Pegged Exchange Rates are exchange rates that are set by way of “pegging” of one’s currency with another country’s currency or some other valuable measure, such as gold.
To know more about it, click on the link given below:
https://efinancemanagement.com/international-financial-management/pegged-exchange-rate
Pegged Exchange Rates are exchange rates that are set by way of “pegging” of one’s currency with another country’s currency or some other valuable measure, such as gold.
To know more about it, click on the link given below:
https://efinancemanagement.com/international-financial-management/pegged-exchange-rate
this presentation describes how the capital account convertibility is in India.
What is Capital account?
What is Capital account convertibility?
Measures. Advantages and Disadvantages
The foreign exchange market or forex market as it is often called is the market in which currencies are traded.
Currency Trading is the world’s largest market consisting of almost trillion in daily volumes
The market continues to rapidly grow. Not only is the forex market the largest market in the world, but it is also the most liquid, differentiating it from the other markets.
There is no central marketplace for the exchange of currency, but instead the trading is conducted over-the-counter.
This decentralization of the market allows traders to choose from a number of different dealers to make trades with and allows for comparison of prices. Typically, the larger a dealer is the better access they have to pricing at the largest banks in the world, and are able to pass that on to their clients.
The spot currency market is open twenty-four hours a day, five days a week, with currencies being traded around the world in all of the major financial centers.
All trades that take place in the foreign exchange market involve the buying of one currency and the selling of another currency simultaneously. This is because the value of one currency is determined by its comparison to another currency.
The first currency of a currency pair is called the “base currency,” while the second currency is called the counter currency. The currency pair shows how much of the counter currency is needed to purchase one unit of the base currency.
Currency pairs can be thought of as a single unit that can be bought or sold. When purchasing a currency pair, the base currency is being bought, while the counter currency is being sold.
Forex Capital Markets (FXCM) is an online currency trading firm that offers a free demo account to traders who are new and interested in the foreign exchange market.
It allows you to experience every step of currency trading including choosing currency pairs, deciding how much risk to take, tracking the time and dates of placed trades, deciding how long to stay in the trade, and when to exit the trade. It also allows the placing of stop and limit orders on trades.
Information about trading and specifically about how to use the online trading platform can be found on the FXCM webpage. In addition, FXCM offers FREE interactive online seminars that are extremely useful to both new and experienced currency traders.
Characteristics of foreign exchange
Its huge trading volume representing the largest asset class in the world leading to high liquidity;
Its geographical dispersion;
Its continuous operation: 24 hours a day except weekends, i.e., trading from 20:15 GMT on Sunday until 22:00 GMT Friday;
The variety of factors that affect exchange rates;
The low margins of relative profit compared with other markets of fixed income;
The use of leverage to enhance profit and loss margins and with respect to account size.
this presentation describes how the capital account convertibility is in India.
What is Capital account?
What is Capital account convertibility?
Measures. Advantages and Disadvantages
The foreign exchange market or forex market as it is often called is the market in which currencies are traded.
Currency Trading is the world’s largest market consisting of almost trillion in daily volumes
The market continues to rapidly grow. Not only is the forex market the largest market in the world, but it is also the most liquid, differentiating it from the other markets.
There is no central marketplace for the exchange of currency, but instead the trading is conducted over-the-counter.
This decentralization of the market allows traders to choose from a number of different dealers to make trades with and allows for comparison of prices. Typically, the larger a dealer is the better access they have to pricing at the largest banks in the world, and are able to pass that on to their clients.
The spot currency market is open twenty-four hours a day, five days a week, with currencies being traded around the world in all of the major financial centers.
All trades that take place in the foreign exchange market involve the buying of one currency and the selling of another currency simultaneously. This is because the value of one currency is determined by its comparison to another currency.
The first currency of a currency pair is called the “base currency,” while the second currency is called the counter currency. The currency pair shows how much of the counter currency is needed to purchase one unit of the base currency.
Currency pairs can be thought of as a single unit that can be bought or sold. When purchasing a currency pair, the base currency is being bought, while the counter currency is being sold.
Forex Capital Markets (FXCM) is an online currency trading firm that offers a free demo account to traders who are new and interested in the foreign exchange market.
It allows you to experience every step of currency trading including choosing currency pairs, deciding how much risk to take, tracking the time and dates of placed trades, deciding how long to stay in the trade, and when to exit the trade. It also allows the placing of stop and limit orders on trades.
Information about trading and specifically about how to use the online trading platform can be found on the FXCM webpage. In addition, FXCM offers FREE interactive online seminars that are extremely useful to both new and experienced currency traders.
Characteristics of foreign exchange
Its huge trading volume representing the largest asset class in the world leading to high liquidity;
Its geographical dispersion;
Its continuous operation: 24 hours a day except weekends, i.e., trading from 20:15 GMT on Sunday until 22:00 GMT Friday;
The variety of factors that affect exchange rates;
The low margins of relative profit compared with other markets of fixed income;
The use of leverage to enhance profit and loss margins and with respect to account size.
The balance of a payment is a systematic record of all its monetary transections with other countries of the world in a given period of time. i.e 1 year
Analysis of the Export, Import, Balance of Trade, Balance Of Payment and Exch...Abdulla Al Imran
Exporting: Exporting is concerned with the selling of domestic goods in another country
Importing: Importing is concerned with purchasing goods made in another country.
Balance of Trade: The Balance of trade represents the difference between the visible export and import.
Balance of Payment: A Balance of payment represents the difference between visible plus invisible export and visible plus invisible import. Exchange Rate: It is the rate at which one country can exchange its currency with other country’s currency.
I’m a young Pakistani Blogger, Academic Writer, Freelancer, Quaidian & MPhil Scholar, Quote Lover, Co-Founder at Essar Student Fund & Blueprism Academia, belonging from Mehdiabad, Skardu, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan.
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Presentation about Foreign exchange reserves maintained by central banks and monetary authorities of all countries worldwide. It shows the sources and spendings of forex reserves and the advantage of excess reserves.
part 2 of Indian Economy notes for competitive Exams like UPSC, MPSC, CLAT, NDA, AFCAT, CDS, Banking, etc.
Pl follow You tube channel- Current Affairs with Satish Dhage
The secret way to sell pi coins effortlessly.DOT TECH
Well as we all know pi isn't launched yet. But you can still sell your pi coins effortlessly because some whales in China are interested in holding massive pi coins. And they are willing to pay good money for it. If you are interested in selling I will leave a contact for you. Just telegram this number below. I sold about 3000 pi coins to him and he paid me immediately.
Telegram: @Pi_vendor_247
What price will pi network be listed on exchangesDOT TECH
The rate at which pi will be listed is practically unknown. But due to speculations surrounding it the predicted rate is tends to be from 30$ — 50$.
So if you are interested in selling your pi network coins at a high rate tho. Or you can't wait till the mainnet launch in 2026. You can easily trade your pi coins with a merchant.
A merchant is someone who buys pi coins from miners and resell them to Investors looking forward to hold massive quantities till mainnet launch.
I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi vendor to trade with.
@Pi_vendor_247
how to sell pi coins in South Korea profitably.DOT TECH
Yes. You can sell your pi network coins in South Korea or any other country, by finding a verified pi merchant
What is a verified pi merchant?
Since pi network is not launched yet on any exchange, the only way you can sell pi coins is by selling to a verified pi merchant, and this is because pi network is not launched yet on any exchange and no pre-sale or ico offerings Is done on pi.
Since there is no pre-sale, the only way exchanges can get pi is by buying from miners. So a pi merchant facilitates these transactions by acting as a bridge for both transactions.
How can i find a pi vendor/merchant?
Well for those who haven't traded with a pi merchant or who don't already have one. I will leave the telegram id of my personal pi merchant who i trade pi with.
Tele gram: @Pi_vendor_247
#pi #sell #nigeria #pinetwork #picoins #sellpi #Nigerian #tradepi #pinetworkcoins #sellmypi
what is the future of Pi Network currency.DOT TECH
The future of the Pi cryptocurrency is uncertain, and its success will depend on several factors. Pi is a relatively new cryptocurrency that aims to be user-friendly and accessible to a wide audience. Here are a few key considerations for its future:
Message: @Pi_vendor_247 on telegram if u want to sell PI COINS.
1. Mainnet Launch: As of my last knowledge update in January 2022, Pi was still in the testnet phase. Its success will depend on a successful transition to a mainnet, where actual transactions can take place.
2. User Adoption: Pi's success will be closely tied to user adoption. The more users who join the network and actively participate, the stronger the ecosystem can become.
3. Utility and Use Cases: For a cryptocurrency to thrive, it must offer utility and practical use cases. The Pi team has talked about various applications, including peer-to-peer transactions, smart contracts, and more. The development and implementation of these features will be essential.
4. Regulatory Environment: The regulatory environment for cryptocurrencies is evolving globally. How Pi navigates and complies with regulations in various jurisdictions will significantly impact its future.
5. Technology Development: The Pi network must continue to develop and improve its technology, security, and scalability to compete with established cryptocurrencies.
6. Community Engagement: The Pi community plays a critical role in its future. Engaged users can help build trust and grow the network.
7. Monetization and Sustainability: The Pi team's monetization strategy, such as fees, partnerships, or other revenue sources, will affect its long-term sustainability.
It's essential to approach Pi or any new cryptocurrency with caution and conduct due diligence. Cryptocurrency investments involve risks, and potential rewards can be uncertain. The success and future of Pi will depend on the collective efforts of its team, community, and the broader cryptocurrency market dynamics. It's advisable to stay updated on Pi's development and follow any updates from the official Pi Network website or announcements from the team.
If you are looking for a pi coin investor. Then look no further because I have the right one he is a pi vendor (he buy and resell to whales in China). I met him on a crypto conference and ever since I and my friends have sold more than 10k pi coins to him And he bought all and still want more. I will drop his telegram handle below just send him a message.
@Pi_vendor_247
Poonawalla Fincorp and IndusInd Bank Introduce New Co-Branded Credit Cardnickysharmasucks
The unveiling of the IndusInd Bank Poonawalla Fincorp eLITE RuPay Platinum Credit Card marks a notable milestone in the Indian financial landscape, showcasing a successful partnership between two leading institutions, Poonawalla Fincorp and IndusInd Bank. This co-branded credit card not only offers users a plethora of benefits but also reflects a commitment to innovation and adaptation. With a focus on providing value-driven and customer-centric solutions, this launch represents more than just a new product—it signifies a step towards redefining the banking experience for millions. Promising convenience, rewards, and a touch of luxury in everyday financial transactions, this collaboration aims to cater to the evolving needs of customers and set new standards in the industry.
The European Unemployment Puzzle: implications from population agingGRAPE
We study the link between the evolving age structure of the working population and unemployment. We build a large new Keynesian OLG model with a realistic age structure, labor market frictions, sticky prices, and aggregate shocks. Once calibrated to the European economy, we quantify the extent to which demographic changes over the last three decades have contributed to the decline of the unemployment rate. Our findings yield important implications for the future evolution of unemployment given the anticipated further aging of the working population in Europe. We also quantify the implications for optimal monetary policy: lowering inflation volatility becomes less costly in terms of GDP and unemployment volatility, which hints that optimal monetary policy may be more hawkish in an aging society. Finally, our results also propose a partial reversal of the European-US unemployment puzzle due to the fact that the share of young workers is expected to remain robust in the US.
BYD SWOT Analysis and In-Depth Insights 2024.pptxmikemetalprod
Indepth analysis of the BYD 2024
BYD (Build Your Dreams) is a Chinese automaker and battery manufacturer that has snowballed over the past two decades to become a significant player in electric vehicles and global clean energy technology.
This SWOT analysis examines BYD's strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats as it competes in the fast-changing automotive and energy storage industries.
Founded in 1995 and headquartered in Shenzhen, BYD started as a battery company before expanding into automobiles in the early 2000s.
Initially manufacturing gasoline-powered vehicles, BYD focused on plug-in hybrid and fully electric vehicles, leveraging its expertise in battery technology.
Today, BYD is the world’s largest electric vehicle manufacturer, delivering over 1.2 million electric cars globally. The company also produces electric buses, trucks, forklifts, and rail transit.
On the energy side, BYD is a major supplier of rechargeable batteries for cell phones, laptops, electric vehicles, and energy storage systems.
where can I find a legit pi merchant onlineDOT TECH
Yes. This is very easy what you need is a recommendation from someone who has successfully traded pi coins before with a merchant.
Who is a pi merchant?
A pi merchant is someone who buys pi network coins and resell them to Investors looking forward to hold thousands of pi coins before the open mainnet.
I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant to trade with
@Pi_vendor_247
USDA Loans in California: A Comprehensive Overview.pptxmarketing367770
USDA Loans in California: A Comprehensive Overview
If you're dreaming of owning a home in California's rural or suburban areas, a USDA loan might be the perfect solution. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) offers these loans to help low-to-moderate-income individuals and families achieve homeownership.
Key Features of USDA Loans:
Zero Down Payment: USDA loans require no down payment, making homeownership more accessible.
Competitive Interest Rates: These loans often come with lower interest rates compared to conventional loans.
Flexible Credit Requirements: USDA loans have more lenient credit score requirements, helping those with less-than-perfect credit.
Guaranteed Loan Program: The USDA guarantees a portion of the loan, reducing risk for lenders and expanding borrowing options.
Eligibility Criteria:
Location: The property must be located in a USDA-designated rural or suburban area. Many areas in California qualify.
Income Limits: Applicants must meet income guidelines, which vary by region and household size.
Primary Residence: The home must be used as the borrower's primary residence.
Application Process:
Find a USDA-Approved Lender: Not all lenders offer USDA loans, so it's essential to choose one approved by the USDA.
Pre-Qualification: Determine your eligibility and the amount you can borrow.
Property Search: Look for properties in eligible rural or suburban areas.
Loan Application: Submit your application, including financial and personal information.
Processing and Approval: The lender and USDA will review your application. If approved, you can proceed to closing.
USDA loans are an excellent option for those looking to buy a home in California's rural and suburban areas. With no down payment and flexible requirements, these loans make homeownership more attainable for many families. Explore your eligibility today and take the first step toward owning your dream home.
how to sell pi coins effectively (from 50 - 100k pi)DOT TECH
Anywhere in the world, including Africa, America, and Europe, you can sell Pi Network Coins online and receive cash through online payment options.
Pi has not yet been launched on any exchange because we are currently using the confined Mainnet. The planned launch date for Pi is June 28, 2026.
Reselling to investors who want to hold until the mainnet launch in 2026 is currently the sole way to sell.
Consequently, right now. All you need to do is select the right pi network provider.
Who is a pi merchant?
An individual who buys coins from miners on the pi network and resells them to investors hoping to hang onto them until the mainnet is launched is known as a pi merchant.
debuts.
I'll provide you the Telegram username
@Pi_vendor_247
how to sell pi coins effectively (from 50 - 100k pi)
India's forex situation & issues
1. BALANCE OF PAYMENT AND
EXCHANGE
Submitted To: Prof. Shrikant Iyenger
Submitted By:
Piyush Gaur
Krutarth Gandhi
Nishidh Shah
Pratyancha Suryavanshi
Sonal Nagpal
2. Balance of Payments
The BOP is a statistical record of the flow of all of the
payments between the residents of a country and the rest
of the world in a given year.
Transactions are recorded on the basis of double entry
bookkeeping – by definition it has to balance.
- Every “source” must have a “use”.
The two main components are:
- Current Account
- Capital/Financial Account
3. Importance of BOP
The BOP is an important indicator of pressure on
a country’s foreign exchange rate .
The BOP helps to forecast a country’s market
potential, especially in the short run.
Changes in a country’s BOP may signal the
imposition or removal of controls over payment of
dividends and interest, license fees, royalty fees, or
other cash disbursements to foreign firms or
investors.
4. FOREIGN EXCHANGE
TRANSACTIONS
Current Account Capital Account
FDI Portfolio Loan
Trade Invisibles
Tour (Govt/
Travel Pvt(ECB)
Remittance
Imports Gift Foreign Indian
Exports Profit/Div/int Source Source
Fcy A/C
(FII) (GDR/ADR) RI & NRI
4
5. Contents of BOP
Current account
Capital account
Financial account
Net errors and omissions account
Reserves and related items
6. Current account (CA)
This is record of a country’s trade in goods and
services in the current period.
CA = Exports (X) – Imports (M)
It is divided into 4 sub-categories:
Goods trade
Services trade
Income
Current transfers
The sum of the four sub-categories = CA balance
8. Current Account Convertibility
In India, In Current Account can be converted into
Foreign Currency (E.g. $) or Vice-versa.
It is Freely permitted in India by Reserve Bank of
India.
9. Capital account (KA)
This includes all short- and long-term transactions
pertaining to financial assets.
KA = Capital Inflow (cr) – Capital outflow (dr)
The two main components:
Capital account.
Financial account (direct, portfolio, other).
KA balance = Sum of capital account and financial
account.
10. Capital Account Convertibility
In India, Partial Capital Account convertibility is
there, i.e. up to $200,000 is allowed by Reserve bank
of India.
Up to $500 million the bank need not to take
permission from RBI for Foreign Loan.
14. Net errors and omissions
account
Missing data such as illegal
transfers
15. Official Reserves
Records the purchase or sale of official reserve assets by the
central bank. These assets include
Commercial paper, Treasury bills and bonds
Foreign currency
Money deposited with the IMF
This account shows the change in foreign exchange reserves
held by the central bank.
Since the BOP must balance
CA + KA + ∆RFX = 0
CA + KA = – ∆RFX
For floating rate regime countries, such as the U.S., official
reserves are relatively unimportant.
17. India’s Overall Balance Of Payment (April-Sept
2010 USD $ Million)
Item Credit Debit Net
A.CURRENT ACCOUNT
I. MERCHANDISE 110,518 177,457 -66,939
II.INVISIBLES 87,982 48,924 39,058
Total Current Account (I+II) 198,500 226,381 -27,881
B. CAPITAL ACCOUNT
1. Foreign Investment 120,179 91,042 29,137
2.Loans 50,110 34,394 15,716
3. Banking Capital 33,735 32,901 834
4. Rupee Debt Service - 17 -17
5. Other Capital 3,756 12,765 -9,009
Total Capital Account (1to5)
207,780 171,119 36,661
C. Errors & Omissions
- 1,750 -1,750
D. Overall Balance
18. BOP Trends and 1991 crisis
Protectionist Policies
The main objective of the Second Five Year Plan (1956-57 to 1960-61) was
to attain self reliance through industrialization.
Heavy capital goods were imported but other imports were severely
restricted to shut off competition in order to promote domestic
industries.
The high degree of protection to Indian industries led to inefficiency and
poor quality products due to lack of competition. The high cost of
production further eroded our competitive strength.
Rising petroleum products demand, the two oil shocks, harvest failure,
all put severe strain on the economy. The BOP situation remained weak
throughout the 1980s, till it reached the crisis situation in 1990-91.
19. External Debt
India had to resort to large scale foreign borrowings for its
developmental efforts in the field of basic social and
industrial infrastructure.
Government of India resorted to heavy foreign
borrowings to correct the BOP situation in the short run
out of panicky.
By the Seventh Five Year Plan, the debt service
obligations rose sharply because of harder average terms
of external debt, involving commercial borrowing,
repayments to the IMF and a fall in concessional aid flow.
20. Exchange rate
The instability of the exchange value of the rupee was another problem. The
constant devaluations (to promote exports) raised the amount of external debt
India followed a strongly inward looking policy, laying stress on import
substitution.
Ideally, imports should be financed by export earnings. But because there was
export pessimism, the deficit was financed either by the invisible earnings or
by foreign aid or depletion of valuable foreign exchange reserve.
Much import constraint to check trade deficit was also not possible because
India’s imports were mainly ‘maintenance imports’. On one hand import
reduction was not possible and on the other exports suffered due to the
recession in the 1980s.
india’s BOP was thus beset with several problems. The process of liberalization
began from the mid 1980s. Restriction on certain imports were removed,
particularly those which were used as inputs for export production. But by
then the situation was already bad and all the mismanagement ultimately led
to the 1990-91 BOP crisis.
21. Components of the trade
Imports
-bulk imports: petroleum, crude oil products, bulk
consumption goods, other bulk items.
-non bulk imports: capital goods, mainly export related
items
Exports
-agriculture and allied products, ores and minerals,
manufactured goods, mineral fuels.
22. Specialization And Trade
Absolute Advantage:
Where one country can produce goods with fewer
resources than others.
Comparative Advantage:
Where one country can produce the goods with low
opportunity costs – It sacrifices its less resources in
production.
23. India’s Foreign Trade
Major Export Destinations
Country 2008-09
($ bn) % share in Total
1 USA 19.7 12%
2 United Arab Emirates 17.8 11%
3 China 8.5 5%
4 Singapore 7.6 5%
5 Hong Kong 6.4 4%
6 United Kingdom 6.2 4%
7 Germany 5.9 4%
8 Netherlands 5.9 4%
9 Saudi Arabia 4.8 3%
10 Belgium 4.3 3%
23
24. India’s Foreign Trade
Major Import Commodities
Commodity 2008-09 % share in Total
($ bn)
1 Petroleum, Crude and products 93.1 32.36%
2 Machinery, Electrical and non-electrical 24.3 8.44%
3 Electronic goods 21.5 7.48%
4 Gold and silver 19.5 6.76%
5 Fertilizer, crude and manufactured 13.6 4.72%
6 Pearls, precious and semi-precious 12.8 4.44%
7 Organic and inorganic chemicals 12.8 4.43%
8 Coal, coke and briquettes 10.5 3.64%
9 Iron & Steel 9.5 3.30%
10 Metaliferrous ores and metal scrap 8.3 2.89%
24
28. How to correct the Balance of
Payment ?
Monetary Measures for Correcting the BoP
1. Deflation
2. Exchange Depreciation
3. Devaluation
4. Exchange Control
Non-Monetary Measures for Correcting the BoP
1. Tariffs
2. Quotas
3. Export Promotion
4. Import Substitution
29. BOP & Macroeconomic
Variables
A nation’s balance of payments interacts with nearly
all of its key macroeconomic variables.
Interacts means that the BOP affects and is affected
by such key macroeconomic factors as:
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
Exchange rate
Interest rates
Inflation rates
30. FOREIGN EXCHANGE
Method by which rights to wealth expressed in terms of
currency of one country are converted into rights to
wealth in terms of currency of another country are known
as Foreign Exchange.
Prices of foreign currencies expressed in terms of other
currencies is called Foreign Exchange Rate.
Determinants of Exchange Rates:
Exchange rates are determined by the demand for and
the supply of currencies on the foreign exchange
market
31. Exchange Rates
The demand and supply of currencies is in turn
determined by:
Relative interest rates
The demand for imports
The demand for exports
Investment opportunities
Speculative sentiments
Global trading patterns
Changes in relative inflation rates
32. Foreign Exchange Includes
A Currency Note Bills of Exchange
Bank balance in Foreign Currency Travellers Cheque
33. FOREIGN EXCHANGE
MARKETS
Peculiarities
Largest financial market in the world.
No single location, No barriers.
Open 24 hours a day.
Indian market timings are 9.00 am to 5.00 pm
An over the counter market (OTC).
Exchange rate fluctuate almost every 2/3 seconds.
Controls/policies of respective countries.
Effect of other markets-Money,capital,debt.
34. Like any other commodity,
foreign exchange also has follow
market set up
WHOLESALE MARKET
OR
INTER BANK MARKET
RETAIL MARKET
35. Sources of Foreign Exchanges
Export Receipts (Diamond, Pharmacy, Cotton, etc)
Inward Remittances
(Money sent by NRI through bank to India)
Borrowings
(Company borrow from Foreign banks)
37. Players in Foreign Exchange
Market
Reserve Bank of Indi Exchange brokers
Authorized Money Changers
Authorized Dealers FEDAI
38. Money Changers in India
Restricted Money Changers
Can only Buy Foreign Currency
e.g. Hotels
Full Fledged Money Changers
Can buy & sell Foreign currency
e.g. Thomas Cook
39. Indirect quotations
INR 1 = USD 0.02225
INR 1 = GBP 0.01419
- Home currency fixed.
- Foreign currency variable .
(Indirect quotations were being used in India till July
1993)
40. Direct quotations
USD 1 = INR 45.58
GBP 1 = INR 73.70
- Foreign currency fixed
- Home currency variable
(Used in India from August 1993)
41. Inflation And Foreign Exchange
High Inflation in India
(5% Average Inflation in India, more than 8% now)
Whereas In developed countries Inflation is below 1%
Due to High Inflation Interest rate are higher in India
Foreign Currency is Appreciating & Indian Currency is
Depreciating
42. Fixed Exchange Rate
In a fixed exchange rate system – foreign central
banks buy and sell their currencies at a fixed price
in terms of the domestic currency
Prior to 1973, most countries had fixed exchange
rates against each other
However, if the country persistently runs deficits in
the BOP, the central bank eventually runs out of
foreign currencies, and will not be able to carry out
the interventions
In such a situation, the central bank will have to
ultimately devalue its currency
44. Pros and Cons of Fixed
Exchange Rate
Argument in favor of fixed exchange rate
Certainty
Less inflationary
Promotes money and capital markets
Helps in the smooth working of the international monetary
system
Prevents monetary shocks
Argument against fixed exchange rate
Heavy burden on exchange reserve
Country must have sufficient reserve
Fails to solve the balance of payment disequilibrium
Does not prevent real shock
It is not a long term solution if the underlying economy is weak
45. Flexible Exchange Rate
In a flexible exchange rate system, the central
bank allows the exchange rate to adjust to equate
the supply and demand for foreign currency. In
effect since 1973
Clean floating – the central bank stands aside
completely and allows the exchange rate to be freely
determined in the forex market – official reserve
transactions are zero
Managed float - the central bank intervenes to buy
or sell foreign currencies periodically in an attempt
to influence the exchange rates
47. Pros and Cons of Flexible
Exchange Rate
Argument in favor of flexible exchange rate
Simple operation, smoother, more fluid adjustment
Brings realism in forex transactions
Disequilibrium in balance of payment autostabilized
No need for forex reserve to manage exchange rate
Prevents real shocks
Reinforces the effectiveness of monetary policy
expansionary
contractionary
Argument against flexible exchange rate
Exchange rate risk –futures market
Adverse effect of speculation
Encourages inflation
Far from perfect system, but no better system exists
48. Bretton Woods I
The original Bretton Woods system was the system of
fixed exchange rates that existed from the end of
World War II (1946), until its collapse in 1971.
John Maynard Keynes was a principle architect of the
Bretton Woods System.
Global financial system would have fixed exchange
rates in order to prevent the beggar-thy-neighbor
policies of currency devaluations that characterized the
1930’s.
The dollar could be converted to any other major
48
49. Role of IBRD & IMF
IBRD: International Bank For Reconstruction And
Development
Give loans to countries for reconstruction of
Infrastructure.
IMF: International Monetary Fund
To monitor Exchange rate stability
Advice country to follow Fixed exchange rate system
Give loans to countries to overcome BOP problems
50. End of Bretton
Woods I
By the early 1970s, as the Vietnam War accelerated
inflation, the United States was running not just a
balance of payments deficit but also a trade deficit.
The crucial turning point was 1970, which saw U.S.
gold coverage deteriorate from 55% to 22%.
In the first six months of 1971, assets for $22 billion
fled the United States. In response, on August 15, 1971,
President Nixon unilaterally “closed the gold
window.”
50
51. Bretton Woods II
“Bretton Woods II” is a term coined by three
Deutsche Bank economists — Michael Dooley, Peter
Garber, and David Folkers-Landau — in a series of
papers in 2003–2004 to describe the current
international monetary system:
In this system, the United States and the Asian
economies have entered into an implicit contract
where the U.S. runs current account deficits and the
Asian countries keep their currencies fixed and
undervalued by buying U.S. government debt.
51
52. Bretton Woods II
According to Dooley, Folkert-Landau, and Garber (DFG),
this system has benefits to both parties:
The U.S. obtains a stable and low-cost source of funding for
its current account and budget deficits, and can easily reduce
taxes, and increase government spending at the same time.
For the Asian countries, the undervalued currency creates
export-led development strategy that produces economic
and employment growth to keep the lid on potentially
explosive pressures rising large pools of surplus labor.
52
53. US-China Currency Issue
China have trade surplus with USA & World.
Chinese central bank maintained currency exchange
fixed ($ = 8.28 Yuan)
YEAR China Forex China Trade
Reserve (in $) Surplus (in $)
2006 1.06 Trillion 178 Billion
2007 1.5 Trillion 268 Billion
2008 1.9 Trillion 297 Billion
2009 2.39 Trillion 198 Billion
2010 2.64 Trillion 184.7 Billion
55. US-China Currency Issue
China Modified its Currency Policy on
July 21, 2005.
Yuan’s Exchange rate become adjustable with respect
to Market Demand & Supply of currency in Basket.
Basket includes Dollar, Euro, & Yen etc.
So $ = 8.11 Yuan (2.1% appreciation)
Also Yuan can fluctuate by 0.3% on daily basis against
basket.
56. US-China Currency Issue
China’s Currency is Undervalued by 40%.
Resulted in:
Chinese export to US Cheaper
& US export to China Expensive
Also rise in Trade Deficit from $ 30bn in 1994 to $
260bn in 2007.
57. 1988 Omnibus Trade &
Competitiveness Act.
Act requires the Treasury Department to report on
exchange rate policies of Countries which have large
Global Current Account Surplus & Trade Surplus with
US.
The aim was to find out, if they manipulate their
currencies against dollar.
And if manipulation found than Treasury is required
to negotiate & end such practices.
58. China reformed its currency in July 2005 and
Treasury made following observation about
China:
Current Account Surplus has reduced by Chinese
Government.
2006 – China made progress to make currency more
flexible.
2007 – Under US law China has no currency
manipulation.
2007 – China should accelerate the appreciation of
RMB’s effective exchange rate in order to minimize risk.
59. China Foreign Currency reserve
China has highest foreign currency reserve because of:
High amount of Export
& Hot money arrival i.e. foreign funds bought into the
country.
To tackle this the value of RMB should increase.
In 2008 Foreign Exchange Regulations approach RMB
exchange rate against other fully convertible currencies
using floating system, based on Demand & Supply of
Foreign Currency.
61. Reasons China should let RMB appreciate,
in its own interest
1. Overheating of economy
2. Reserves are excessive.
It gets harder to sterilize the inflow over time.
1. Attaining internal and external balance.
In a large country like China,
expenditure-switching policy should be the exchange rate.
1. Avoiding future crashes.
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62. Policies to reduce the US CA deficit
Reduce the US budget deficit over time,
thus raising national saving.
After all, this is where the deficits originated.
Depreciate the $ more.
Better to do it in a controlled way
than in a sudden free-fall.
The $ already depreciated a lot against the €
& other currencies
from 2002 to 2007.
Who is left?
The RMB is conspicuous as the one major currency
62
63. Problems with BW2: People’
Bank of China
U.S. absorbs 80 percent of world’s savings not
invested at their home country.
The large CAD sends billions of dollars abroad,
particularly to China.
People’s Bank of China uses the inflow of dollars to
purchase assets, mostly U.S. Treasuries.
Much of the $400 billion fiscal deficit is financed by
China.
If China stops purchasing U.S. assets and switches to
Japan, Europe, or other markets, it will cause a fall in
the dollar and long-term interest rates will increase.
63
64. Conclusions
In any case, the new Chinese Exchange Rate
Mechanism is a step to the right direction.
The United States, in contrast, has not done
anything.
President Bush has not vetoed a single spending bill.
The government spending has increased faster than at
any time since the 1960’s (“the Great Society” welfare
programs and Vietnam War).
The massive tax cuts passed in 2001–2003 are set to
expire in 2008–2010. 64
65. What the China should do?
If China intends to allow a series of small appreciations in
the renminbi then it either has to
1. Keep its interest rates below U.S. rates, so that low interest
rates offset the expected return from renminbi appreciation
over time (currently bank deposit rates in China are capped
at 2.5%, below the 3.5% federal funds rate).
2. Intervene a lot.
3. Or do both.
Either way, this policy prevents independent Chinese
monetary policy.
65
66. What the U.S. Should Do?
Since these are temporary tax cuts and the likelihood
they waill be made permanent is low, basic economic
theory tells us that their positive incentive effects are
small.
Since the President and the Congress are unable to
control spending, the simplest way for the U.S. to
reduce its fiscal deficit (and, indirectly, current
account deficit) would be to repeal the 2001–2003 tax
cuts.
66
67. References
RBI’s Master circular on risk management.
( www.rbi.org.in)
FEDAI Rules
www.tradingeconomics.com
www.chinability.com/Reserves.htm
International Economics - H G Mannur