IED's Hyun Son was invited to deliver a lecture on inclusive growth at the Stephen Zuelling Graduate School of the Asian Institute of Management. Her lecture dealt with issues on measurement and operationalization of inclusive growth for Asia and the Pacific. Dean moderated the lecture, which was attended by around 50 participants
Dimensions of Inclusive Development: Growth, Gender, Poverty and the EnvironmentUNDP Policy Centre
This new issue of the Poverty in Focus magazine presents 12 articles that discuss the main policy issues for a new inclusive and sustainable development paradigm. As a contribution to the dialogue around Rio+20 and to the ongoing discussions around a post-2015 MDG Agenda, this Poverty in Focus links future development to sustainability and particularly to social sustainability. Looking beyond the critical issues of ‘carbon footprints’, ‘low-carbon development’,’ green economy’ and the economics behind saving the planet, it draws attention back to the continuing challenge of ensuring that growth and development
deliver for the poor and vulnerable. In its many forms—energy poverty, lack of access to water and sanitation, malnutrition or insecure access to food, and lack of access to education and health—the scale and scope of global deprivation call current development policy and practice into question.
Fabio Veras Soares, Raquel Ramos and Rafael Ranieri
IPC-IG
Inclusive Growth: Building a concept
Asia Public Policy Forum 2013
Jakarta, Indonesia May 28-30, 2013
Inclusive growth in India- prospects and challenges Jagriti Rohit
India’s government has made “inclusive growth” a key element of their policy platform, stating as a goal: “Achieving a growth process in which people in different walks in life… feel that they too benefit significantly from the process.” (Ahluwalia, 2007)
Inclusive development considers whether development progress is sufficiently widespread for the majority of a population to benefit
The World Bank has a particular focus on the economic capabilities, freedoms and resilience of the bottom 40 per cent of the World’s population and the relatively poor in individual countries.
Per capita incomes can rise but simultaneously there can also be an increase in the scale of relative poverty
The inter-generational nature of development progress also needs to be considered – i.e. creating an environment fit for future generations.
One of the defining debates in development economics is the extent to which state intervention enables inclusive growth or whether a dynamic private sector offers greater potential for lifting development progress.
Dimensions of Inclusive Development: Growth, Gender, Poverty and the EnvironmentUNDP Policy Centre
This new issue of the Poverty in Focus magazine presents 12 articles that discuss the main policy issues for a new inclusive and sustainable development paradigm. As a contribution to the dialogue around Rio+20 and to the ongoing discussions around a post-2015 MDG Agenda, this Poverty in Focus links future development to sustainability and particularly to social sustainability. Looking beyond the critical issues of ‘carbon footprints’, ‘low-carbon development’,’ green economy’ and the economics behind saving the planet, it draws attention back to the continuing challenge of ensuring that growth and development
deliver for the poor and vulnerable. In its many forms—energy poverty, lack of access to water and sanitation, malnutrition or insecure access to food, and lack of access to education and health—the scale and scope of global deprivation call current development policy and practice into question.
Fabio Veras Soares, Raquel Ramos and Rafael Ranieri
IPC-IG
Inclusive Growth: Building a concept
Asia Public Policy Forum 2013
Jakarta, Indonesia May 28-30, 2013
Inclusive growth in India- prospects and challenges Jagriti Rohit
India’s government has made “inclusive growth” a key element of their policy platform, stating as a goal: “Achieving a growth process in which people in different walks in life… feel that they too benefit significantly from the process.” (Ahluwalia, 2007)
Inclusive development considers whether development progress is sufficiently widespread for the majority of a population to benefit
The World Bank has a particular focus on the economic capabilities, freedoms and resilience of the bottom 40 per cent of the World’s population and the relatively poor in individual countries.
Per capita incomes can rise but simultaneously there can also be an increase in the scale of relative poverty
The inter-generational nature of development progress also needs to be considered – i.e. creating an environment fit for future generations.
One of the defining debates in development economics is the extent to which state intervention enables inclusive growth or whether a dynamic private sector offers greater potential for lifting development progress.
Inclusive growth is a current applied phenomenon in the development plans of INDIA which is compulsorily accounts growth of all sectors i.e; inclusive governance,infrastructure development,sustainable development,poverty reduction and decentralized decision making process with special emphasis to women,elderly people,,child,disabled people.
Principles and Concepts Development
What is the real meaning of development?
Why do some countries develop and others remain poor?
What are the sources of development and how do we measure development?
Does historical record of development help us understand it better?
What are the most influential theories of development and are they compatible?
Is development process of developing nations independent or interdependent with that of developed nations?
Definition of Economic Development: 1950s
In economic terms, development is the capacity of a nation to generate and sustain an annual increase in its GNP of 5% or more.
Traditional economic measures:
GDP: is the market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time
Y=C+I+G+NX
GNP: is the market value of all final goods and services produced by permanent residents of a country in a given period of time
GNP= GDP+ net factor income from abroad
The Millennium Development Goals Report 2009endpoverty2015
This report is based on a master set of data that has been compiled by an Inter-Agency and Expert
Group on MDG Indicators led by the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United
Nations Secretariat, in response to the wishes of the General Assembly for periodic assessment of
progress towards the MDGs. The Group comprises representatives of the international
organizations whose activities include the preparation of one or more of the series of statistical indicators that were identified as appropriate for monitoring progress towards the MDGs, as reflected in the list below. A number of national statisticians and outside expert advisers also contributed.
Poverty in India is widespread, and a variety of methods have been proposed to measure it. The official measure of Indian government, before 2005, was based on food security and it was defined from per capita expenditure for a person to consume enough calories and be able to pay for associated essentials to survive. Since 2005, Indian government adopted the Tendulkar methodology which moved away from calorie anchor to a basket of goods and used rural, urban and regional minimum expenditure per capita necessary to survive.
The World Bank has similarly revised its definition and benchmarks to measure poverty since 1990, with $2.25 per day income on purchasing power parity basis as the definition in use from 2005 to 2013. Some semi-economic and non-economic indices have also been proposed to measure poverty in India; for example, the Multi-dimensional Poverty Index placed 33% weight on number of years spent in school and education and 6.25% weight on financial condition of a person, in order to determine if that person is poor.
IFPRI Policy Seminar presentation on Inclusive Growth and Policy Relevance for Asia and the Pacific by Asian Development Bank VP Dr. Ursula Schaefer-Preuss. Remarks delivered at IFPRI on 28 September 2010.
Inclusive growth is a current applied phenomenon in the development plans of INDIA which is compulsorily accounts growth of all sectors i.e; inclusive governance,infrastructure development,sustainable development,poverty reduction and decentralized decision making process with special emphasis to women,elderly people,,child,disabled people.
Principles and Concepts Development
What is the real meaning of development?
Why do some countries develop and others remain poor?
What are the sources of development and how do we measure development?
Does historical record of development help us understand it better?
What are the most influential theories of development and are they compatible?
Is development process of developing nations independent or interdependent with that of developed nations?
Definition of Economic Development: 1950s
In economic terms, development is the capacity of a nation to generate and sustain an annual increase in its GNP of 5% or more.
Traditional economic measures:
GDP: is the market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time
Y=C+I+G+NX
GNP: is the market value of all final goods and services produced by permanent residents of a country in a given period of time
GNP= GDP+ net factor income from abroad
The Millennium Development Goals Report 2009endpoverty2015
This report is based on a master set of data that has been compiled by an Inter-Agency and Expert
Group on MDG Indicators led by the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United
Nations Secretariat, in response to the wishes of the General Assembly for periodic assessment of
progress towards the MDGs. The Group comprises representatives of the international
organizations whose activities include the preparation of one or more of the series of statistical indicators that were identified as appropriate for monitoring progress towards the MDGs, as reflected in the list below. A number of national statisticians and outside expert advisers also contributed.
Poverty in India is widespread, and a variety of methods have been proposed to measure it. The official measure of Indian government, before 2005, was based on food security and it was defined from per capita expenditure for a person to consume enough calories and be able to pay for associated essentials to survive. Since 2005, Indian government adopted the Tendulkar methodology which moved away from calorie anchor to a basket of goods and used rural, urban and regional minimum expenditure per capita necessary to survive.
The World Bank has similarly revised its definition and benchmarks to measure poverty since 1990, with $2.25 per day income on purchasing power parity basis as the definition in use from 2005 to 2013. Some semi-economic and non-economic indices have also been proposed to measure poverty in India; for example, the Multi-dimensional Poverty Index placed 33% weight on number of years spent in school and education and 6.25% weight on financial condition of a person, in order to determine if that person is poor.
IFPRI Policy Seminar presentation on Inclusive Growth and Policy Relevance for Asia and the Pacific by Asian Development Bank VP Dr. Ursula Schaefer-Preuss. Remarks delivered at IFPRI on 28 September 2010.
Poverty implicates a condition where people are unable to afford the minimal standards of food, clothing, healthcare, education, and also not capable to continue traditions that are important to them. Poverty reduction strategies now receive high attention across the world because of the negative impact on the individual and national prosperity. The average poverty rate of about 68.40 percent is a clear indication that a majority of Nigerian citizens sleep below the poverty line despite the presence of poverty reduction programmes. The exploratory research method was deployed for the study in an attempt to explore the impact of NEEDS as a poverty reduction strategy in Nigeria. Through statistical analysis, it was found that NEEDS has not made significant positive impact on poverty reduction in Nigeria.
Graduation from Poverty versus Graduating from Social Protection – setting t...UNDP Policy Centre
The IPC-IG was honoured to participate in the Transfer Project Workshop, held in Arusha, from 2 to 4 April 2019, where researchers and policymakers gathered to discuss evidence for social protection policies in sub-Saharan Africa. IPC-IG Senior Research Coordinator Fábio Veras delivered the presentation "Graduation from Poverty versus Graduating from Social Protection – Setting the Scene and Discussing the Evidence". The Transfer Project is a partnership between UNICEF, FAO, UNC Chapel Hill, national governments and local research partners.
Analysis of Relationshipbetween Socio-Economic Factors and the Level of Pover...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: This research was conducted at Makasar with the research region was Indonesia which
consisted of 34 provinces by using secondary data from 2017 to 2022. The research aim was to study the
influence of on education, economic growth, wage, unemploymentand the number of MSMEs on poverty
Inequality in Indonesia.
The result of analysis show that the education and number of MSMEs on a significant negative influence on
poverty both the depth and severity of poverty. Whereas wages and unemployment have a positive
influence on the severity of poverty, but economic growth, education and MSMEs do not affect it in Indonesia.It
wasshown that economic growth did not influence significantly on the two kind of poverty significantly.
Keywords: Economic growth, unemployment, poverty, wages, education and micro, small and medium
enterprises
Demographic profile of INDIA - Opportunity or ThreatVijeth Karthik
Demographic change in India is opening up new economic opportunities. As in many countries, declining infant and child mortality helped to spark lower fertility, effectively resulting in a temporary baby boom. As this cohort moves into working
ages, India finds itself with a potentially higher share of workers as compared with dependent. If working-age people can be productively employed, India’s economic growth stands to accelerate. Theoretical and empirical literature on the effect of demographics on labour supply, savings, and economic growth underpins this effort to understand and forecast economic growth in India. Policy choices can potentiate India’s realisation of economic benefits stemming from demographic change. Failure to take advantage of the opportunities inherent in demographic change can lead to economic stagnation.
Planning in the region starts with a vision about what we want to be. It is the aspiration of the Filipinos particularly those from SOCCSKSARGEN Region to have a long-term vision for the region and the country as a whole to become a prosperous, predominantly middle class society where no one is poor. The challenge is how every Filipino can afford to have a “matatag, maginhawa at panatag na buhay by 2040.”
This presentation by Arsenio M. Balisacan, Chairman, Philippine Competition Commission, was made during the discussion “How can competition contribute to fairer societies?” held during the 17th OECD Global Forum on Competition on 29 November 2018. More documents and presentations on this topic can be found at oe.cd/cfs.
Presentation by DG Vinod Thomas during the Food Security Forum: Safe, Nutritious, and Affordable Food for All. Held at the ADB Headquarters on 22-24 June 2016.
Presentation by Vinod Thomas during the International Scientific Conference on Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences University of the Philippines Visayas: Toward Climate Change and Resilience, 22-23 October 2014 at Iloilo City, Philippines.
Presentation by Vinod Thomas, Director General, Indepedent Evaluation at ADB during the Asia-Pacific Economic Association 10th Annual Conference, 11 July 2014, Bangkok, Thailand.
Presentation of Vinod Thomas, Director General for Independent Evaluation at Asian Development Bank, in the GovCFO Summit,12-13 July in Chiang Mai, Thailand
when will pi network coin be available on crypto exchange.DOT TECH
There is no set date for when Pi coins will enter the market.
However, the developers are working hard to get them released as soon as possible.
Once they are available, users will be able to exchange other cryptocurrencies for Pi coins on designated exchanges.
But for now the only way to sell your pi coins is through verified pi vendor.
Here is the telegram contact of my personal pi vendor
@Pi_vendor_247
Resume
• Real GDP growth slowed down due to problems with access to electricity caused by the destruction of manoeuvrable electricity generation by Russian drones and missiles.
• Exports and imports continued growing due to better logistics through the Ukrainian sea corridor and road. Polish farmers and drivers stopped blocking borders at the end of April.
• In April, both the Tax and Customs Services over-executed the revenue plan. Moreover, the NBU transferred twice the planned profit to the budget.
• The European side approved the Ukraine Plan, which the government adopted to determine indicators for the Ukraine Facility. That approval will allow Ukraine to receive a EUR 1.9 bn loan from the EU in May. At the same time, the EU provided Ukraine with a EUR 1.5 bn loan in April, as the government fulfilled five indicators under the Ukraine Plan.
• The USA has finally approved an aid package for Ukraine, which includes USD 7.8 bn of budget support; however, the conditions and timing of the assistance are still unknown.
• As in March, annual consumer inflation amounted to 3.2% yoy in April.
• At the April monetary policy meeting, the NBU again reduced the key policy rate from 14.5% to 13.5% per annum.
• Over the past four weeks, the hryvnia exchange rate has stabilized in the UAH 39-40 per USD range.
Turin Startup Ecosystem 2024 - Ricerca sulle Startup e il Sistema dell'Innov...Quotidiano Piemontese
Turin Startup Ecosystem 2024
Una ricerca de il Club degli Investitori, in collaborazione con ToTeM Torino Tech Map e con il supporto della ESCP Business School e di Growth Capital
how to sell pi coins at high rate quickly.DOT TECH
Where can I sell my pi coins at a high rate.
Pi is not launched yet on any exchange. But one can easily sell his or her pi coins to investors who want to hold pi till mainnet launch.
This means crypto whales want to hold pi. And you can get a good rate for selling pi to them. I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi vendor below.
A vendor is someone who buys from a miner and resell it to a holder or crypto whale.
Here is the telegram contact of my vendor:
@Pi_vendor_247
how to sell pi coins in South Korea profitably.DOT TECH
Yes. You can sell your pi network coins in South Korea or any other country, by finding a verified pi merchant
What is a verified pi merchant?
Since pi network is not launched yet on any exchange, the only way you can sell pi coins is by selling to a verified pi merchant, and this is because pi network is not launched yet on any exchange and no pre-sale or ico offerings Is done on pi.
Since there is no pre-sale, the only way exchanges can get pi is by buying from miners. So a pi merchant facilitates these transactions by acting as a bridge for both transactions.
How can i find a pi vendor/merchant?
Well for those who haven't traded with a pi merchant or who don't already have one. I will leave the telegram id of my personal pi merchant who i trade pi with.
Tele gram: @Pi_vendor_247
#pi #sell #nigeria #pinetwork #picoins #sellpi #Nigerian #tradepi #pinetworkcoins #sellmypi
Falcon stands out as a top-tier P2P Invoice Discounting platform in India, bridging esteemed blue-chip companies and eager investors. Our goal is to transform the investment landscape in India by establishing a comprehensive destination for borrowers and investors with diverse profiles and needs, all while minimizing risk. What sets Falcon apart is the elimination of intermediaries such as commercial banks and depository institutions, allowing investors to enjoy higher yields.
how to sell pi coins effectively (from 50 - 100k pi)DOT TECH
Anywhere in the world, including Africa, America, and Europe, you can sell Pi Network Coins online and receive cash through online payment options.
Pi has not yet been launched on any exchange because we are currently using the confined Mainnet. The planned launch date for Pi is June 28, 2026.
Reselling to investors who want to hold until the mainnet launch in 2026 is currently the sole way to sell.
Consequently, right now. All you need to do is select the right pi network provider.
Who is a pi merchant?
An individual who buys coins from miners on the pi network and resells them to investors hoping to hang onto them until the mainnet is launched is known as a pi merchant.
debuts.
I'll provide you the Telegram username
@Pi_vendor_247
what is the future of Pi Network currency.DOT TECH
The future of the Pi cryptocurrency is uncertain, and its success will depend on several factors. Pi is a relatively new cryptocurrency that aims to be user-friendly and accessible to a wide audience. Here are a few key considerations for its future:
Message: @Pi_vendor_247 on telegram if u want to sell PI COINS.
1. Mainnet Launch: As of my last knowledge update in January 2022, Pi was still in the testnet phase. Its success will depend on a successful transition to a mainnet, where actual transactions can take place.
2. User Adoption: Pi's success will be closely tied to user adoption. The more users who join the network and actively participate, the stronger the ecosystem can become.
3. Utility and Use Cases: For a cryptocurrency to thrive, it must offer utility and practical use cases. The Pi team has talked about various applications, including peer-to-peer transactions, smart contracts, and more. The development and implementation of these features will be essential.
4. Regulatory Environment: The regulatory environment for cryptocurrencies is evolving globally. How Pi navigates and complies with regulations in various jurisdictions will significantly impact its future.
5. Technology Development: The Pi network must continue to develop and improve its technology, security, and scalability to compete with established cryptocurrencies.
6. Community Engagement: The Pi community plays a critical role in its future. Engaged users can help build trust and grow the network.
7. Monetization and Sustainability: The Pi team's monetization strategy, such as fees, partnerships, or other revenue sources, will affect its long-term sustainability.
It's essential to approach Pi or any new cryptocurrency with caution and conduct due diligence. Cryptocurrency investments involve risks, and potential rewards can be uncertain. The success and future of Pi will depend on the collective efforts of its team, community, and the broader cryptocurrency market dynamics. It's advisable to stay updated on Pi's development and follow any updates from the official Pi Network website or announcements from the team.
how to sell pi coins in all Africa Countries.DOT TECH
Yes. You can sell your pi network for other cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, usdt , Ethereum and other currencies And this is done easily with the help from a pi merchant.
What is a pi merchant ?
Since pi is not launched yet in any exchange. The only way you can sell right now is through merchants.
A verified Pi merchant is someone who buys pi network coins from miners and resell them to investors looking forward to hold massive quantities of pi coins before mainnet launch in 2026.
I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant to trade with.
@Pi_vendor_247
What website can I sell pi coins securely.DOT TECH
Currently there are no website or exchange that allow buying or selling of pi coins..
But you can still easily sell pi coins, by reselling it to exchanges/crypto whales interested in holding thousands of pi coins before the mainnet launch.
Who is a pi merchant?
A pi merchant is someone who buys pi coins from miners and resell to these crypto whales and holders of pi..
This is because pi network is not doing any pre-sale. The only way exchanges can get pi is by buying from miners and pi merchants stands in between the miners and the exchanges.
How can I sell my pi coins?
Selling pi coins is really easy, but first you need to migrate to mainnet wallet before you can do that. I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant to trade with.
Tele-gram.
@Pi_vendor_247
Poonawalla Fincorp and IndusInd Bank Introduce New Co-Branded Credit Cardnickysharmasucks
The unveiling of the IndusInd Bank Poonawalla Fincorp eLITE RuPay Platinum Credit Card marks a notable milestone in the Indian financial landscape, showcasing a successful partnership between two leading institutions, Poonawalla Fincorp and IndusInd Bank. This co-branded credit card not only offers users a plethora of benefits but also reflects a commitment to innovation and adaptation. With a focus on providing value-driven and customer-centric solutions, this launch represents more than just a new product—it signifies a step towards redefining the banking experience for millions. Promising convenience, rewards, and a touch of luxury in everyday financial transactions, this collaboration aims to cater to the evolving needs of customers and set new standards in the industry.
What price will pi network be listed on exchangesDOT TECH
The rate at which pi will be listed is practically unknown. But due to speculations surrounding it the predicted rate is tends to be from 30$ — 50$.
So if you are interested in selling your pi network coins at a high rate tho. Or you can't wait till the mainnet launch in 2026. You can easily trade your pi coins with a merchant.
A merchant is someone who buys pi coins from miners and resell them to Investors looking forward to hold massive quantities till mainnet launch.
I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi vendor to trade with.
@Pi_vendor_247
1. Inclusive Growth in Asia:
Trends and Issues
Hyun H. Son
Independent Evaluation Department
Asian Development Bank
2. No agreed, single definition of inclusive growth.
Inclusive growth is a multidimensional concept.
Inclusive growth requires: (i) sustained economic growth; (ii)
poverty reduction; (iii) inequality reduction; and (iv)
broadening access to opportunities.
These four are not independent of each other.
These social objectives are means to achieving social well-
being defined by Sen in terms of functioning and capabilities.
What is Inclusive Growth?
3. 1990s
(1990-1999)
2000s
(2000-2010)
Population 1.20 0.97
Gross Domestic Product 9.03 8.19
Per capita Gross Domestic Product 7.83 7.22
Household consumption 5.72 5.54
Per capita household consumption 4.52 4.57
Sustained Economic Growth
– Growth needs to be sustained to help increase the average
standard of living through greater income and consumption
Table: Annual growth rates of selected indicators in Asia
Source: Author’s calculations.
4. The inclusiveness of growth depends on
whether growth is accompanied by poverty
reduction.
Asia has made remarkable progress in
reducing its absolute poverty but is still home
to the largest number of people living in
absolute poverty.
However, Asia’s progress has been less
impressive for poverty based on $2-a-day
poverty line.
Poverty in Asia
5. 1990s
(1990-1999)
2000s
(2000-2010)
$1.25-a-day poverty line
% of poor 42.96 23.50
Number of poor (billion) 1.23 0.79
Poverty gap 13.92 5.83
Severity of poverty 6.19 2.06
$2-a-day poverty line
% of poor 69.66 48.27
Number of poor (billion) 2.00 1.62
Poverty gap 30.04 17.12
Severity of poverty 16.12 7.88
Table: Average poverty estimates in Asia
Source: Author’s calculations
6. Inclusive growth should be concerned with the
effectiveness of growth in reducing poverty.
The degree of its effectiveness may be
measured by the growth elasticity of poverty –
defined as the ratio of rate of poverty reduction
to growth rate of GDP.
How Effective Is Economic
Growth in Reducing Poverty?
7. 1990s
(1990-1999)
2000s
(2000-2010)
$1.25-a-day poverty line
% of poor -0.82 -1.37
Number of poor -0.68 -1.25
Poverty gap -0.96 -1.51
Severity of poverty -1.04 -1.54
$2-a-day poverty line
% of poor -0.46 -1.02
Number of poor -0.32 -0.90
Poverty gap -0.70 -1.26
Severity of poverty -0.83 -1.37
Table: Growth Elasticity of Poverty
Source: Author’s calculations
8. Table: Decomposition of the Growth Effectiveness of
Poverty Reduction in the Philippines in 2006-09 (%)
Growth effect
Population
effect
Consumption
elasticityeffect
Inequality
effect
$1.25-a-day povertyline
Absolute poor -2.13 0.94 0.34 -0.92
Poverty gap of
absolute poor -3.51 1.55 0.57 -1.94
Severity of
absolute poverty -4.80 2.12 0.77 -2.87
$2-a-day povertyline
Poor -1.21 0.53 0.19 -0.24
Poverty gap of
poor -1.90 0.84 0.31 -0.75
Severity of
poverty -2.51 1.11 0.40 -1.21
Source: Author’s calculations
9. Inclusive growth needs to be broad-based,
reaching as many segments of the population
as possible while protecting the vulnerable and
poor.
Inequality-reducing growth ensures that
benefits of economic growth are more equitably
shared among the population.
Trends in Inequality
10. 1990s
(1990-1999)
2000s
(2000-2010)
1990-2010
Gini index 1.22* 0.44 1.04*
Atkinson index 2.04* 0.73 1.84*
Quintile index 1.03* 0.37* 0.62*
Table: Annual growth rates of inequality in Asia,
weighted by population
Source: Author’s calculations
* With a significant increase or decrease in inequality at the 5% level of significance.
11. The concept of inequality is now being extended to
cover many other dimensions of living standard such
as inequality in outcomes in health, education,
employment, etc.
Governments usually provide opportunities in health,
education, basic infrastructure, etc., but not all
citizens can avail of these opportunities.
It is useful to understand the inequality of
opportunities prior to designing policies aimed at
universal provision of these basic services.
In some Asian countries, inequality of opportunity
remains a challenge as seen in unequal access to
basic services including education, safe water and
sanitation, and electricity.
Inequality of Opportunity in Asia
12. Inequality of opportunity arises from disparities due
to circumstance variables, or factors over which an
individual has no control (i.e. gender, race,
ethnicity).
In Asia, circumstance variables including
household expenditure and location of residence in
rural or urban areas were found to be crucial in
influencing access to education and basic
infrastructure.
Inequality of Opportunity in Asia
13. Inequality of opportunity in Asia remains a
challenge in promoting inclusive growth in the
region. How can inequality of opportunity in Asia
be addressed?
Bolster the demand side of the provision of
education and basic infrastructure – e.g., CCT
Compensate for the lack of demand and incentive
to provide basic infrastructure services in rural
areas – e.g., subsidies to rural communities
Decentralize to improve the delivery of basic
services
Inequality of Opportunity in Asia
14. Policies for Promoting Growth with Jobs
To facilitate the process of structural transformation to
transfer from large amounts of rural, agriculture surplus
of labor to urban, manufacturing and service sectors,
where most of the future’s productive jobs will be
generated.
Public employment schemes to address unemployment
and underemployment (e.g., public works programs,
India’s Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme)
Promoting skills development through e.g. support for
technical and vocational education
Policy Responses toward
Inclusive Growth
15. Fiscal Policies
Greater and better spending on health and education to promote
coverage and equity in access to these basic social services
Health spending (% of GDP): less than 5% (Asia) vs. 9.4% (OECD) in 2009
Education spending (% of GDP): less than 4% (Asia) vs. 5.3% (OECD) in
2010
Fiscal transfers to impoverished areas
To help narrow the urban-rural divide, improve transportation and
communication networks.
Greater and equitable revenue mobilization: direct vs. indirect tax
Policy Responses toward
Inclusive Growth
16. Social Protection Policies
focused on skills and capabilities rather than on
compensating taxes and transfers
covering appropriate pension and safety net schemes
to assist marginalized groups such as elderly or
disabled
Needs to be well targeted to minimize leakage
Policy Responses toward
Inclusive Growth
To foster inclusive growth, economic growth first needs to be sustained to help increase the average standard of living through greater income or consumption. Second, the inclusiveness of growth needs to feed through to poverty reduction. Third, growth that is inclusive must be broad-based, reaching as many segments of the population as possible while protecting the poor and vulnerable, thereby reducing inequality.
The growth rates of indicators in Table 1 were calculated based on the fixed-effect trend regressions utilizing all spells in the 1990s and 2000s. Table 2 presents annual growth rates of the indicators from the previous table.
Asia saw a decline in its population growth rate between the 1990s and 2000s. Population in Asia grew at an annual rate of 1.2% in the decade of 1990s that slowed down 0.97% during 2000-2010. Such slow-down in population growth would have a positive impact on poverty reduction.
Asia’s GDP growth rate has been not only rapid but also sustained over the two decades – with the annual growth rate of GDP reaching 9.03% in the 1990s and 8.19% in the 2000s.
However, such outstanding performance in the GDP growth is not translated into improvements in living standards to the same extent. Per capita household consumption increased only at an annual rate of 4.52% and 4.57% in the 1990s and 2000s, respectively. Therefore, there has been no one-to-one translation from growth in GDP to rise in the average standard of living. In fact, the average living standards of the Asians have increased at a much slower rate than the stellar performance in the growth rate of GDP witnessed in Asia for the past two decades or so.
If we take the ratio of per capita consumption growth to per capita GDP growth, the growth elasticity of consumption is obtained, which indicates the extent to which economic growth gets translated into improvements in the average standard of living. The growth elasticity of consumption was 0.58 in the 1990s, suggesting that a 1% growth in per capita GDP gets converted to growth in average standard of living by only 0.58%. This suggests that consumption in Asia’s population grew much slower than other components of GDP during 1990-1999. In the subsequent decade of 2000s, the corresponding elasticity improved to 0.63. These results suggest that exclusive focus on maximizing the size of economic growth may create wrong perception that more growth will always lead to higher standard of living and lower poverty. However, policy makers should not also undermine the importance of growth patterns, focusing on the translation of economic growth into improving the average living standard.
In the 1990s, 1.23 billion people in Asia were living in absolute subsistence poverty (or 42.96% of the Asian population). The number of absolute poor decreased to 790 million in the 2000s – equivalent to 23.50% of the population in Asia. If the percentage of poor had remained the same as in the 1990s, there would have been 1.44 billion absolute poor in the following decade of 2000s. This suggests that over the decade, 650 million people were lifted out of absolute poverty.
PRC alone had 520 million absolute poor in the 1990s (or 42.94% of the population), but it succeeded in reducing the corresponding figure to only 230 million in the subsequent decade (or 17.27% of the population). If the percentage of poor had remained the same in the 1990s, PRC would have had 560 million absolute poor in the 2000s rather than 230 million. Thus, 340 million people were lifted out of absolute poverty in PRC alone within just one decade.
Asia’s progress in poverty reduction was less impressive for the $2-a-day poverty line. In the 1990s, two billion people – equivalently, 69.66% of 2.87 billion Asian population – were classified as poor. The corresponding figure had been reduced to 48.27% in the 2000s, with almost 1.62 billion people in poverty. After adjusting for the growth in population, 720 million escaped poverty over the period of one decade. In PRC alone, 440 million escaped poverty based on the $2-a-day poverty line.
Just how much financial resources would be required to eliminate poverty in Asia? Estimates for the poverty gap ratio will help answer this. To eliminate absolute poverty based on the $1.25-a-day poverty line, Asia would have required $182.19 billion in the 1990s. This amount would have fallen to $89.08 billion in the 2000s due to the lower incidence of absolute poverty in the latter decade than the former. Eliminating poverty measured by the $2-a-day poverty line in the 1990s would have required $628.96 billion, and yet the corresponding amount fell to $418.76 billion in the 2000s.
As would be expected, it is much more costly to lift a person out of poverty based on $2 per day. The cost of lifting an individual in absolute poverty was $147 per year and $113.16 per year in the 1990s and 2000s, respectively. For the $2 per day line, the cost would be $314 per year in the 1990s and $258 per year in the 2000s.
Calculating the cost of eradicating poverty as a share of average yearly GDP in Asia, we see the region’s potential in eliminating poverty. In the 1990s, 3.31% of GDP in Asia would be required to eliminate absolute poverty. This amount reduced to only 0.70% in the 2000s mainly due to two factors: (i) rapid reduction in poverty and (ii) rapid increase in GDP. The resources required eliminating poverty based on $2 a day was 11.44% of GDP but reduced to 3.30% of GDP in the subsequent decade.
These amounts are estimated based on the assumption that the government perfectly targeted the poor. In practice, this is an enormous challenge because leakages to non-poor usually occur and administrative costs are incurred. Thus, the actual amount needed would have been much larger. It is not feasible to calculate the actual financial resources needed to eliminate poverty until it is know how the governments would implement direct poverty alleviation programs.
Although Asia is home to the largest number of poor in the world, it has potential to eliminate poverty by transferring government revenues to the poor. It is not, however, recommended that the governments in Asia should attempt to eliminate poverty in a just one go even if they have the potential to do so. Rather, poverty should be gradually reduced by instituting well-targeted poverty alleviation programs.
The average elasticity for the percentage of the absolute poor was -0.82 in the 1990s. This means that a 1% growth in GDP reduces the percentage of absolute poor by 0.82%. In the 2000s, the elasticity declined to -1.37, suggesting that a 1% growth in per GDP now reduces the percentage of absolute poor by 1.37%. These results show that effectiveness of economic growth in reducing the percentage of absolute poor in Asia has improved substantially in the 2000s compared to the previous decade. This improvement is broad based and holds for all poverty measures based on both $1.25 and $2 a day poverty lines.
As expected, the growth elasticity of poverty for the poverty gap and severity of poverty are larger than that for the percentage of poor. The elasticity captures the two facets of poverty: (i) how effective the economic growth is in lifting the poor out of poverty and (ii) how effective the economic growth is in reducing income gap of the poor who could not escape poverty. The growth elasticity of poverty is -1.51, meaning that 1% growth in GDP reduces the poverty gap ratio by 1.51%, of which -1.37% is attributed to the percentage of absolute poor escaping poverty and -0.13% is attributed to narrowing of income gap among those who were unable to cross the poverty line. This suggests that economic growth in Asia is effective in lifting people out of poverty, but not very effective in increasing the incomes of those who are unable to cross the poverty line.
The absolute values of elasticity are found to be smaller in magnitude for the poor based on the poverty line of $2 a day. As such, economic growth in Asia has been more effective in reducing absolute poverty at $1.25 a day than poverty based on the higher poverty line—and this result holds for all poverty measures. Similar results have been found for many developing countries in the world.
What should be the threshold value of the elasticity that would make growth inclusive? It is difficult to provide objective answers to these questions as they require value judgments. For instance, it can be suggested that a growth pattern be classified as inclusive if the growth elasticity of percentage of absolute poor is smaller than -1.0. For the poverty gap ratio, the threshold of -1.5 may be considered appropriate. Based on these criteria, Asia’s growth would be considered inclusive in the 2000s but not inclusive in the previous decade of 1990s.
First, we examine the annual growth rates of three inequality measures: the Gini index, Atkinson’s inequality index, and the Quintile index. Depending on weights rendered to different segment of the population, these three measures imply different value judgments embodied in inequality measures. The growth rates of the three inequality measures are calculated based on trend regression models accounting for fixed country effect.
There is a general perception that rapid economic growth in Asia is accompanied by rising inequality and thus the benefits of economic growth are not equitably shared among the population. Overall trends suggest that inequality in Asia has increased significantly in the 1990s. The Gini index increased at an annual rate of 1.22%, which is proved to be significant at the 5% level of significance. But there is a significant slowing down of growth rate in inequality in the 2000s and, more importantly, growth rates of both the Gini and Atkinson’s indices are not statistically significant. Based on these results, it can be concluded that inequality has not changed significantly in the recent decade spanning from 2000 to 2010. However, the conclusion for the two decades as a whole is that inequality has significantly worsened in Asia during 1990-2010.
However, Asia’s trends in inequality change completely when PRC is excluded from the same countries. All growth rates are statistically insignificant at the 5% level of significance. Hence, it is concluded that inequality in Asia has not increased significantly during the last two decades. It is the PRC that has led to an overall increase in inequality of Asia. Given the results, it would be difficult to conclude that inequality has not increased in all countries in Asia. Inequality may have increased in some countries and reduced in other countries, but the overall conclusion is that if PRC is excluded from the sample countries in interest for the current study, then inequality in Asia has not increased.
Given the interplay of growth, poverty and inequality in ensuring the inclusiveness of growth, promoting inclusive growth requires a combination of policies designed to sustain growth, and ensure equitable access to markets and economic opportunities such as employment.