviors, be positive, and act confident but not aloof. Imagine yourself being the interviewer. How should someone behave if you were considering him or her for a job in your organization? As you answer your questions, explain how your traits are the traits needed for the job. Give specific examples about how you were creative or energetic or patient. If you are interviewing for a teaching job, you would consider characteristics in excellent teachers including patience, caring, organized, and life-long learner. Think of examples where you have displayed these characteristics in your work or volunteer experiences. Have clear examples about how you have experience and expertise to carry out the duties of the job. You should also understand the company environment and know that you are a good fit. I was working with a search committee, and we were interviewing people for a community college assistant professor position. The man we were interviewing had the education and experience, but he did not understand the community college environment. We are student focused, and when he referred to community college students as “those students” and “students who could not begin at the university level,” we were not impressed. Our students choose to start at a community college because of various reasons. It is a great place to begin their college experience. The people on that committee and the faculty and staff at my college respect our students, many of whom are working, raising families, attending co-curricular activities, and are going to school full time. This individual used wording that angered me. He would not have been a good fit for our college. Know the priorities of the company or organization. You should also consider if you would feel comfortable in the environment as well. Introducing yourself The first few minutes of the interview is the most crucial. You will have bathed, cleaned your nails, hair, and brushed your teeth. Go easy on cologne or perfume. If you are interviewing for a professional job, wear a professional, well fitted suit that is black, pinstriped, or navy. Dress shirts or blouses are typically white. Shoes are professional, closed toe, clean, and match your belt. For more information, read the professional appearance chapter of this text. Arrive 15 minutes early. Take a few minutes to look at yourself in a mirror and make sure that your clothes and makeup have not slipped or faltered on your way there. You should have a professional looking briefcase or satchel with a copy of your resume, cover letter, pad and pens, and portfolio with examples of your work. Always be friendly and respectful. Let the receptionist know that you have ar.

1. Interview Handout
Selling yourself
During the interview, you are selling yourself. You need to
explain how you are the best match for the job. At the beginning
of the interview, listen to the interviewers. Let them explain the
job, the duties, and the interview process. Use immediacy
behaviors, be positive, and act confident but not aloof. Imagine
yourself being the interviewer. How should someone behave if
you were considering him or her for a job in your organization?
As you answer your questions, explain how your traits are the
traits needed for the job. Give specific examples about how you
were creative or energetic or patient.
If you are interviewing for a teaching job, you would consider
characteristics in excellent teachers including patience, caring,
organized, and life-long learner. Think of examples where you
have displayed these characteristics in your work or volunteer
experiences. Have clear examples about how you have
experience and expertise to carry out the duties of the job. You
should also understand the company environment and know that
you are a good fit. I was working with a search committee, and
we were interviewing people for a community college assistant
professor position. The man we were interviewing had the
education and experience, but he did not understand the
community college environment. We are student focused, and
when he referred to community college students as “those
students” and “students who could not begin at the university
level,” we were not impressed. Our students choose to start at a
community college because of various reasons. It is a great
place to begin their college experience. The people on that
committee and the faculty and staff at my college respect our

2. students, many of whom are working, raising families, attending
co-curricular activities, and are going to school full time. This
individual used wording that angered me. He would not have
been a good fit for our college. Know the priorities of the
company or organization. You should also consider if you
would feel comfortable in the environment as well.
Introducing yourself
The first few minutes of the interview is the most crucial. You
will have bathed, cleaned your nails, hair, and brushed your
teeth. Go easy on cologne or perfume. If you are interviewing
for a professional job, wear a professional, well fitted suit that
is black, pinstriped, or navy. Dress shirts or blouses are
typically white. Shoes are professional, closed toe, clean, and
match your belt. For more information, read the professional
appearance chapter of this text.
Arrive 15 minutes early. Take a few minutes to look at yourself
in a mirror and make sure that your clothes and makeup have
not slipped or faltered on your way there. You should have a
professional looking briefcase or satchel with a copy of your
resume, cover letter, pad and pens, and portfolio with examples
of your work. Always be friendly and respectful. Let the
receptionist know that you have arrived and sit down. Act as
though everyone you meet may have input about you getting the
job. Do not pace in the lobby or waiting area. Be patient and as
relaxed as possible.
When someone calls your name, stand, smile, walk over, shake
hands and introduce yourself. “Good morning. My name is Ruth
Livingston and I am so happy to be here.” The handshake was
discussed in another chapter, but it is an important part of this
interview. If a committee is interviewing you, shake the hands

3. of those conducting the interview. If you have not been told, ask
where they would like for you to sit. Then, sit down, take out
your notepad and write the names of each person so you can
send them a thank you card or letter after the interview.
Appear as relaxed as possible, and allow them to do most of the
talking during this important phase. Never, ever interrupt. You
are to be friendly, likeable, and professional. Being loud,
boisterous, timid, or arrogant does not make a positive first
impression. When you practice interviewing with friends or
family go through the introduction stage and get their opinions.
Practice enough times that it does not feel awkward. Typically,
first impressions are forever.
If you are the interviewer, consider the intimidating atmosphere
that you may create and try to make the interviewee as relaxed
as possible. Introduce yourself with a smile. Tell the
interviewer that you appreciate his or her time and interest. The
interview should be conducted in a comfortable area. Let the
interviewee know where to sit, and offer something to drink. If
there is a committee, make the introductions. You will find out
more about a person who feels comfortable enough to talk with
you and your committee. An aloof, intimidating demeanor will
not attract the most skilled employees to your workforce. The
interviewer(s) will be making a first impression as well. If you
want to attract and retain the best, treat them with respect.
Nonverbal language
Researchers suggest that we convey 65 to 93 percentage of face-
to-face communication through nonverbal messages (Beebe,
Beebe and Ivy, (2006). We tend to believe nonverbal messages
over the verbal messages. For example, if I say that I am happy

4. to be here and I am slumped over as if I am sad, you will
believe that I am not happy at all to be here. You should use
nonverbal language that conveys what you are saying. Also, be
very attentive. Make eye contact that is natural to every day
conversation when you are talking with a group of people about
a topic that really interests you. Do not stare anyone down.
When asked a question, smile, look at the person asking the
question, and then answer the question making eye contact
conversationally with all of the interviewers. Lean forward, and
sit poised but not rigid. Do not fidget with your papers, pen,
hair, jewelry, or pick lint off of your clothes. These are nervous
habits that are distracting. If you are nervous, keep it to
yourself. It is an uncomfortable situation, and most people
interviewing for the job of their dreams will be nervous.
Write down any information that you will want to refer to later,
but do not write the questions. Hands should be placed in front
of you on the table or in your lap. Watch lip licking, and do not
have gum, candy, or food in your mouth. Also, do not bring a
cell phone in with you. Leave it in the car. You may forget to
turn it off. Nothing says incompetence like a cell phone ringing
or vibrating during an interview. Use a friendly, conversational
tone throughout.
Your rate, pitch, and volume should be a comfortable for
everyone. Also, remove tag questions, vocalized pauses, and
self criticism from your language in every occasion (Devito,
2006). Tag questions are when you are making a statement, but
you raise the pitch in your voice so it sounds like a question. Or
you add a word like, “Okay?” after your statements. This
weakens your message and makes you sound uncertain. When
you go into an interview, interviewers usually do not let you
know if they like your answers, but you would really like a
response. You are asked to list your three greatest strengths.

5. You answer in the form of a question because you would like a
response, “I am loyal, energetic, and optimistic?” This makes
you appear wishy-washy and unsure about your strengths.
Vocalized pauses should also be omitted from your
communication events. When you want to “um”, “and ah,” or
“like,” substitute with a moment’s pause. If you get tongue tied,
do not make some strange noise to compensate. Take a second
to breath, and then start again. Finally, do not say anything bad
about yourself or anyone you have ever known in your entire
life. Be positive. We self criticize when we are searching for
compliments. It makes you appear unsure of yourself.
Immediacy behaviors and professional appearances that are
addressed in previous chapters are effective nonverbal
communication tools. Think about the people who you enjoy
working with. They are friendly, complimentary, honest, and
kind. Display these behaviors in the interview and every day at
work. If you are having personal problems or are in a bad mood,
do not let it show. Use open posture, active listening, and vocal
variety that shows off your communication skills.
Responses that achieve results
It is important that you are prepared for any questions that you
will be asked. There are lists of typical questions asked in
books and on Internet sites. Be prepared for the top questions
asked, and follow-ups to the questions. Listen to the complete
question. If you need to clarify or think that you do not
understand all or part of the question, rephrase the question or
ask that the person repeat the question. Look at the person
asking the question, but make eye contact with the group when
answering.

6. Paul Michael (2005) wrote an article about the 23 most asked
interview questions and a strategy to develop answers. A more
comprehensive list of questions are in the book, Monster
careers: Interviewing (2005) and in Richard Beatty’s book, The
interview kit 2nd ed. (2000). Read the information in these and
other books when you are applying for a job to give you ideas.
Answer the questions and give brief examples. Do not discuss
examples that are personal. You should give professional
examples. Below are ten of the most asked questions that were
in Michael’s article and that I have been asked during
interviews.
1. Tell us a little about yourself.
This is not a request to give a biography. Give some highlights
about your education, professional goals, and present situation.
Do not tell them about your children and what they are doing in
school, or discuss your parents. You are selling yourself and
your professional expertise.
2. Tell us about the professional experience that you have had
that will help you be a better ___.
If you have experience in the field, go through the list. If you
are just coming out of college, you should carefully consider
how you will answer this question. You may mention the
volunteer work and internship where you have worked in the
field. If you developed a portfolio in college, now is the time to
show your work. Explain why you are in this field of study. You
have worked with people in customer service or as a server
while you were going to college. Link these experiences with
the duties of the job for which you are interviewing. Do not
drone on and on about experiences that you have had that do not
really apply. Be positive about your past work experiences. If

7. you did not enjoy your previous job, keep it to yourself. Just
highlight your professional or collegiate experiences as it
relates to this particular position.
3. What is your greatest strength? How does that make you a
more effective worker?
This opens the door for you to pitch your most positive quality.
When preparing for the interview, think of three in order of
importance even though this question asks for only one greatest
strength. Tell the strength and then give an example about how
you manifest this positive quality. For example: “My greatest
strength would be my sense of loyalty. I believe that a company
who gives me the opportunity to work, deserves my full
attention and hard work. Loyalty also includes building the
company and my colleagues up rather than being critical. At my
last job, I volunteered to take on challenges above my regular
job description. One example is when I worked after hours to
design a new training module for incoming servers. It was an
exciting challenge where I could use my expertise to make
positive changes for my employer.” Think of the strengths that
you have that would be an asset to this organization. It should
always be positive and related to the position. Being a good
mom is a positive strength, but only describe professional
qualities, not personal qualities.
4. Describe a professional or academic failure you have had and
how you recovered from it.
This question is designed to get you to thinking about your
failures. Failure is not a negative as everyone fails at some
time or another. As Zig Ziglar points out “Failure is an event,
not a person.” It’s how you respond to that failure that is what
the interviewer is looking for. NEVER tell an interviewer you
don’t have any failures. As the question notes keep the failures
professional or academic. Do not respond with personal flaws.
This is a way to guarantee you won’t get the job. The failure
that you choose should be a one-time event and not one that has

8. happened many times. You may tell the interviewer that you
failed to pass your math course the first time you took it. Do
not blame the failure on anyone or make excuses for it. Simply
tell the interviewer what you failed at and how you responded to
that failure. Tell the interviewer,
“I failed my stats class the first time I took it. I responded by
immediately signing up for the class the next semester. I took
what I learned from my first experience and applied it. I also
ensured I planned enough time to study and took advantage of
study groups the professor had set up. I am pleased to report I
earned an A the next time.”
5. Do you enjoy working with a team or alone?
You enjoy working with other people, but you are also self-
directed and can work alone as well. Tell about a time that you
worked with a team with great results. If you do not have an
example from work, bring up a group project in college or
during your volunteer work. Always have a “play well with
others” story ready.
6. When have you had a conflict with someone you worked
with, and how did you handle it?
Of course, you are going to have conflicts with people, but the
answer here will be an issue based conflict. You will not say
anything negative about an individual you have ever worked
with. Do not tell the interviewer you have never had a conflict
with a co-worker. Even minor disagreements are conflict. Take
your time and think of one for this question. Mention a time
that you disagreed with someone on an issue, and explain how
you positively dealt with the issue, but you did not attack the
person. For example, “One conflict situation that I remember at
work was when I was assigned to an office that was larger than
my co-worker’s office. He felt that he should have gotten the
office because he had been there longer. Actually, it did not
matter to me, but it was important to him. Therefore, I just

9. switched offices with him. I think the supervisor thought that he
would not want to change offices, so she assigned it to me. It
was one of those simple misunderstandings that turned out okay
in the end.”
You should anticipate follow up questions that may be aimed to
see if you will speak negatively about a colleague or boss. Do
not fall for this one. If they follow up by asking about a time
when things did not turn out as well, end with something
generic such as, “Conflicts will occur, but when you treat
people with respect, most of the time you can find a solution
that everyone can agree on. I have found that people want to be
listened to more than agreed with. I was working for an
insurance company and a person was angry because the
company did not replace his roof due to hail damage, but only
replaced half of the roof. For me to become upset would have
escalated the problem. I let him vent his frustrations. Then I
said that I could understand his frustration. Unfortunately, the
company paid for the claim as stipulated in the policy. I then
offered to resubmit the claim. He was not pleased with the
results, but he did calm down and left the office feeling better
than when he came in.” Hopefully, you will not be pressed to
tell about a bad result, but in this case, you are not speaking
negatively about a colleague, boss, or even a customer.
7. How are you with working under pressure?
You are going to say that you work well under pressure and give
an example. You may actually work more efficiently under
pressure because you feel challenged. You may suggest that you
have fantastic time management skills, which reduce the
occurrences of stress; however, you can work effectively under
pressure. If you crack under stress, do not mention this at an
interview, and take courses, read books, attend workshops,
and/or listen to tapes to overcome this obstacle.
8. What would you do if you were asked to do something you

10. regarded as highly unethical if not outright unlawful?
If you were asked to do something that was unethical, you
would explain why you must decline. You would also tell the
interviewer who you would contact if this occurred. Keeping it
to yourself can make you complicit if someone else is not as
ethical as you and decides to do task you declined to do.
However, mention that this company has an outstanding
reputation and you do not believe that the later would ever
occur.
9. Why should we hire you over the other qualified applicants
who have applied for this position?
This is not the time to become shy. Explain the traits and skills
that a person in such a position should possess and how you are
that person. Then reiterate your impeccable work ethic and
dedication to the company, colleagues, and clients. Mention
your fantastic communication skills such as listening,
interpersonal communication, and public address.
10. The final question asked is usually, do you have any
questions you would like to ask us?
Be ready to ask appropriate questions. You should not ask about
salaries. Look up the salaries from the company website. If this
is not provided, there are Internet sites that give ranges of
salaries for specific careers in your area. Have an idea about
what you may be offered. If you are asked what salary you
require, say that salary is negotiable depending on the company
standard. If you are pressed forward, you will need to give a
range that you will accept. By researching the typical amounts,
you can give a range that does not scare the interviewers and
that you can be happy with. You could ask about insurance and
retirement benefits. However, benefits can be negotiated after
they have expressed a desire for you to join their team.

11. The questions that you ask should relate to the company or
organization and the specific job for which you are applying.
You may ask about specific projects that are presently a
priority. You could ask how soon you would begin working if
you were offered the job. Ask if the interviewers believe that
you are the type of person that they are looking for to fill the
position. Ask if there is anything else that you can provide to
assist them in making their decision. If on the rare occasion that
they give you a negative response or tell you that they have
someone else in mind, ask for feedback and if they know of
another company looking for someone with your qualifications.
End the interview on a positive note and still smiling, no matter
what. The search committee may have someone in mind before
you came in, and that person may not work out. Even if you feel
that they have been negative with you, leave on a positive note
with all doors wide open.
In the end, be prepared for standard questions, unique
questions, and follow up questions. Answer each question
honestly and with confidence. When you are asked a question,
think about your response and then answer, giving examples.
You should always be positive and never say anything negative
about a former boss, co-worker or company. Think about your
positive qualities and talents and how these relate to the
position that you are seeking. Practice answering questions with
family and friends. Interview for a job as you would prepare for
a speech: Research, prepare, practice, have a professional
appearance, and use immediacy behaviors.
The follow up letter
Immediately after your interview, go home and write individual

12. thank you notes to each person with whom you interviewed.
Each letter to a team of interviewers should be different. If they
will be making a decision within the week, you can hand write
the letter on a thank you card and deliver the thank you notes to
the receptionist the next morning, or you can send an e-mail. If
you know that interviews will continue for more than a week,
mail your thank you card that evening. Be careful to mention
each person by their preferred title and that the note is well
written and grammatically correct. If you did not write the
names down during the interview, look them up on the company
website if you are unsure. You will thank each person for his
and her time. Mention anything that you forgot and wished you
had mentioned. Look up examples of thank you letters online.
When I applied for the job that I am presently working, I forgot
one of the person’s name on the committee. Thankfully, I had
introduced myself to the division administrative assistant and
had established a rapport with her while I was waiting to be
called in for my interview. I called her that afternoon and told
her that I wanted to be sure to include everyone in the thank you
notes that I was writing. She was most helpful in providing me
with the names and correct titles of each person. The next
morning I delivered my thank you notes for each interviewer
and a special card for her. I personally told her how much I
appreciated her assistance and how she made this experience as
pleasant as it could be. Within the other notes, I mentioned
specific concerns that the individual interviewers had
expressed. I had had one of the faculty members on the team in
a class ten years prior. I expressed my appreciation for the
difference she had made in my life then, and what an honor it
would be to work with her, again.
Take this final interviewing step seriously. Even if you are no
longer interested in the job after the interview, write a note

13. thanking the interviewers for their time. People talk, and if your
name comes up, it should be in a positive context. After you
write your notes, letters, or e-mails, ask someone to proof what
you have written. Your writings should be positive,
professional, personable, and grammatically correct.
If you are the person doing the hiring, provide each person that
you interview with a follow-up letter. Those who have made it
to the interview are potential employees and may be the person
who will be working with your competitors. After you have
made your decision, follow up with a thank you for that
person’s time and let him or her know that you keep
applications on file for a specific period of time if another
opening comes up in the near future. Interviewing is a laborious
task for the job seeker and the employer. Those who reached out
to you in the process may be a potential employee that you
would consider later. A note will help in keeping lines of
communication open for promising future prospects.
Chapter 6 - Applicant Screening and Employee Socialization
Security and Loss Prevention: An Introduction, 5th Edition
by Philip P. Purpura
Butterworth-Heinemann © 2008 Citation
Screening Methods
Screening methods vary among organizations and depend on
such factors as regulatory requirements of
certain industries, budget, the number of personnel available to

14. investigate applicants, outsourcing to
service firms, and the types of positions open. Certain
employers expend minimal efforts to properly
screen, using the excuse that their hands are tied because of
legal barriers. Others follow legal guidelines
and screen carefully. The EEOC, the Office of Personnel
Management, and the Departments of Justice
and Labor have adopted and published the "Uniform Guidelines
on Employee Selection Procedures,"
which is periodically updated and serves as a guide for
determining the proper use of tests and other
selection procedures for any employment decision such as
hiring, promotion, demotion, retention, training,
and transfers. These guidelines also contain technical standards
and documentation requirements for the
validation of selection procedures as described in the
"Standards for Educational and Psychological Tests,"
prepared by the American Psychological Association and other
groups. Courts rely on such guidelines in
deciding cases.
Negligent hiring is a serious problem resulting from an
employee who was an unfit candidate for hiring
and retention. The courts have established screening standards
from negligence cases; awards have been
made to victims who have sued, claiming the employer was
negligent in not conducting a reasonable
inquiry into the background of an employee who, for example,
had a history of physical violence. The term
reasonable inquiry has various definitions. The theory
supporting negligent hiring involves foreseeability. It
is defined as follows by Black (1991: 449): "The ability to see
or know in advance; e.g. the reasonable
anticipation that harm or injury is a likely result from certain
acts or omissions. In tort law, the
‘foreseeability’ element of proximate cause is established by

15. proof that an actor, as person of ordinary
intelligence and prudence, should reasonably have anticipated
danger to others created by his negligent
act." An employer can take a number of steps to screen
applicants and prevent negligent hiring.
First, careful planning is required. Input from a competent
attorney can strengthen the legality of the
screening process. No single screening tool should be used to
assess an applicant. Multiple measures
always are best.
It is important that the job duties and qualifications be clearly
defined through a job analysis. Noe et al.
(2006: 151–157) write that there is no "one best way" for
analyzing jobs. They offer various methods of job
analysis that include questionnaires focusing on topics such as
work behaviors, work conditions, and job
characteristics. An important point they make is that errors in
the job analysis process result mostly from
job descriptions (based on job analyses) being outdated because
of our rapidly changing world.
Help-wanted advertisements should be worded carefully to
attract only those who meet the requirements of
the job. This also prevents expensive turnover and charges of
discrimination.
To save money, the most expensive screening methods should
be performed last. The time and labor
spent reading application forms is less expensive than
conducting background investigations.
An employer can be held liable for negligent hiring if an
employee causes harm that could have been
prevented if the employer had conducted a reasonable

16. background check.
Resumes and Applications
Applications must be carefully studied. Job seekers are
notorious for exaggerating and actually lying. The
Port Authority of New York and New Jersey did a study by
using a questionnaire to ask applicants if they
had ever used certain equipment that really did not exist. More
than one-third of the applicants said that
they had experience with the nonexistent equipment ("Lying on
Job Applications May Be Widespread,"
1988: 13).
Diploma mills, which provide a "degree" for a fee, with little or
no work, are another problem. Research in
the 1990s showed not only that one-third of resumes were
fraudulent, but that the problem was increasing
(Bachler, 1995: 51–60). Employers then began more thorough
checks of applicant backgrounds and
whether the degree granting institution of applicants was
accredited. Then diploma mill con artists came up
with bogus accreditation associations; watermarks, holographs,
and encrypting on the diplomas; and toll-
free numbers so employers can "verify" the graduate. Today, the
problem is compounded by on-line
degree programs and the difficulty of distinguishing between
quality on-line degree programs and bogus
programs. Databases that list accredited schools may list only
those that receive federal financial aid.
There is no national accrediting body, only regional ones.

17. Solution
s include carefully studying transcripts,
asking specific questions about course work, requesting samples
of course work (e.g., research papers),
and being cautious about credit for "life education" ("Fighting
Diploma Mills by Degrees," 2005: 18).
Signs of deception on resumes and applications include
inconsistencies in verbal and written statements
and among background documents. Periods of "self-
employment" may be used to hide institutionalization.
Not signing an application may be another indicator of
deception. Social Security numbers are issued by
the state, and that can assist in verifying past residence. A
thorough background investigation is
indispensable to support information presented by the applicant.
Employers are increasingly adding clauses and disclaimers to
applications. Clauses include a statement on
EEO and AA, employment at will (i.e., employer's decision to
terminate employees), and the resolution of
grievances through arbitration rather than litigation.

18. Disclaimers warn an applicant of refusal to hire or
discharge for misstatements or omissions on the application.
Today, most companies use the Internet to recruit applicants by
including a recruitment section in their
Web site. The use of the Internet to solicit applications has its
advantages and disadvantages. Advantages,
when compared to traditional recruitment methods, include the
opportunity to attract more applicants
globally, lower cost, convenience, and speed. Disadvantages
include the workload of possibly screening
numerous applications, ignoring other means of recruiting, and
hiring too quickly without screening
properly.
Applicants also establish their own Web sites containing their
resume and other information. Because
"Googling" a name is simple, applicants may place themselves
at a competitive disadvantage if they
establish a Web site or blog that contains information,
photographs, or art that would be offensive to an
employer.
Interview

19. When the applicant is asked general questions about work
experience and education, open-ended
questions should be formulated so the interviewee can talk at
length. "What were your duties at that job?"
elicits more information than short-answer questions requiring
"yes" or "no" responses. Answers to
questions should be compared to the application and resume.
Some employers ask the applicant to complete an application at
home to be mailed in before the interview.
Before the interview, while the applicant is waiting in an office,
he or she is asked to complete another
application. Both applications are then compared before the
interview for consistency. Many employers
require the application to be completed on-line.
The following information concerns questions prohibited during
the entire screening process, including the
application form. Court rulings under EEO legislation have
stressed repeatedly that questions (and tests)
must be job related. This legal requirement is known as a bona
fide occupational qualification (BFOQ).

20. Questions pertaining to arrest records generally are unlawful,
but it depends on the position. An arrest
does not signify guilt. The courts have stated that minority
group members have suffered disproportionately
more arrests than others. A question that asks about a
conviction, however, may be solicited. It is not an
absolute bar to employment. Here again, minority group
members have disproportionately more
convictions. Certain offenses can cause an employer to exclude
an applicant, depending on the particular
job. Therefore, questions of arrest and conviction must be job
related (e.g., related to loss prevention) and
carefully considered.
Unless a "business necessity" can be shown, questions
concerning credit records, charge accounts, and
owning one's own home are discriminatory because minority
group applicants often are poorer than others.
Unless absolutely necessary for a particular job, height, weight,
and other physical requirements are
discriminatory against certain minority groups (e.g., Latino,
Asian, and women applicants often are
physically smaller than other applicants).
Other unlawful questions, unless job related, include asking

21. age, sex, color, or race; maiden name of
applicant's wife or mother; and membership in organizations
that reveal race, religion, or national origin.
The questions that can be asked of an applicant and on an
application form, among others, are name,
address, telephone number, Social Security number, past
experience and salary, reasons for leaving past
jobs, education, convictions, U.S. citizenship, military
experience in U.S. forces, and hobbies.
Under the ADA, an employer may ask applicants if they need
reasonable accommodations for the hiring
process. If the answer is yes, the employer may ask for
reasonable documentation concerning the
disability. Generally, the employer may not ask whether an
applicant will need reasonable
accommodations to do the job; however, pre-employment
inquiries can be made regarding the ability of the
applicant to perform job-related functions (Twomey et al.,
2001: 789).
Extensive research on the interview process shows that without
proper care, it can be unreliable, low in
validity, and biased against certain groups. In Watson v. Fort

22. Worth Bank and Trust, 108 Supreme Court
2791 (1988), the Court ruled that subjective selection methods
such as the interview must be validated by
traditional criterion-related or content-validation procedures.
Research has pointed to concrete steps that
can be taken to increase the utility of the personnel selection
interview. First, the interview should be
structured, standardized, and focused on a small number of
goals (e.g., interpersonal style or ability to
express oneself). Second, ask questions dealing with specific
situations (e.g., "As a security officer, what
would you do if you saw a robbery in progress?"). Third, use
multiple interviewers and ensure that women
and minority group members are represented to include their
perspectives on the applicants (Noe et al.,
2006: 234–235).
Validity asks how accurately a test predicts job success.
Reliability asks if a test is consistent in
measuring performance.
Tests
The testing of applicants varies considerably. Here is a
summary of various types of tests (DeCenzo and

23. Robbins, 2005: 94–96, 179–180; Noe et al., 2006: 239–244).
◾ Physical ability tests may predict performance and
occupational injuries and disabilities.
These tests are likely to have an adverse impact on applicants
with disabilities and women.
However, key questions are as follows: Is the physical ability
essential for the job and is it
mentioned prominently in the job description? Is there a
probability that the inability to
perform the job would cause risk to the safety or health of the
applicant or others?
◾ Cognitive ability tests measure a person's ability (e.g.,
verbal, quantitative, reasoning) to
learn and perform a job. Highly reliable commercial tests that
measure cognitive abilities are
available, and they are generally valid predictors of job
performance. The predictive validity of
these tests is higher for jobs that are subject to change and
require adaptability. Cognitive
ability tests typically have an adverse impact on the hiring of
minority group members, and
some have favored abandoning these tests.

24. ◾ Personality inventories attempt to measure personality
characteristics and categorize
applicants by what they are like, such as agreeable and
conscientious. When such tests ask
job applicants to answer intimate questions, such as their sex
practices, class action lawsuits
can result. These tests have been criticized for questionable
validity and low reliability.
◾ Assessment center is a method to test applicants on their
ability to handle duties encountered
on the job. Multiple raters evaluate applicant performance on
exercises, such as how to
respond to an e-mail from a customer who has a complaint.
These tests are expensive to
prepare, job content validity is high, and they are low in adverse
impact.
◾ Medical examinations are given to determine whether
applicants are physically capable of
performing the job. The ADA requires employers to make
medical inquiries directly related to
the applicant's ability to perform job-related duties and requires

25. employers to make
reasonable accommodations to help handicapped individuals to
perform the job. This act
requires that the medical exam cannot be conducted until after
the job offer has been
provided to the applicant.
◾ Honesty tests are paper-and-pencil tests that measure
trustworthiness and attitudes toward
honesty. Thousands of companies have used this evaluation tool
on millions of workers, and
its use is increasing as employers deal with the legal restrictions
of the polygraph. These
tests have helped employers screen job candidates, and validity
and reliability studies have
been published in scholarly journals.
◾ Drug tests have grown dramatically in a drug-oriented world.
Employers expect workers to
perform their jobs free from the influence of intoxicating
substances, and accidents must be
prevented. The opposing view favors protection from an
invasion of an individual's right to
privacy. Employers in regulated or safety-sensitive industries
are required by law to test for

26. alcohol or drugs. Numerous employers conduct such tests as a
loss prevention measure.
Drug tests vary in terms of cost, quality, and accuracy. A drug
test can result in a "false
positive," showing that a person tested has used drugs when that
is not so. A "false negative"
can show that the individual has not used drugs when, in fact,
the opposite is true. Another
problem with drug testing is cheating. Simply stated, if an
observer is not present when a
urine sample is requested, a variety of ploys may be used by an
abuser to deceive an
employer. For example, "clean" urine may be substituted. Such
deception is a huge problem.
Another strategy of drug testing is to measure drug usage from a
sample of a person's hair.
Some experts view this method as more accurate than urine
sampling.
Hire the Right Person, Not the Wrong One!
An error in hiring can bring crime to the workplace, loss of
proprietary information, and litigation.
Security managers have a duty to work with employers to avoid
hiring an employee who

27. ◾ Has been convicted of embezzlement, but is handling
accounts payable
◾ Has a history of convictions for computer crimes, but is a
corporate IT specialist
◾ Has a history of convictions for felony drug offenses,
robberies, and burglaries, but is
working with the cleaning crew
◾ Has been convicted of securities violations and insider
trading, but is working in the
corporate public information department
◾ Has a history of child molestation convictions, but is working
in corporate daycare
◾ Is a convicted rapist, but is working as a security officer
escorting female employees to
their vehicles at night
◾ As a temporary employee is collecting trash throughout the
premises and is really a
news reporter seeking a story

28. ◾ While working in research and development, is really an
industrial spy collecting
information to sell to a competitor
◾ Has been hired as a security officer, but is really a terrorist
and the "inside person"
Background Investigations
With restrictions on the use of the polygraph, employers have
turned to background investigations to verify
job applicant information. This can range from inquiries made
by the employer to the use of a credit
reporting agency, a background investigative firm, or private
investigator.
Numerous laws pertain to background investigations. The
Sarbanes-Oxley (SOX) Act of 2002 requires
publicly traded companies to conduct background
investigations, especially for applicants for positions
involving financial matters, trade secrets, IT systems, and other
sensitive areas. Employers must also

29. adhere to privacy laws pertaining to the acquisition and
protection of sensitive background information
(e.g., financial, health).
The Fair Credit Reporting Act of 1971 (FCRA), enforced by the
Federal Trade Commission, is a major
law that seeks to protect consumers from abuses of credit
reporting agencies while controlling many
aspects of background and other types of investigations. (State
laws must also be considered.) If a
company conducts investigations with in-house investigators,
instead of contracting the work to a service
firm, the impact of the FCRA may be less burdensome.
However, most companies cannot afford in-house
investigators.
Under the FCRA, an employer is required to notify a job
applicant that a background report will be obtained
from an outside firm. The employer must receive written
permission from the applicant prior to seeking a
report. Some states require that a free copy be provided to the
applicant. An employer who takes "adverse
action" (e.g., not hiring) against the applicant, based on the
report (credit, criminal, or otherwise), must do
the following: notify the applicant about the development, show

30. the applicant the report, provide information
on the applicant's rights under the FCRA, and allow the
applicant to dispute any inaccurate information in
the report with the reporting agency. Following this process, if
the employer still takes adverse action, the
applicant must be notified of the action, with justification.
The EEOC has issued guidelines to protect applicants against
discrimination from background
investigations. For example, before an employer makes an
adverse decision on hiring or promoting based
on the candidate's personal financial data, the information
should be job related, current, and severe. An
employer, for instance, may decide not to offer a financial
position to a candidate who has serious, current
debt. The FCRA prohibits the use of negative information that
is older than seven years. Applicants can
bring legal action if they are rejected because of a poor credit
record but can show good reasons for their
financial problems (Giles, 2000: 107–111).
In an amendment to the FCRA in 2003, ASIS International and
other groups were able to lobby for a
provision in the law that removes workplace misconduct
investigations (e.g., theft, violence, harassment)

31. from the notice and disclosure requirements of the act. This
occurred through the Fair and Accurate
Credit Transaction Act of 2003, also called the FACT Act. Prior
to this amendment, employers who used
outside investigative firms for cases of employee misconduct
were required to notify the suspect prior to
the investigation, which could result in evidence or witness
tampering.
An applicant's criminal history, if any, is a prime concern of
employers, especially when the applicant is
applying for a security position. Asking about an applicant's
arrest record is generally unlawful, but
conviction records legally are obtainable in most jurisdictions;
they usually are public records on file at
court offices. If an applicant appears to have no convictions, it
is possible that the background investigator
did not search court records in other jurisdictions where the
applicant has lived.
The FBI's National Crime Information Center (NCIC) database
holds an enormous amount of information
on offenders and stolen items. However, its use is restricted to
criminal justice agencies. For the screening
of security officers, refer to Chapter 2 for the Private Security

32. Officer Employment Authorization Act of 2004
that enables private security organizations to check with the FBI
on security applicants.
Past employment is a crucial area of inquiry because it reveals
past job performance. A customary
response by employers is to provide dates of employment,
positions, and salary. However, human
resources offices may be reluctant to supply negative
information because of the potential for a defamation
suit. Many states have passed job reference immunity statutes
that shield employers from lawsuits when
sharing adverse information with other employers on employee
or former employee work history. For
protection, employer statements must be truthful, made in good
faith, and made for a legitimate purpose. In
those states with such laws, a copy of the law can be attached to
the release (to be signed by the
applicant) authorizing the background check; this may prompt
the applicant and the former employer to
release more information. Also, the previous employer can be
tactfully advised that withholding information
could result in liability for negligent referral (Nixon, 2005).

33. The personal references supplied by the applicant usually are
those of people who will make favorable
comments about the applicant. If an investigator can obtain
additional references from contacting
references, more will be learned about the applicant.
Most colleges will verify an applicant's attendance and degree
over the telephone. College transcripts can
be checked out by mail as long as a copy of the applicant's
authorization is enclosed. This conforms to
privacy legislation. When educational records are received, the
investigator should study characteristics
and look for inconsistencies.
The private use of public records is on the increase for
background investigations. As we know, conviction
records are available in most jurisdictions. Records from state
motor vehicle departments can reveal a
history of careless driving behavior. A motor vehicle report
(MVR) can serve as a cross-check for name,
date of birth, and physical description. Federal court records
expose violations of federal laws, civil
litigation, and bankruptcy. Chapter 10 discusses online
databases for acquiring information.

34. Nadell (2004: 108–116) offers seven steps to effective
background checks to protect organizations from
negligent hiring allegations while promoting a safe and secure
environment:
1. Prepare and distribute to all employees a background
screening policy that conforms to all
state and federal laws. This lets employees know that
promotions depend on background
screening.
2. Communicate the policy by placing signs at select locations
on the premises.
3. Place a notice about background screening and drug testing
on the company Web site.
4. Disclose the screening methods to job applicants.
5. Use the job application process to ask all legally allowable
questions.
6. Ensure that temporary employment agencies perform
background checks and request a copy

35. of the check.
7. Ensure that vendors and contractors perform background
checks and request a copy of the
check.
History and Controversy: Polygraph and PSE
Background information on the polygraph and psychological
stress evaluator (PSE) will assist the
reader in understanding the controversy and subsequent legal
restrictions on these devices. In 1895,
Cesare Lombroso used the first scientific instrument to detect
deception through changes in pulse and
blood pressure. In 1921, Dr. John A. Larson developed the
polygraph, which measured blood
pressure, respiration, and pulse. By 1949, Leonard Keeler added
galvanic skin response (i.e.,
electrical changes on the surface of the skin).
The PSE was developed for the U.S. Army in 1964 by Robert
McQuiston, Allan Bell, and Wilson Ford.
After it was rejected by the Army, McQuiston patented a
civilian version and marketed it to the private
sector.

36. When questions are asked during a polygraph exam, bodily
changes are recorded on graph paper or a
computer. The examiner interprets these readings with reference
to questions asked. Persons have
been known to try to "fool" the polygraph by biting their
tongues or pressing a toe into a thumbtack
previously hidden in their shoes. The PSE has a few variations,
but basically it records voice stress as
questions are asked. There is no hookup, so it can be used
covertly.
A disadvantage of the PSE is that only one factor is being
recorded, as opposed to the multiple factors
of the polygraph. Training for administering and interpreting
the PSE is shorter than for the polygraph.
The accuracy of either device is subject to considerable debate,
especially concerning the PSE.
University of Utah research concluded that the polygraph can be
over 90% accurate (U.S. Department
of Justice, 1978: 8). Gardner and Anderson (2007: 240) write
that "… in 2002 a panel of leading

37. scientists confirmed a US congressional study done in 1983,
with both studies reporting that lie
detector tests do a poor job of identifying spies or other
national security risks and are likely in security
screening to produce false accusations about innocent people."
Much depends on the training and
skill of the examiner behind the device. The polygraph has been
responsible for eliminating
undesirable job applicants, in addition to assisting with criminal
and civil cases, but at the same time,
abuses have occurred that resulted in the passage of the
Employee Polygraph Protection Act.
Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988
The Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 (EPPA) was
passed by Congress and signed into
law by then-president Ronald Reagan on June 27, 1988. It
became effective on December 27. The act
prohibits most private employers from using polygraph or "lie
detector" tests to screen job applicants
and greatly restricts the use of these instruments to test present
employees. The EPPA defines the
term lie detector to include any device that is used to render a
diagnostic opinion regarding the

38. honesty of an individual. The congressional Office of
Technology Assessment estimated that 2 million
polygraph exams had been conducted each year—90% by
private employers.
The EPPA states that it is unlawful for an employer to directly
or indirectly force an employee to submit
to a polygraph test. Discrimination against those who refuse to
be tested or who file a complaint under
the EPPA is prohibited. Employers who violate the EPPA may
be assessed a civil penalty up to
$10,000 for each violation. In addition, the Secretary of Labor
may seek a restraining order enjoining
the employer from violating the act. The law provides
individuals with the right to sue employers in
federal and state courts for employment reinstatement,
promotion, and payment of lost wages and
benefits.
A few kinds of employees are exempt from the act and can be
tested, including employees of
◾ National security organizations or defense industries
◾ Federal, state, and local governments

39. ◾ Businesses involved with controlled substances
◾ Certain security service firms, such as armored car or
security alarm firms
In addition, a limited exemption exists for any employer who is
conducting an ongoing investigation
involving economic loss or injury; the suspect employee must
have had access to the subject of the
investigation, and reasonable suspicion must be present.
Considerable justification and documentation
is required. Chapter 10 contains proper testing procedures under
the EPPA.
Should the EPPA be amended to permit more widespread use of
the polygraph in the workplace to
screen job applicants for honesty?
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40. Chapter 6 - Applicant Screening and Employee Socialization
Security and Loss Prevention: An Introduction, 5th Edition
by Philip P. Purpura
Butterworth-Heinemann © 2008 Citation
Employment Law
Government regulation affects the balance and working
relationship between employers and employees in
three major areas: (1) the prohibition of employment
discrimination; (2) the promotion of a safe and healthy
workplace; and (3) fair negotiation between management and
labor concerning terms of employment
(Mann and Roberts, 2001: 858). Here we begin with major
federal laws prohibiting employment
discrimination, followed by applicant screening methods. The

41. laws on workplace safety and labor are
covered in other chapters.
It is important to note that beyond the federal law emphasized
here, and executive orders of presidents,
are state and municipal laws that exceed federal legal
requirements and state court decisions that interpret
state laws. For instance, several states consider sexual
orientation a "protected class." Also, many
corporations have policies to protect employees on the basis of
sexual orientation (DeCenzo and Robbins,
2005: 62).
Federal Legislation
◾ Equal Pay Act of 1963: This legislation requires that men and
women be paid equally if they
work at the same location at similar jobs. Exceptions include a
seniority or merit system and
earnings through quantity or quality of production. The act is
enforced by the Equal
Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).
◾ Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title VII: This law prohibits
employment discrimination based on

42. race, color, religion, gender, or national origin. Title VII
prohibits discrimination with regard to
any employment condition, including recruiting, screening,
hiring, training, compensating,
evaluating, promoting, disciplining, and firing. It also prohibits
retaliation against an individual
who files a charge of discrimination. The law impacts both
public and private sectors. Title VII
requires that organizations go beyond discontinuing
discriminatory practices and gives
preferences to minority group members in employment
decisions; this is referred to as
affirmative action. Congress established the EEOC to enforce
Title VII.
◾ Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967: The ADEA
prohibits employment
discrimination on the basis of age in areas such as hiring, firing,
and compensating. It applies
to private employers with 20 or more employees and all
government units. This law protects
employees between 40 and 65 years of age, but in 1978 the law
was amended to afford
protection to age 70, and then in 1986 the law was amended
again to eliminate the upper age

43. limit. Mandatory retirement is prohibited, absent a suitable
defense. The act is enforced by
the EEOC.
◾ Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972: The purpose of
this federal law (EEO) is to
strengthen Title VII by providing the EEOC with additional
enforcement powers to file suits
and issue cease-and-desist orders. Further, EEO expands
coverage to employees of state
and local governments, educational institutions, and private
employers of more than 15
persons. EEO programs are implemented by employers to
prevent discrimination in the
workplace and to offset past employment discrimination.
◾ Rehabilitation Act of 1973: This act requires government
agencies and contractors with the
federal government to take affirmative action to hire those with
physical or mental handicaps.
The act is enforced by the Office of Federal Contract
Compliance Procedures.

44. ◾ Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978: This law requires
pregnancy to be treated as any
other type of disability. And, EEO protection is afforded to
pregnant employees.
◾ Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990: The ADA prohibits
discrimination against
individuals with disabilities and increases their access to
services and jobs. The law requires
employers to make reasonable accommodations for employees
with a disability if doing so
would not create an undue hardship for the employer.
Reasonable accommodations include
making existing facilities accessible and modifying a
workstation. This law has had a
significant impact on the security and safety designs of
buildings. Access controls, doorways,
elevators, and emergency alarm systems are among the many
physical features of a building
that must accommodate disabled people. The act is enforced by
the EEOC.
◾ Civil Rights Act of 1991: This legislation provides additional
remedies to deter employment
discrimination by codifying disparate impact concepts and

45. allowing plaintiffs to demand a jury
trial and seek damages. Ivancevich (2001: 74) writes:
"Disparate impact or unintentional
discrimination occurs when a facially neutral employment
practice has the effect of
disproportionately excluding a group based upon a protected
category." (The U.S. Supreme
Court expanded the definition of illegal discrimination to
include disparate impact as
illustrated in the Griggs case.) This act requires businesses to
prove that the business
practice that led to the charge of discrimination was not
discriminatory but job related for the
position and consistent with business necessity. The act is
enforced by the EEOC.
◾ Disparate treatment is another type of discrimination whereby
an applicant claims that he or
she was not hired because of a discriminatory reason. Examples
are asking only one
applicant about age or asking only female applicants about child
care.
◾ Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993: This legislation
requires employers to provide 12

46. weeks of unpaid leave for family and medical emergencies
without employees suffering job
loss. The act is enforced by the Department of Labor.
U.S. Supreme Court Decisions
When laws are passed, the courts play a role in helping to
define what the legislation means. Such court
cases evolve, for example, when the EEOC develops and
enforces guidelines based on their interpretation
of legislation. Confusion over how to interpret the legislation
has led to many lawsuits and some conflicting
court decisions. What follows here are two famous U.S.
Supreme Court cases from an historical context to
illustrate the development of the issues and laws.
Griggs v. Duke Power (1971): In 1968, several employees of the
Duke Power Company in North Carolina
were given a pencil-and-paper aptitude test for manual labor.
Willie Griggs and 12 other black workers
sued their employer with the charge of job discrimination under
the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Their
contention was that the pencil-and-paper aptitude test had little
to do with their ability to perform manual
labor. The U.S. Supreme Court decided that a test is inherently

47. discriminatory if it is not job related and
differentiates on the basis of race, sex, or religion. Furthermore,
employers are required to prove that their
screening methods are job related.
Bakke v. University of California (1978): Reverse
discrimination was the main issue of this case. Allan
Bakke, a white man, sued the Davis Medical School under the
"equal protection" clause of the 14th
Amendment because it set aside 16 of 100 openings for
minorities, who were evaluated according to
different standards. The Court concluded that the racial quota
system was unacceptable because it
disregarded Bakke's right to equal protection of the law, and
that affirmative action programs are
permissible as long as applicants are considered on an
individual basis and a rigid number of places has
not been set aside. Race can be a key factor in the selection
process; however, multiple factors must be
considered.
What do all these laws and cases mean for those involved in
applicant screening? Basically, all screening

48. methods must be job related, valid, and nondiscriminatory.
Included in this mandate are interviews,
background investigations, and tests. Simply put, the EEOC
regards all screening tools as capable of
discriminating against applicants.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
The EEOC does not have the power to order employers to stop a
discriminatory practice or to provide back
pay to a victim. However, the EEOC has the power to sue an
employer in federal court. The EEOC
requires employers to report employment statistics annually. It
investigates claims, collects facts from all
parties, seeks an out-of-court settlement, and promotes
mediation.
According to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission,
Office of General Counsel (2005), over
24,000 callers a month speak with EEOC customer service
representatives. Another 15,000 customers a
month receive answers to questions through other technology.
Customers can communicate in more than
150 different languages by telephone, fax, written
correspondence, e-mail, and web inquiries. During FY

49. 2005, the agency resolved 66% of private sector charges within
180 days or fewer, 51,060 charges out of
77,441 total resolutions. Fifty-two percent of appeals were
resolved within 180 days or fewer (3,899 out of
7,490 appeals received). The FY 2005 litigation workload was
944 suits, with 561 active and 383 filed.
Seventy-three percent of cases involved Title VII, 12% involved
the ADA, and 10% involved the ADEA.
Federal District Court litigation activity resulted in about $108
million in monetary relief for FY 2005. The
top five defendants versus EEOC were as follows: Abercrombie
& Fitch Stores, Inc. ($50 million); Ford
Motor Co. ($10.2 million); Home Depot, USA, Inc. ($5.5
million); Dial Corp. ($3.3 million); and Hamilton
Sundstrand Corp. ($1.2 million).
Denial of Equal Employment Opportunities Because of Sex
Women's access to employment opportunities continues to be
obstructed by sex bias in some
workplaces, particularly in jobs traditionally held by men. In a
case brought against a nationwide
manufacturer of household products, the Commission alleged
that Dial Corporation's use of a physical
"work tolerance" test for production operator positions at a food

50. processing plant in Iowa intentionally
discriminated against female applicants and also had a disparate
impact on women (Equal
Employment Opportunity Commission, Office of General
Counsel, 2005). In EEOC v. Dial Corp (S.D.
Iowa Sept. 29, 2005), EEOC presented at trial the testimony of
an expert witness that 97% of men
pass the test while only 40% of women succeed, that the test is
more difficult than the job, that the
scoring is subjective, and that the test does not accomplish its
stated objective of reducing injuries.
EEOC also presented testimony from 10 of approximately 40
unsuccessful female applicants, focusing
on their experience in performing jobs that require heavy
lifting. The company presented two expert
witnesses, who testified that the production operator job is in
the 99th percentile of all jobs in the
economy with respect to the physical strength required, that the
test is very like the job and therefore
is content valid, and that the test had in fact reduced injuries.
The jury returned a verdict for EEOC, finding that the
company's continued use of the work tolerance
test since April 2001 (when the company became aware of the
test's disparate impact on women)

51. constituted intentional sex discrimination against women. The
court later ruled that the test had had a
disparate impact on women since its inception in January 2000.
The judgment provides approximately
$3.38 million in back pay, benefits, prejudgment interest, and
compensatory damages to 52 class
members. It also prohibits the company from implementing any
preemployment screening device for
five years without first consulting EEOC, and provides job
offers with rightful place wages to all class
members.
EEO, AA, and Quotas
Equal employment opportunity, affirmative action, and quotas
are important terms relevant to staffing
organizations (Heneman et al., 1997: 62–64). Equal employment
opportunity (EEO) refers to practices
that are designed so that all applicants and employees are
treated similarly without regard to protected
characteristics such as race and sex. For example, suppose a
vacant position requires applicants to
undergo a written job knowledge test and an interview to assess
applicants. Anyone is free to apply for the
position, and all who apply will be given both the test and the

52. interview. How well each performs on both
screening methods determines who is hired. Thus, all applicants
have an equal opportunity and the job will
be offered following an unbiased assessment.
Affirmative action (AA) focuses on procedures employers use to
correct and abolish past discriminatory
employment practices against minority group members, women,
and those in other groups, while setting
goals for hiring and promoting persons from underrepresented
groups. AA may be voluntarily undertaken
by an employer or court ordered. In our previous example, AA
could result if there was a failure to recruit
women and minority group members or if the job knowledge
test was biased. Then management would
make a good faith effort to meet certain hiring goals, for
instance, by improved recruiting.
Quotas are rigid hiring and promotion requirements. In our
previous example, a hiring formula would be
set that specifies the number or percent of women and
minorities to be hired.

53. These concepts, as applied in the workplace, have raised
considerable legal turmoil and controversy over
whether in fact they have been successful in correcting
discrimination. The issue of "reverse
discrimination" has intensified the debate. Court decisions
provide guidelines for employers.
Diversity
Diversity in the workforce encompasses many different
dimensions, including sex, race, natio-nal origin,
religion, age, and disability (Byars and Rue, 1997: 8). The
workforce, historically dominated by white men,
is being increasingly replaced with workers from diverse
backgrounds. DeCenzo and Robbins (2005: 13)
write that much of the workforce change is attributed to federal
legislation prohibiting discrimination, and
minority and female applicants are the fastest growing segments
of the workforce. Projections for the
workforce show that half of the new entrants into the workplace
will be women, the average age of
employees will climb, immigrant employees will have language
and cultural differences, and as companies
become more global, there will be an increasing need to respond

54. to the unique needs of individual
employees, including their languages, values, and customs.
Diversity facilitates tolerance of different
behavioral styles and wider views, which can lead to greater
responsiveness to diverse customers. The
challenge of learning to manage a diverse workforce is an
investment in the future.
In August of 2000, ASIS International held a conference on
"Women and Minorities in Security." The
conference was noteworthy because this field has been
dominated by white males since the beginning.
The speakers were straightforward with the challenges facing
minorities and the security industry. With an
increasingly diverse society, recruitment of women and
minorities is essential; however, public and media
perceptions of security—often in a negative light—make
recruitment difficult. Women have played an
increasing role in the industry, but more needs to be done to
recruit more women, African Americans, and
Hispanics (Hamit, 2000: 60–62).
ASIS International is in a key position to take the lead to meet
the challenges of diversity in the security
industry.