This document provides an overview of immunology and the immune system. It begins with definitions of immunology and a brief history of the field. It then describes the development of the immune system in bone marrow and thymus. Subsequent sections cover the spleen, lymph nodes, primary and secondary lymphoid organs, immune cells, innate and adaptive immunity, cellular and humoral immunity, immunoglobulins, and antigens. The document is presented as lecture notes on immunology.
The immune system protects the body from pathogens by distinguishing self from non-self. It contains physical barriers and specialized immune cells that recognize and respond to antigens. The immune response involves both innate immunity provided by physical barriers and immune cells, as well as adaptive immunity involving B cells producing antibodies and T cells that target antigens displayed on MHC molecules. Antibodies bind specifically to antigens and help eliminate pathogens through processes like opsonization and complement activation.
This document discusses immunology and the immune system. It covers topics such as the definition of immunology, the different types of immunity including innate and acquired immunity, the cells and organs involved in the immune response like antibodies, B cells and T cells. It also summarizes the mechanisms of humoral and cellular immunity, the activation and effector phases of the immune response, and conditions where the immune system is deficient or attacks the body's own tissues, like autoimmune diseases.
Immunoglobulins, also known as antibodies, are Y-shaped proteins produced by plasma cells that recognize and bind to foreign objects like bacteria and viruses. There are five classes of immunoglobulins in humans - IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE. Each immunoglobulin molecule contains two light chains and two heavy chains that together form the structure of the Y-shape. The variable regions at the tips of the Y are responsible for binding to antigens. The different classes of immunoglobulins have distinct structures and functions in the immune response.
Immunology is the study of the immune system and its functions in health and disease. The immune system protects the body from pathogens through a variety of immune cells and mechanisms. When pathogens enter the body, the first line of defense attempts to prevent entry through physical barriers like skin. If pathogens enter, the second line of defense responds through phagocytic immune cells that engulf and destroy the pathogens. Antibodies are produced by B cells and aid in defense against pathogens through mechanisms like agglutination and complement activation. Antigens are substances that induce an immune response, and antigen presenting cells capture and present antigens to activate other immune cells.
This document discusses monoclonal antibodies, including their history, production via hybridoma technology, types, applications, and FDA-approved examples. It describes how monoclonal antibodies are produced by fusing B cells from immunized mice with myeloma cells to create hybridomas that produce identical antibodies targeting a specific antigen. This technology was developed in 1975 by Kohler and Milstein, earning them a Nobel Prize. Monoclonal antibodies have various diagnostic and therapeutic uses due to their specificity and homogeneity.
The document summarizes key components and processes of the immune system. It describes phagocytosis, antibodies and antigens, immunity, and the complement system. Phagocytosis involves immune cells ingesting foreign particles. Antibodies are Y-shaped proteins that bind to antigens like bacteria and viruses to help immune cells identify and neutralize pathogens. The complement system utilizes three pathways - classical, lectin, and alternative - that converge into a membrane attack complex to help kill microbes. Cytokines are cell signaling proteins like interleukins that help activate and coordinate the immune response.
The immune system protects the body from pathogens by distinguishing self from non-self. It contains physical barriers and specialized immune cells that recognize and respond to antigens. The immune response involves both innate immunity provided by physical barriers and immune cells, as well as adaptive immunity involving B cells producing antibodies and T cells that target antigens displayed on MHC molecules. Antibodies bind specifically to antigens and help eliminate pathogens through processes like opsonization and complement activation.
This document discusses immunology and the immune system. It covers topics such as the definition of immunology, the different types of immunity including innate and acquired immunity, the cells and organs involved in the immune response like antibodies, B cells and T cells. It also summarizes the mechanisms of humoral and cellular immunity, the activation and effector phases of the immune response, and conditions where the immune system is deficient or attacks the body's own tissues, like autoimmune diseases.
Immunoglobulins, also known as antibodies, are Y-shaped proteins produced by plasma cells that recognize and bind to foreign objects like bacteria and viruses. There are five classes of immunoglobulins in humans - IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE. Each immunoglobulin molecule contains two light chains and two heavy chains that together form the structure of the Y-shape. The variable regions at the tips of the Y are responsible for binding to antigens. The different classes of immunoglobulins have distinct structures and functions in the immune response.
Immunology is the study of the immune system and its functions in health and disease. The immune system protects the body from pathogens through a variety of immune cells and mechanisms. When pathogens enter the body, the first line of defense attempts to prevent entry through physical barriers like skin. If pathogens enter, the second line of defense responds through phagocytic immune cells that engulf and destroy the pathogens. Antibodies are produced by B cells and aid in defense against pathogens through mechanisms like agglutination and complement activation. Antigens are substances that induce an immune response, and antigen presenting cells capture and present antigens to activate other immune cells.
This document discusses monoclonal antibodies, including their history, production via hybridoma technology, types, applications, and FDA-approved examples. It describes how monoclonal antibodies are produced by fusing B cells from immunized mice with myeloma cells to create hybridomas that produce identical antibodies targeting a specific antigen. This technology was developed in 1975 by Kohler and Milstein, earning them a Nobel Prize. Monoclonal antibodies have various diagnostic and therapeutic uses due to their specificity and homogeneity.
The document summarizes key components and processes of the immune system. It describes phagocytosis, antibodies and antigens, immunity, and the complement system. Phagocytosis involves immune cells ingesting foreign particles. Antibodies are Y-shaped proteins that bind to antigens like bacteria and viruses to help immune cells identify and neutralize pathogens. The complement system utilizes three pathways - classical, lectin, and alternative - that converge into a membrane attack complex to help kill microbes. Cytokines are cell signaling proteins like interleukins that help activate and coordinate the immune response.
Monoclonal antibodies (mAb or moAb) are antibodies that are made by identical immune cells that are all clones of a unique parent cell. Monoclonal antibodies can have monovalent affinity, in that they bind to the same epitope (the part of an antigen that is recognized by the antibody). In contrast, polyclonal antibodies bind to multiple epitopes and are usually made by several different plasma cell (antibody secreting immune cell) lineages. Bispecific monoclonal antibodies can also be engineered, by increasing the therapeutic targets of one single monoclonal antibody to two epitopes. Given almost any substance, it is possible to produce monoclonal antibodies that specifically bind to that substance; they can then serve to detect or purify that substance. This has become an important tool in biochemistry, molecular biology, and medicine. When used as medications, non-proprietary drug names end in -mab and many immunotherapy specialists use the word mab anacronymically.
Antibodies are specialized glycoproteins produced by B cells in response to antigens. Monoclonal antibodies are homogeneous preparations with identical protein sequences and antigen recognition sites. The hybridoma technique developed by Kohler and Milstein allows production of monoclonal antibodies of high purity and specificity. Trastuzumab is a monoclonal antibody targeting the HER2 protein, which is overexpressed in some breast and gastric cancers. It inhibits HER2 signaling and activates antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity to kill cancer cells. Trastuzumab is approved for treatment of HER2-positive breast and gastric cancers.
The document discusses the anatomy and components of the human immune system. It describes how immunity is localized in primary organs like bone marrow and thymus where immune cells develop, and secondary organs where immune responses occur. It defines innate immunity as the body's first line of defense, including mechanical barriers, chemical inhibitors, and normal flora. Components of innate immunity include natural killer cells, phagocytes, complement proteins, interferons, and inflammatory responses. Adaptive immunity provides antigen-specific protection.
This study examined the postnatal development of lymphoid tissues and mucosa in broilers using immunohistochemistry. Samples of the bursa of Fabricius, cecal tonsils, and ileum were collected from broilers aged 3 to 32 days. The study found IgM positive cells were most frequent in the bursa of Fabricius at all ages. In the cecal tonsils, IgA positive cells increased with age to become most frequent by day 32. No immunoglobulin positive cells were detected in the ileum until day 11, after which IgA positive cells gradually increased to become most frequent by day 32. This study demonstrates the postnatal maturation of broiler immune tissues and cells producing different immunoglob
The document describes the ELISA (Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay) technique for measuring concentrations of hormones and other proteins in samples. ELISA uses the specificity of antigen-antibody binding and enzymes or radioisotopes to detect and quantify the amount of antigen present. It was developed in the 1970s as an improvement over radioimmunoassay by using enzyme labels instead of radioactive ones. There are several types of ELISA including indirect, sandwich, direct, and competitive methods. ELISA and immunohistochemistry are now widely used diagnostic tools in medicine and research.
Introduction to Immunity Antibody Function & Diversity 2006 L1&2-overview & AbLionel Wolberger
This document provides an overview of a lecture on antibody function and diversity. It introduces antibody gene rearrangement and discusses how antibodies recognize an almost infinite number of antigens through genetic diversity mechanisms like variable gene segments and junctional diversity during lymphocyte development. Key textbooks on immunology are also referenced.
This document summarizes a presentation on organoids in immunological research. It begins with an overview of organoids, describing them as 3D cultures derived from adult stem cells that recapitulate tissue architecture. Section 1 discusses the tissue-like structure of organoids and self-organization principles. Section 2 explains how organoids can be used to study interactions between epithelial cells and immune cells, and how this improves understanding of homeostasis, infection responses, and fetal development. Section 3 discusses applications of organoid technology in personalized medicine and future directions.
Antibodies have emerged as a promising class of therapeutic drugs due to their high specificity and ability to activate the immune system. Major breakthroughs included the development of serum therapy in the early 1900s and the discovery of monoclonal antibodies in the 1970s-80s. Today, over 20 antibody drugs are approved to treat various diseases including rheumatoid arthritis, with hundreds more in development. Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease characterized by joint inflammation and damage, and antibody drugs that target cytokines like TNF-α have proven effective in slowing its progression.
The document provides an overview of immunology and the immune system. It describes the innate immune response, which provides non-specific protection and involves physical and chemical barriers as well as phagocytic cells. It also describes the adaptive immune response, which is antigen-specific and involves lymphocytes. Natural killer cells are introduced as lymphocytes that can kill infected or abnormal cells without prior exposure.
Troy University Tissue Culture Biology Discussion.pdfsdfghj21
This document summarizes a scientific article that studied the rapid intermixing of cell surface antigens after the formation of mouse-human heterokaryons (fused cells containing nuclei from both mouse and human cells). The study found that within 40 minutes of cell fusion, the mouse and human surface antigens had completely mixed in over 90% of the heterokaryons. Various metabolic inhibitors were used in an effort to determine the mechanism, and it was found that only lowered temperature could prevent the intermixing, suggesting the cell surface allows free diffusion of antigens.
This document discusses monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), including their definition, production process, structure, applications, and limitations. It describes how mAbs are produced through the fusion of immune spleen cells from immunized mice with myeloma cells, which results in hybridoma cells that can produce identical antibodies. The key steps involved are immunizing mice, screening for antibody production, preparing myeloma cells, fusing cells, cloning hybridomas, and selecting cells in HAT medium. mAbs have various analytical, preparative, and therapeutic applications, but also have limitations such as immunogenicity and production challenges.
The document discusses immunodiffusion techniques for detecting antigens and antibodies, specifically the Ouchterlony double immunodiffusion assay. It provides background on immunodiffusion basics, including antigen-antibody reactions, precipitation, and single and double immunodiffusion. It also defines key terms like antigen, antibody, monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies, and discusses their characteristics and functions.
It includes general introduction to antibodies; Monoclonal antibodies; comparison between Polyclonal & Monoclonal antibodies; Hybridoma Technology & Hyridoma Selection; advantages & disadvantages of mABs; Applications of mABs; Recombinant Monoclonal antibodies production through Antibody Engineering.
Medical Microbiology Study Guide by Shayne McKee (PharmD 2022)Shayne McKee
1. Module 1 covers immune-microbe interactions, antigen presentation pathways, and early life immune responses. It also covers defenses against extracellular and intracellular bacteria.
2. The adaptive immune system defends against intracellular bacteria through dendritic cell antigen presentation to CD4 T cells, which activate macrophages to kill bacteria via ROS/RNS. Intracellular bacteria enter host cells through mechanisms like T3SS injection and phagocytosis induction.
3. Intracellular bacteria evade immunity by preventing phagolysosome formation, inhibiting neutrophil free radical production, and escaping the phagosome into the cytosol. The adaptive immune system and inflammation contribute to defenses against extracellular bacteria through antibodies, cytokine production, and acute inflammation.
The document provides an overview of the immune system. It discusses that the immune system protects the body from pathogens and cancer cells. It is capable of specifically recognizing and eliminating a variety of foreign invaders. The immune response involves both recognition of pathogens and an effector response to eliminate them. Exposure to a pathogen induces both an initial immune response and a memory response upon later exposure that is faster and stronger. The document then discusses the history, components, and theories of the immune system in more detail.
Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis are common pathogenic Gram-positive cocci that can cause opportunistic infections. S. aureus is more virulent and can produce a variety of conditions depending on the site of infection, while S. epidermidis normally inhabits human skin and can cause infection in immunocompromised individuals. These bacteria employ various virulence factors like protein A, clumping factor, and toxins to evade the immune system and cause disease. Common infections include skin infections, food poisoning, toxic shock syndrome, bacteremia, endocarditis, and pneumonia. Treatment involves antibiotics like methicillin, but many strains have developed resistance including MRSA.
This document provides an introduction to immunology and the immune system. It defines key terms like immunology, immunity, and the immune system. It then briefly outlines the history of immunology, including early techniques like variolation and key figures like Edward Jenner and Louis Pasteur who developed early vaccines. The document emphasizes the significance of the immune system in protecting the body from microbes, toxins, and tumors. It also provides an overview of the components of the immune system, including cells of both the innate and adaptive immune response as well as the organs involved and their anatomic distribution throughout the body.
Clinical Biochemistry part III
Tumors and tumor markers, Toxicology, TDM, pregnancy, Paediatric clinical chemistry, screening of newborns for diseases, inborn errors of metabolism, geriatric Clinical chemistry, Nutritional assessment
Monoclonal antibodies (mAb or moAb) are antibodies that are made by identical immune cells that are all clones of a unique parent cell. Monoclonal antibodies can have monovalent affinity, in that they bind to the same epitope (the part of an antigen that is recognized by the antibody). In contrast, polyclonal antibodies bind to multiple epitopes and are usually made by several different plasma cell (antibody secreting immune cell) lineages. Bispecific monoclonal antibodies can also be engineered, by increasing the therapeutic targets of one single monoclonal antibody to two epitopes. Given almost any substance, it is possible to produce monoclonal antibodies that specifically bind to that substance; they can then serve to detect or purify that substance. This has become an important tool in biochemistry, molecular biology, and medicine. When used as medications, non-proprietary drug names end in -mab and many immunotherapy specialists use the word mab anacronymically.
Antibodies are specialized glycoproteins produced by B cells in response to antigens. Monoclonal antibodies are homogeneous preparations with identical protein sequences and antigen recognition sites. The hybridoma technique developed by Kohler and Milstein allows production of monoclonal antibodies of high purity and specificity. Trastuzumab is a monoclonal antibody targeting the HER2 protein, which is overexpressed in some breast and gastric cancers. It inhibits HER2 signaling and activates antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity to kill cancer cells. Trastuzumab is approved for treatment of HER2-positive breast and gastric cancers.
The document discusses the anatomy and components of the human immune system. It describes how immunity is localized in primary organs like bone marrow and thymus where immune cells develop, and secondary organs where immune responses occur. It defines innate immunity as the body's first line of defense, including mechanical barriers, chemical inhibitors, and normal flora. Components of innate immunity include natural killer cells, phagocytes, complement proteins, interferons, and inflammatory responses. Adaptive immunity provides antigen-specific protection.
This study examined the postnatal development of lymphoid tissues and mucosa in broilers using immunohistochemistry. Samples of the bursa of Fabricius, cecal tonsils, and ileum were collected from broilers aged 3 to 32 days. The study found IgM positive cells were most frequent in the bursa of Fabricius at all ages. In the cecal tonsils, IgA positive cells increased with age to become most frequent by day 32. No immunoglobulin positive cells were detected in the ileum until day 11, after which IgA positive cells gradually increased to become most frequent by day 32. This study demonstrates the postnatal maturation of broiler immune tissues and cells producing different immunoglob
The document describes the ELISA (Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay) technique for measuring concentrations of hormones and other proteins in samples. ELISA uses the specificity of antigen-antibody binding and enzymes or radioisotopes to detect and quantify the amount of antigen present. It was developed in the 1970s as an improvement over radioimmunoassay by using enzyme labels instead of radioactive ones. There are several types of ELISA including indirect, sandwich, direct, and competitive methods. ELISA and immunohistochemistry are now widely used diagnostic tools in medicine and research.
Introduction to Immunity Antibody Function & Diversity 2006 L1&2-overview & AbLionel Wolberger
This document provides an overview of a lecture on antibody function and diversity. It introduces antibody gene rearrangement and discusses how antibodies recognize an almost infinite number of antigens through genetic diversity mechanisms like variable gene segments and junctional diversity during lymphocyte development. Key textbooks on immunology are also referenced.
This document summarizes a presentation on organoids in immunological research. It begins with an overview of organoids, describing them as 3D cultures derived from adult stem cells that recapitulate tissue architecture. Section 1 discusses the tissue-like structure of organoids and self-organization principles. Section 2 explains how organoids can be used to study interactions between epithelial cells and immune cells, and how this improves understanding of homeostasis, infection responses, and fetal development. Section 3 discusses applications of organoid technology in personalized medicine and future directions.
Antibodies have emerged as a promising class of therapeutic drugs due to their high specificity and ability to activate the immune system. Major breakthroughs included the development of serum therapy in the early 1900s and the discovery of monoclonal antibodies in the 1970s-80s. Today, over 20 antibody drugs are approved to treat various diseases including rheumatoid arthritis, with hundreds more in development. Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease characterized by joint inflammation and damage, and antibody drugs that target cytokines like TNF-α have proven effective in slowing its progression.
The document provides an overview of immunology and the immune system. It describes the innate immune response, which provides non-specific protection and involves physical and chemical barriers as well as phagocytic cells. It also describes the adaptive immune response, which is antigen-specific and involves lymphocytes. Natural killer cells are introduced as lymphocytes that can kill infected or abnormal cells without prior exposure.
Troy University Tissue Culture Biology Discussion.pdfsdfghj21
This document summarizes a scientific article that studied the rapid intermixing of cell surface antigens after the formation of mouse-human heterokaryons (fused cells containing nuclei from both mouse and human cells). The study found that within 40 minutes of cell fusion, the mouse and human surface antigens had completely mixed in over 90% of the heterokaryons. Various metabolic inhibitors were used in an effort to determine the mechanism, and it was found that only lowered temperature could prevent the intermixing, suggesting the cell surface allows free diffusion of antigens.
This document discusses monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), including their definition, production process, structure, applications, and limitations. It describes how mAbs are produced through the fusion of immune spleen cells from immunized mice with myeloma cells, which results in hybridoma cells that can produce identical antibodies. The key steps involved are immunizing mice, screening for antibody production, preparing myeloma cells, fusing cells, cloning hybridomas, and selecting cells in HAT medium. mAbs have various analytical, preparative, and therapeutic applications, but also have limitations such as immunogenicity and production challenges.
The document discusses immunodiffusion techniques for detecting antigens and antibodies, specifically the Ouchterlony double immunodiffusion assay. It provides background on immunodiffusion basics, including antigen-antibody reactions, precipitation, and single and double immunodiffusion. It also defines key terms like antigen, antibody, monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies, and discusses their characteristics and functions.
It includes general introduction to antibodies; Monoclonal antibodies; comparison between Polyclonal & Monoclonal antibodies; Hybridoma Technology & Hyridoma Selection; advantages & disadvantages of mABs; Applications of mABs; Recombinant Monoclonal antibodies production through Antibody Engineering.
Medical Microbiology Study Guide by Shayne McKee (PharmD 2022)Shayne McKee
1. Module 1 covers immune-microbe interactions, antigen presentation pathways, and early life immune responses. It also covers defenses against extracellular and intracellular bacteria.
2. The adaptive immune system defends against intracellular bacteria through dendritic cell antigen presentation to CD4 T cells, which activate macrophages to kill bacteria via ROS/RNS. Intracellular bacteria enter host cells through mechanisms like T3SS injection and phagocytosis induction.
3. Intracellular bacteria evade immunity by preventing phagolysosome formation, inhibiting neutrophil free radical production, and escaping the phagosome into the cytosol. The adaptive immune system and inflammation contribute to defenses against extracellular bacteria through antibodies, cytokine production, and acute inflammation.
The document provides an overview of the immune system. It discusses that the immune system protects the body from pathogens and cancer cells. It is capable of specifically recognizing and eliminating a variety of foreign invaders. The immune response involves both recognition of pathogens and an effector response to eliminate them. Exposure to a pathogen induces both an initial immune response and a memory response upon later exposure that is faster and stronger. The document then discusses the history, components, and theories of the immune system in more detail.
Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis are common pathogenic Gram-positive cocci that can cause opportunistic infections. S. aureus is more virulent and can produce a variety of conditions depending on the site of infection, while S. epidermidis normally inhabits human skin and can cause infection in immunocompromised individuals. These bacteria employ various virulence factors like protein A, clumping factor, and toxins to evade the immune system and cause disease. Common infections include skin infections, food poisoning, toxic shock syndrome, bacteremia, endocarditis, and pneumonia. Treatment involves antibiotics like methicillin, but many strains have developed resistance including MRSA.
This document provides an introduction to immunology and the immune system. It defines key terms like immunology, immunity, and the immune system. It then briefly outlines the history of immunology, including early techniques like variolation and key figures like Edward Jenner and Louis Pasteur who developed early vaccines. The document emphasizes the significance of the immune system in protecting the body from microbes, toxins, and tumors. It also provides an overview of the components of the immune system, including cells of both the innate and adaptive immune response as well as the organs involved and their anatomic distribution throughout the body.
Clinical Biochemistry part III
Tumors and tumor markers, Toxicology, TDM, pregnancy, Paediatric clinical chemistry, screening of newborns for diseases, inborn errors of metabolism, geriatric Clinical chemistry, Nutritional assessment
Clinical Biochemistry part I
Blood glucose and Diabetes Mellitus, Lipid metabolism disorders, Water and electrolytes disorders and therapeutic drug monitoring TDM
This document provides an overview of hormones and their biochemistry. It begins with definitions of hormones and the endocrine system. It then discusses the general functions of hormones and classifications of hormones based on their chemical composition and mechanisms of action. The document explores the mechanisms of action of different hormone groups, including those that act through intracellular receptors and cell surface receptors using various second messengers like cAMP, cGMP, calcium, and phospholipids. It also examines hormones with unknown second messengers that can act through pathways like tyrosine kinase, JAK/STAT, protein tyrosine phosphatases, and NF-kB. Insulin is highlighted as a major hormone with no known second messenger.
This document provides an overview of molecular biology presented by Aaser Abdelazim. It discusses topics such as nucleic acid structures and functions, DNA replication, transcription, translation, mutations and repair. It also describes gene expression regulation and applications of molecular biology. Additionally, it covers molecular organization of the cell, what is molecular biology, gene concepts, DNA and RNA structures, DNA replication, transcription and translation processes. The document is intended as teaching material for molecular biology.
1. The document discusses biological oxidation and carbohydrate metabolism. It provides objectives and details on the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, as well as the pathways of glycolysis and oxidation of NADH outside mitochondria.
2. Key points include that biological oxidation occurs gradually through enzymes and produces ATP, while non-biological oxidation can be explosive. Carbohydrates are digested to monosaccharides then absorbed by active or passive transport.
3. Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate or lactate, and shuttles like the glycerophosphate and malate-aspartate shuttles oxidize extramitochondrial NADH.
This document provides an overview of body fluids and electrolyte balance. It begins with the objectives of describing body fluid compartments and distribution, water and electrolyte balance mechanisms, and relating fluid disorders to clinical aspects. Key points include that total body water is 60% of body weight, with two-thirds being intracellular fluid and one-third extracellular fluid including plasma and interstitial fluid. Electrolytes such as sodium, potassium, and chloride are also discussed. Mechanisms for regulating fluid and electrolyte balance like the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and antidiuretic hormone are covered. Conditions involving fluid imbalance like dehydration and overhydration are explained.
The document discusses acid-base balance and blood buffers. It describes the sources of protons and alkalis in blood, including carbonic acid, sulfuric acid, and sodium bicarbonate. It also discusses the buffer systems in plasma, including the respiratory and carbonic anhydrase systems. Disturbances in acid-base balance can be respiratory or metabolic in origin. The mechanisms of the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways of blood coagulation are summarized.
The document discusses various biochemical tests used to identify microorganisms (M.Os). It describes tests such as decarboxylase tests to detect amino acid decarboxylation; carbohydrate fermentation tests to detect sugar utilization; starch hydrolysis and citrate utilization tests; gelatin liquefaction; coagulase production; and phenylalanine deamination. It also discusses triple sugar iron agar tests, casein digestion, urease production, methyl red/Voges-Proskauer tests, and other assays. The purpose is to biochemically characterize M.Os and diagnose bacteria based on their metabolic properties and enzyme production.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/kqbnxVAZs-0
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/SINlygW1Mpc
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
share - Lions, tigers, AI and health misinformation, oh my!.pptxTina Purnat
• Pitfalls and pivots needed to use AI effectively in public health
• Evidence-based strategies to address health misinformation effectively
• Building trust with communities online and offline
• Equipping health professionals to address questions, concerns and health misinformation
• Assessing risk and mitigating harm from adverse health narratives in communities, health workforce and health system
Muktapishti is a traditional Ayurvedic preparation made from Shoditha Mukta (Purified Pearl), is believed to help regulate thyroid function and reduce symptoms of hyperthyroidism due to its cooling and balancing properties. Clinical evidence on its efficacy remains limited, necessitating further research to validate its therapeutic benefits.
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kol...rightmanforbloodline
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Versio
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Version
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Version
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
Integrating Ayurveda into Parkinson’s Management: A Holistic ApproachAyurveda ForAll
Explore the benefits of combining Ayurveda with conventional Parkinson's treatments. Learn how a holistic approach can manage symptoms, enhance well-being, and balance body energies. Discover the steps to safely integrate Ayurvedic practices into your Parkinson’s care plan, including expert guidance on diet, herbal remedies, and lifestyle modifications.
Cell Therapy Expansion and Challenges in Autoimmune DiseaseHealth Advances
There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
8 Surprising Reasons To Meditate 40 Minutes A Day That Can Change Your Life.pptxHolistified Wellness
We’re talking about Vedic Meditation, a form of meditation that has been around for at least 5,000 years. Back then, the people who lived in the Indus Valley, now known as India and Pakistan, practised meditation as a fundamental part of daily life. This knowledge that has given us yoga and Ayurveda, was known as Veda, hence the name Vedic. And though there are some written records, the practice has been passed down verbally from generation to generation.
Tests for analysis of different pharmaceutical.pptx
Immunology
1. 20-03-2018 1
Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
Biochemical basis of
Immunology
Aaser Abdelazim
Assistant professor of Medical Biochemistry
Zagazig University
aaserabdelazim@yahoo.com
2. 20-03-2018 2
Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
1. What do Immunology means?
2. History of immunology
3. Human immune system
4. Development of immune system
5. Components of immune system
6. Types of immunity
Station 1
3. 20-03-2018
Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
3
Immunology
Definition: Immunology is a science that examines the structure and
function of the immune system.
Medicine
Immunology
plague of Athens in 430 BC
Trails of Louis Moreau to examine scorpion
venome and found that certain dogs and
mice were immune to this venom.
Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens
in 1901, with the discovery of the yellow fever
virus by Walter Reed.
Robert Koch's 1891 proofs, for which he
was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905, that
microorganisms were confirmed as the cause
of infectious disease
Paul Ehrlich, who proposed the side-chain
theory to explain the specificity of the
antigen-antibody reaction
5. 20-03-2018
Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical Biochemistry
5
Development of immune system in bone and thymus
Hollow shafts of long bones
Immune cells
Stem cells
Lymphocytes
Phagocytes
B lymphocytes
T lymphocytes
Maturation
Maturation
Thymus
1. Become immunocompotent
cells in a process called T
cell education
2. Learn how recognizes self
and non self non self was
eliminated
Lymph nodes
Abdomen
Groin
Neck
armpits
6. 20-03-2018
Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
6
Spleen
White pulp
Red pulp
Blood cells
contains lymphoid tissue
Microorganisms carried by blood
Macrophages
1. Man can live without spleen
2. But it is very important for children and
immunosupressed patients
Role of spleen in immunity
7. 20-03-2018
Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
7
Paracortex
Incoming lymph vessel
Cortex
Vein Out coming lymph vessel
Artery
Follicle
Medulla
Germinal center
Structure of lymph node
8. 20-03-2018
Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
8
Lymph
Ingoing Lymph vessel
Contains lymphocytes,
macrophages, and foreign
antigens, drains out of tissues
and seeps across the thin
walls of tiny lymphatic vessels
Lymph nodes
Lymphocytes
Blood vessel
Outgoing lymph vessel
Thoracic duct
Blood stream
In lymph nodes
Tissues
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
9
Immune system
Primary lymphoid organs Secondary lymphoid organs
Thymus Bursa (in birds) Gut associated
lymphoid tissues
(bursa equivalent)
Lymph node Spleen lymphoid
tissues lining
all tracts inside
the body
Cells of Immune system
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
10
1. Gut (Payer’s patches):
Lymph drains from intestinal villi in to them
and travels to thoracic duct.
2. Pharynx:
Lymphoid tissues i.e. tonsils responded to
antigens from nose and thorax, contains
both B- cells and T-cells.
3. Skin:
Langerhans cells in skin introduce antigens
to local lymph nodes.
Uncapsulated lymphoid organs:
11. 20-03-2018
Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
11
Components of the immune system
Innate immune system Adaptive immune system
Response is non-specific Pathogen and antigen specific
response
Exposure leads to immediate maximal
response
Lag time between exposure and
maximal response
Cell-mediated and humoral
components
Cell-mediated and humoral
components
No immunological memory Exposure leads to immunological
memory
Found in nearly all forms of life Found only in jawed vertebrates
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
12
Types of immunity
Cellular immunity Humoral immunity
T cells are responsible B cells are responsible
T cells activation Antibodies production
Immune response
14. •Glycoprotein molecules that are produced by plasma
cells in response to an immunogen and which
function as antibodies. Immunoglobulins are the
critical ingredients of humoral acquired immune
response.
• The immunoglobulins are present in the serum and
tissue fluids of all mammals.
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
15. 1. Proteins; gamma
globulins
2. Produced from B-
lymphocytes or plasma
cells
3. All are similar in basic
structure
4. They are 5 types M, A,
G, E and D
5. Can be produced to
directed to 1 million of
Ags Immune serum
Ag adsorbed serum
α
1
α
2
β γ
+ -
albumin
globulins
Mobility
Amount
of
protein
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
17. 1. Activate both the classical and alternative
complement cascades,
2. cross epithelial cell layers to provide a barrier
to pathogens at mucosal surfaces,
3. Travel transplacentally to confer maternal
humoral immunity to the fetus and neonate,
4. Induce phagocytosis by macrophages and
granulocytes via the process of opsonization,
Soluble
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
18. 5. Foster antibody-dependent cellular
cytotoxicity by lymphocytes and NK cells,
6. Encourage anti-parasite immune responses by
eosinophils,
7. Promote degranulation by mast cells and
basophils,
8. Bind and inactivate foreign antigenic entities
directly.
Soluble
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
19. –Bound-
1. The induction of activation and differentiation,
2. Energy,
3. Apoptosis of B lymphocytes,
4. To act as a high-affinity receptor for the
recognition,
5. Internalization, degradation, and
eventual presentation of specific antigens to T
cells.
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
20. 1. All formed from 4 polypeptide chains
• 2 light chains (L) of low molecular weight 25 KDa
• 2 heavy chains (H) of high molecular weight 50 KDa
•The two chains linked by disulfide bonds
2. Each chain have 2 regions
• C- terminus, Constant region (Fc) fragment
Constant amino acids in all types of Igs
• N- terminus, Variable region (Fv)
Variable amino acids in each type
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
21. 3. Immunoglubulins units:
• IgG: one unit (Monomer)
• Ig A: two units (Dimmer)
• IgM: five units (Pentamer)
4. Antigen binding site:
Formed by few amino acids in variable regions of H
and L chains so each Ig has 2 binding sites for Ag
what is called by Divalency.
5. Carbohydrates residues, (2-12%) mannose,
galactose, fructose, NANA, glucosamine
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
23. • hypervariable
region
• also called
Complementarity
Determining
Regions(CDRs),
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
24. 1. Classes of light and heavy chains
2. Types of immunoglobulins
3. Allo-antibody and Auto-antibody
4. Genes of light and heavy chains
5. Diversity of antibodies
6. Over/Under production of antibodies
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
Station 3
25. 1. L chains:
•Kappa(κ) 70% of Igs
•Lambda(λ) 30% of Igs
Either type of L chain can be associated with each H
chains
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
26. 2. H chains:
The H chain is specific to the class e.g.
1. IgG: γ chains
2. IgA: α- chains
3. IgM: µ- chains
4. IgD: δ- chains
5. IgE: ε- chains
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
28. 1. Immunoglobulin G (IgG):
1. 80% of serum Igs
2. Only cross placenta
3. Low molecular weight
4. One unit only
5. Subclasses IgG1,2,3,4
6. Contain 2-4% carbohydrates
7. is secreted during the
secondary immune
response, its presence means
old infection
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
29. 2. Immunoglobulin A (IgA)
1. Present in serum as monomer
but in body secretions as
dimmer.
2. J chian joind to Fc region links
the two monomers.
3. Can not cross the placenta.
4. Contains 5-10%
crabohydrates.
5. Produced in intestinal wall then
diffused to blood or binds to
secretory component
(glycoprotein) or secretory
piece to from secretory IgA.
20-03-2018 29
Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
30. Intestinal lumen
Blood stream
IgA
IgA
J chain
Secretory piece
Secretory IgA
Secretory component protects IgA
from digestion by the action of
intestinal proteolytic enzymes.
Function of IgA:
Protects body surface against invading
M.Os
Since it is the major Ig in intestinal,
respiratory, urogenital tract as well as
milk, colostrum, tears.
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
31. 3. Immunoglobulin M (IgM):
1. Present in serum
2. Has the highest MW
3. Formed from 5 units
4. Not cross placenta
5. The units bind to each others by
disulfide bonds in circular fashion to
form a star then J chain join two units
to complete the circle
6. Contains 10% carbohydrates.
7. Has short half life.
8. Its function, produced in response to
primary immune response its presnce
means recent infection.
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
32. 4. Immuno globulin E (IgE)
1. Present in serum by low concentration.
2. Has shortest half life(2-3 days).
3. Largely responsible for the immunity of
parasites.
4. Can not cross placenta
+
IgE
Mast cell Fc region
Histamine release
ALLARGY
Antigen
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
33. 5. Immuno globulin D (IgD)
1. Present in serum by low concentration.
2. Found on the surface of B-
lymphocytes
3. It act as a specific antigen receptor
4. Has activity against insulin, thyroid
tissues, penicillin and diptheria toxins.
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
34. • Antigens that initiate the immune cascades results in the
formation of either allo-abs or auto-abs.
• Allo-antibodies: are produced after exposure to genetically
different or non-self, antigens of the same species.
• Auto-antibodies: are produced in response to self antigens.
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
35. Heavy chain
Light chain
Variable region gene VL
Joining region gene J
Constant region gene CL
Variable region gene VH
Diversity region gene D
Joining region gene J
Constant region gene CH
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
36. •There are 1 million antibodies that are derived from the 5 types
•They are all have the same constant regions
•But differ in the variable regions
No 2 variable region are
identical among all million
antibodies
Antigen
1. Diffuse hypergammaglobulinemia : all
classes are increase
2. Discrete hypergammaglobulinemia :
(paraprotienemia) single or fraction only
increases
a. Malignant : multiple myeloma
b. Benign:
Hypogammaglobulinemia: acquired or congenital reinfection and
immunodeficiency.
IgG, M, A can
combine the
same antigen
because they
have the same
variable region
20-03-2018 36
Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
37. IgG IgA IgM IgE IgD
% 80 20
Crossing
placenta
Only cross - - - -
Units 1 1 or 2 5 1 1
Heavy chain ɣ α
µ
ε δ
Light chain λor κ λor κ λor κ λor κ λor κ
CHO 2-4 5-10 10 10-12 2
J chain - + + - -
Secretory
component
-
+ - - -
Half life Long Short Short Short Short
Function
Secondry
immune
response
Body surfaces Primary
Parasitic
immunity
B- lymphocytes
antigen
receptors
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
38. 1. Antigens / haptens
2. Chemical nature of antigens
3. Antigenic determinant sites
4. Properties of antigens
5. Occurrence of antigens
6. Types of antigens
7. Immunopotency
8. Antigen – antibody interaction
9. Antigen – antibody reaction
10.Dynamics of immune response
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
Station 4
39. Antigen: stimulate immune response
Hapten: by itself no, but should join a
larger molecules to do so.
Immunogenicity: ability of certain
substances to induce detectable
immune response
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
40. Chemical nature of antigens
1. Proteins, polysaccharides or synthetic polymers
2. Lipids are not until it join to proteins or polysaccharides
3. Nucleic acids have not antigenic properties
Lymphocyte
Antigen
Antigenic determinant
Antigenic receptor
So typical antigen:
1. Particulate: cell, bacteria, large
proteins, polysaccharides,
glycoprotein, egg white, snake
venom
2. Soluble: tissue constituents of
animal or plant
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
41. Antigenic determinant:
Location
Structure
Number
Determine the intensity of immune response
Antigen
Antigenic determinant
1. Size:200-700 ºA
2. 10-15 amino acids
residue
3. Every 5000 Da on
the chain have
one antigenic
determinant site
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
42. 1. High MW > 10,000 Da
But there is no limit above or under to determine the antigenicity
2. Foreign to body (foreignness)
Serum obtained from a rabbit and re injected again to it not induce immune response
3. Posses certain degree of complexity
More complex more antigenic
Copolymers contains more type of amino acids more antigenic
Why plastic (arginine polymer) not induce immune response? not processed by macrophage?
Rapid destroyed proteins not induce immune reponse
4. Molecular surface
Should have large molecular surface
Some low MW particles become antigenic if it join charcoal or aluminum hydroxide
This gives it some degree of rigidity
Hydrocarbons not antigens why? Not rigid
Aromatic amino acids more antigenic why? Rigidity
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
43. Variability and species variations
e.g., injection of polysaccharides induce immune response in human and rats
not in guinea pigs.
As quantity of Ag increase , immune response increase
Higher
Immune paralysis Lower
Silent/
Subclinical
infection
I/V
I/P
I/M
S/C
Gradual increase in IR Routes
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
44. e.g., oils, aniline, lanoline, Al hydroxide
• Mechanism of its action not fully known
• Increase the immune response when mixed
with antigens
• Act as depots for antigens from it slowly
released
• Stimulate local immune response
(aggregate macrophages)
20-03-2018 44
Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
45. The capacity of a region of the antigenic determinant to induce
formation of specific antibodies
e.g., oval albumin (42,000Da have 5-6 DS)
thyroglobin (70,000 Da have 40 Ds )
Factors affecting immunopotency
1. Accessibility (easy to reach ): more in aqueous media
2. Charge: hydrophilic groups intensify the binding
Protein 1
-COO -Asp
Protein 2 lys-NH3+
More closer contact
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
46. Cell
Virulent antigen (Vi)
On surface
Somatic antigen (O)
inside
1. Organ specificity
Lens of eyes
Testicles
Brain
Liver
Heart
To specify the structure and function of that organ
2. Species specificity
Serum albumin of human is differ from cattle serum albumin
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
47. •Related
•Not identical
•Occurs in unrelated species
•Human granular fever agglutinate sheep RBCs
•Present in one locus in body
•Induce immune response if it re-injected in
anther tissue.
•Its immune response magnified by adjuvant.
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
48. A) Lock and Key Concept
Antigen
Antibody
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
49. B) Non-covalent Bonds:
Hydrogen bond
Hydrophobic bond
Van der waals forces
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
50. Affinity
•It is the strength of the reaction between antigenic
determinant site and antibody.
•Usually every antibody has a high affinity to its antigen.
Avidity
Over all strength of antigen antibody binding
Affinity refers to the strength of binding
between a single antigenic determinant
and an individual antibody combining
site whereas avidity refers to the overall
strength of binding between multivalent
antigens and antibodies.
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
51. Specificity
Ability of antibody binding site to bind with
only one antigen or more one antibody with one
antigen
Usually antibody can identify:
1. The primary structure of an antigen
2. Isomeric forms of an antigen
3. Secondary and tertiary structure of an antigen
Cross reactivity
Ability of one antibody to react with more than one antigen OR
more antibodies with more antigens
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
52. 1 2
3 4
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
53. Facts ! On Ab –Ag reaction
First : antibody produced
Second : complex between Ab and Ag is
formed
Third: antigen become neutralized or
weaken
Fourth: complement fixed
Fifth: the reaction strats 48 hrs later of
infection
Sixth: immunity normally produced or
allergy or autoimmunity.
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
54. 1 Months
2 4
3 7
5 weeks
6
Primary immune response
Secondary immune response
Antibody
level
in
blood
Primary immunization
Secondary immunization
•First time
•Ab appear with in 5-10 days
•Titer raised for 2-3 weeks
•Ab still detected for a month
•Memory formed
•IgM appear earlier than IgG
•Begains after primary Ab go out.
•More rapid Ab response
•Ab raised for shorter time
•Ab Still for many years
•Persisitant memory is formed
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
55. Duration period (the period of Abs appearance in blood)
differ according to the methods used in detection.
Body differ in its response to every type of antigens e.g.,
respond to particulate antigen with in 3-5 days
The curve of 1ray and 2ndry immune response varied with the
species
Not all antigens produced the known secondary response
e.g., pneumococcal polysaccharides its secondary
response appeared after 2 years of the infection
20-03-2018 55
Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
56. Complement system
- History
- Definitions
- Chemical nature
- Function
- Complement activation
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
Station 5
57. Hans Ernst August Buchner
History overview
1. Buchner discover a blood factor kills the
bacteria
2. In 1896, Bordet, discover properties of
two factors one
- Heat stable against specific M.Os
- Heat labile one against non specific
microbial immune response (now we
call it complement !) Jules Bordet
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
58. Paul Ehrlich
3. Ehrlich used term Complement in his theory
for immune system
-Immune system is formed of cells
-These cells produce receptor to receive antigens
-These receptors called amboceptors.
-Now we call these receptors as antibodies
-These antibody not act by them selves rather
need the help of a factor binds it, Ehrlich call it
complement providing that it complete the action
of antibodies.
4. Jackie Stanley team proved the role of complement in both
the innate as well as the cell-mediated immune response.
20-03-2018 58
Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
59. It what helps antibodies and
phagocytes to eliminate pathogen from
an organism.
It is a part of innate system (not
changed over all the life) but can be brought
into the action by the adaptive
immune system
20-03-2018 59
Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
60. Small
Proteins
Produced
by liver
Induce massive
immune response
Form
MAC
Secreted in
pro-protein form
Triggers production
of cytokines
25 proteins and
protein fragment
5% of total blood
Globulins
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
61. 1. OPSONIZATION - enhancing phagocytosis of
antigens
2. CHEMOTAXIS - attracting Macrophages and
Neutrophils
3. LYSIS - rupturing membranes of foreign cells
4. CLUMPING of antigen-bearing agents
5. ALTERING the molecular structure of viruses
Macrophage
Neutophil
Lysis
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
63. C3
Convertase
Classical pathway Alternative mannose-binding lectin
C3b
C3a
Pathogen
Opsonization
Chemotaxis
More phagocytosis
Overview
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
64. C3a C5a
Degranulation of mast cells
1. Increase Blood vessel
permeability
2. Smooth muscle contraction
C5b Initiates MAC
C5b C6 C7 C8 C9
Trans membrane channel lead to osmotic cell lysis
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
66. C4b + C3
C3b
C3a
C2a
C3 convertase
C4b C2a
C3b
C4b C2a
C5 convertase
DAF
-
1
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
67. 2 1. C3 hydrolysis
2. Not depend
pathogen-binding
antibodies
C3b
Pathogen
If no pathogen in blood C3b
C3a +
If pathogen in blood
C3
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
68. C3b
Pathogen
How this binding is occur ?!
Factor B
Factor D
Bb
Ba +
C3b Bb
Alternative C3 convertase
C3b Bb
Pathogen
Chainsaw
2
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
69. C3b Bb
Pathogen
C3b C3a
C3b Bb
+
C3
In
blood C3 convertase
C3b
C3b Bb
C5 convertase
C5
+
C5a +
2
C5b
20-03-2018 69
Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
70. C6 C7 C8 C9
C5b
C5a
C5b
Membrane attack complex MAC
punches a hole and initiates cells lysis
C3a
Degranulation of mast cell
+
2
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
71. 3
1. As classical
2. Opsonin, mannose –
binding lectin, ficolin
are in stead of C1q.
Activation
Pathogen
Mannose
MBL
Mannose
residue
MASP-1 MASP-2
+
Mannose asociated serine proteases
Split C4 and C2
Ficolin
or
Ficolins
1. Are homologus to MBL
2. Used to compensate for
the lack of pathogen-
specific recognition
molecules.
Like classical pathway
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
72. C1q
C4b
C3b
•This complex enable the antibody to
detect its antigen as a guiding stick
•Complement can bind non self
pathogens but after detecting their
pathogen-associated molecular
patterns (PAMPs).
•Complement can detect antigens
more specifically than antibody.
•The binding of complement to
antibody is directed towards the
antigen not to the antibody.
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
73. Complement should stop after finishing its
action !
It stops by Complement control proteins
Complement control proteins
concentration is higher than complement
protein themselves.
CD59: inhibits c9 during MAC formation
C1-inhibitor inhibits c1
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
74. 1. Complement fixation test
2. Immunity in action
3. Vaccination
4. Antiserum
5. Genetic control of immunity
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
Station 6
75. 20-03-2018
Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
75
Detects the existence of specific
antibody or antigen in a patient serum
Diagnose microbial infections which
can not be detected by culture
methods
Principle
In the presence of antigen – antibody
reaction a cell membrane is destructed
indicate specific antigen/ antibody
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
76
Serum Complement resist heat
Antibodies destructed
Add standard amount of complement
From guinea pigs
Heated ∆
Add antigens
Add sheep RBCs bounded to antibody
Procedures
1 2
3
4
5
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
77
Presence of specific antibody Absence of specific antibody
Complement reacts with ag-ab complex
No lysis of RBCs
There is No ag-ab complex
Complement reacts with RBCs
Induce RBCs lysis
Positive Negative
Interpretation of results
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
79
Innate immunity, or nonspecific, immunity
Man born with it
Tissue epithelium/ barriers
Cytokines Antimicrobial substances
Inflammatory condition
Phagocytosis
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
80
Adaptive immunity
Naturally acquired immunity
Artificially acquired immunity
No deliberate infection
deliberate infection
Vaccination
Passive
Active
Transfer
antibody
or T cells
Short life
Transfer
antigens
Long life
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
81
Passive immunity
Transfer of antibodies
Maternal antibodies Artificial antibodies
Advantages
1. Develops faster immune response in high risk infections or when
the body unable to develop an immune response.
2. Reduce the symptoms of ongoing or immunosuppressive diseases.
Disadvantages
Body does not develop memory, therefore the patient is at risk of
being infected by the same pathogen later.
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
82
Naturally acquired passive immunity
Maternal antibodies
1. Through placenta
2. FcRn receptor
3. third month of gestation.
IgG
IgA Until he synthesizes own abs
Milk
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
83
Artificially acquired passive immunity
Antibody transfer in the form of:
1) Human or animal blood plasma
2) Pooled human immunoglobulin for intravenous or intramuscular use
3) Monoclonal antibodies (MAb).
-Immunodeficiency diseases, such as hypogammaglobulinemia
-Acute infection, and to treat poisoning.
Risk for hypersensitivity reactions
serum sickness, especially from gamma globulin of non-human origin.
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Biochemistry
84
Passive transfer of cell-mediated immunity
1. Transfer activated T cell from one individual to another
2. Rare used why ?
Because it Requires histocompatible (matched) donors, which are often
difficult to find.
1) Carries severe risks of graft versus host disease.
2) Used to treat cancer and immunodeficiency.
3) Differs from a bone marrow transplant, in which (undifferentiated)
hematopoietic stem cells are transferred.
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
85
Active Immunity
It means that the body can prepare it
self for future infection
This need formation of memory
Cell-mediated and humoral immunity
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
86
Naturally acquired active immunity
live pathogen Body Forms primary immune response
Memory is formed
Affected by
1. Immunodeficiency
2. Immunosuppression.
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Biochemistry
87
Artificially acquired active immunity
(Vaccination)
Vaccine
Stimulate
primary
immunity
without
symptoms
Inactivated
Killed by heat or chemicals
flu, cholera, plague, and hepatitis A.
Live, attenuated vaccines
Cultivated at unsitable condition to be unable to induce disease
yellow fever, measles, rubella, and mumps.
Toxoids
Inactive Toxins of a M.O
tetanus and diphtheria.
Subunit-vaccines
Small fragmant of caustive agents
Hepatitis B virus
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Biochemistry
88
blood serum containing polyclonal antibodies.
Uses
1. Prophylactic
2. passive antibody transfusion
3. antitoxin or antivenom, to treat envenomation.
Types of antiserum
Antitoxic : which neutralize the toxins
Antibacterial : sensitizing the organisms
Adult serum : in certain viral diseases e.g., gamma globulins.
89. 20-03-2018
Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
89
How antiserum works ?
1. Antibodies binds to antigen.
2. Immune system then recognizes foreign agents
bound to antibodies and triggers a more robust
immune response.
3. existence of antibodies to the agent therefore
depends on an initial "lucky survivor" whose immune
system by chance discovered a counteragent to the
pathogen, or a "host species" which carries the virus
but does not suffer from its effects.
90. 1. Genetic control of immunity
2. Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
3.
20-03-2018 90
Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
Station 7
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Biochemistry
91
Genes for immunity
1. Control of immune
performance
2. Production and maturation
of immune cells
MHC ?!
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Biochemistry
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3.6-Mb (3 600 000 base pairs)
Codes 140 genes
Major histocompatibility molecules
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Biochemistry
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1. MHC molecules display
fragments of processed proteins
on the cell surface.
2. Allows for pathogen surveillance
by immune cells, usually a T cell
or natural killer (NK) cell.
3. Develops immune response to
pathogens.
MHC
Pathogen proteins
Role of MHC
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Biochemistry
94
MHC genes must produce a wide variety of molecules
How it achieves this?!
(1) The MHC locus is polygenic. More one copy, determined by a
number of genes
(2) MHC genes are highly polymorphic and numerous
alleles have been described. having multiple alleles of a gene within
a population, usually expressing different phenotypes, no two persons have the
same MHC genes except twins.
(3) MHC genes are codominantly expressed and
several MHC genes are expressed concomitantly.
Continuous and dominant
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Biochemistry
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Class I Class II
Macrophage Dendertic cell
APCs
Lymphocyte
Process the pathogen in to peptide fragments
MHC II introduce these fragments to Th
Stimulate immune reaction
Cytotoxic T cell
Class III ?
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Biochemistry
96
Pathogen
Virus
Baceria
Cancerous tissue
Nucleated cell
Pathogen peptide
Cytotoxic T cell
Self peptide
MHC-I
MHC-I
MHC-I
Protein turnover
No pathogen
No Infection
Infection
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Biochemistry
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One of APCs
Pathogen peptides
MHC - II
Immune response
Pathogen peptides in phagosomes
Pathogen
MHC-II
Phagocytosis
Act as signposts
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Biochemistry
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MCH and HLA are they the same ?!
MHC
Antigen-presenting proteins
Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genes
Gene
Gene
Products
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
HLA genes
1. HLA-A
2. HLA-B
3. HLA-C
4. HLA-DPA1
5. HLA-DPB1
6. HLA-DQA1
7. HLA-DQB1
8. HLA-DRA
9. HLA-DRB1
MCH-II
MHC-I
Maternal class I
Paternal class I
Each individual
have 2 haplotypes
one from mother
and the other from
father
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Biochemistry
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MHC proteins manage the dialogue between T cells and other immune cells
T cells
TCR
MHC anchored in membrane
Display self and
nonself peptides
Only T cells reacts with non self ones
and ignore self one
At maturity
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Biochemistry
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T cells
T cell need presentation by help of MHC
B cells
Antibody
MHC
BCR
TCR
Checks and balances
No help
Avoid amok of immune system
والتوازنات الضوابط
Antigen peptide
Antigen
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Biochemistry
MHC class I
Transmembrane region
Structure
1. α unit
2. ᵦ2 microglobin
All nucleated cells and platelets
Cleft for peptide presentation
Functions
1. Presents peptides for
cytotoxic T cells
2. Binds the inhibitory
receptors on NK cells
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Biochemistry
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Categorizations of class I MHC molecules:
Classical MHC molecules Nonclassical molecules
Present cytosolic or
cross-presented peptides
to CD8+ T lymphocytes
HLA-A, HLA-B and HLA-C
Man
H-2K, H-2D, H-2L
Mice
Differ from the classical MHC in
1. Limited polymorphism.
2. Variable expression patterns.
3. Types of antigen presented.
HLA-E, -F, -G
Coded by
Interact with both CD8+ T cells,
NKT cells, and NK cells.
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Biochemistry
MHC class II
Cleft
Transmembrane region
APCs
Structure
Function
Presents pepetide
to helper T cells
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Biochemistry
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Classic molecules Nonclassic molecules
MHC-II molecules in humans
Presenting peptides to T4 helper
lymphocytes
HLA-DP, HLA-DQ, HLA-DR
Not exposed in the cellular membrane
Present in Internal membrares in lysosomes
Load the antigenic peptides on
the classic MHC-II molecules
HLA-DM and HLA-DO.
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Biochemistry
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1) Components of the complement system (such as
C2, C4 and B factor)
2) Molecules related with inflammation (cytokines
such as TNF-α, LTA, LTB)
3) Heat Shock Proteins (HSP)
Located between class I and class II on short arm of chromosome 6
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Biochemistry
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Facts on Functions of MHC-I and II molecules
1. Present antigenic peptides to T lymphocytes
2. MHC molecules can display only peptides; only protein in
origin
4. In the same time it can display many peptides
3. Each MHC molecule can display only one peptide each time
5. MHC-I presents peptides from cytosol while MHC-II
presents peptides from intracellular vesicles
6. Only stable if they loaded a peptide even though they will
degraded
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Biochemistry
108
Cell cytosol
MHC-I
Peptides
coming from
self, virus,
phagocytic
molecules
MHC-II
Nucleus
Cell vesicles
Peptides from
microbe ingested in
vesicles, only in
cells of phagocytic
capacity
MHC site action
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Biochemistry
MHC class I processing
Transporter
Associated with
Antigen Processing
(TAP) or Tapasin
It acts mainly on peptides of
Cytoplasm origin
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Biochemistry
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Nucleus
MHC loaded peptide
Not loaded Degraded
Remain in cell membrane
for days
Self
Non self
Much more
abundant
T cells detects
0.1-1% of
peptides
displayed by
MHC
Not stimulate
immune
response
Except in
autoimmunity
It is very important for supervising T cell functions
Stimulate
immune
response
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
111
HLA-A
HLA-B
350 alleles
620 alleles
90 alleles
400 alleles
HLA-DQ
HLA-DR
Inherited and expressed
in different
combinations
Each individual will express MHC different
To the another
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Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
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Donor
MHC on transplants
Immune response
Antigen
Receptor
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Biochemistry
113
Peptides MHC
Self Foreign Self Foreign
Self – self
Foreign – foreign complex
T cells Don’t know !!
Weakly know !!
Found in transplanted cells
؟ المشكلة فين
!!!
During
maturation in
thymus
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Biochemistry
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Receptor
T cells
Donor
MHC
Similar
Foreign peptide – Self MHC
on transplanted organ/cells
Severe immune response
Rejecting the organ
Mistake – Cross reaction
Allorecognition
115. 1. Cell mediated immunity
2. T cells
3. T cell markers
20-03-2018 115
Dr Aaser Abdelazim Lecturer of Medical
Biochemistry
Station 8
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Biochemistry
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Macrophage
Dendertic cell Lymphocyte
Cytokines With out cytokines
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Biochemistry
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How cell-mediated immunity protects the body?!
CD8+ cytotoxic
Apoptosis 1. Virus-infected cells
2. Cells with intracellular bacteria
3. Cancer cells
Macrophage
Intracellular pathogens
Destroy
Cytokines Affects other cells functions
Other cells
1. Fungi
2. Transplant rejection
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Biochemistry
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Cells of immunity
Helper T cell
Regulatory/ suppressor T cell
Cytotoxic T cell
Delayed hypersensitivity T cells
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Biochemistry
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Helper T cell
1. They are essential in determining B cell antibody class switching. is a
biological mechanism that changes a B cell's production of antibody from one class to another, for
example, from an isotype IgM to an isotype IgG. During this process, the constant region portion of the
antibody heavy chain is changed, but the variable region of the heavy chain stays the same (the terms
"constant" and "variable" refer to changes or lack thereof between antibodies that target different
epitopes)
2. Have a role in Activation and growth of cytotoxic T cells
3. Have a role in maximizing bactericidal activity of phagocytes such
as macrophages.
4. Mature Th cells are believed to always express the surface protein
CD4 and are referred to as CD4+ T cells.
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Biochemistry
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Regulatory/ suppressor T cell
Suppress the immune system
1. Autoimmune diseases
2. Cancer immunotherapy
3. Facilitate transplant tolerance
Regulatory T cell (Treg)
CD8+ T cells CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells Suppressive T cells
shutting down immune responses
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Biochemistry
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Functions of regulatory T cells
Prevent pathological self-reactivity
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Biochemistry
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During infection Down regulated
Other cells
T reg
Pathogens express them
to face immunity
Up regulated T reg
1. Retroviral infections (HIV)
2. Mycobacterial infections (TB)
3. Parasitic infestations (Leishmania and malaria).
Treg Up/Down regulation
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Biochemistry
127
Tc
Target cell
FasL Fas
Death induced silencing complex(DISC)
ligand
Fas- Associated Death Domain (FADD)
Procaspase 8 Procaspase 10
Caspase 7
Caspase 6
Caspase 3
lamin A
lamin B2
lamin B1
PARP
DNAPK
Death substrates
Programmed cell death
2nd mechanism
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Biochemistry
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Cytotoxic T cell activation
TCR on T cells and
peptide-bound MHC class
I molecule on APCs.
1. Includes CD28 molecule
on the T cell and either
CD80 or CD86 (also
called B7-1 and B7-2) on
APCs.
2. CD80 and CD86 are
known as costimulators
for T cell activation
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Biochemistry
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Delayed hypersensitivity T cells
1. These are cells of non antigenic specific factors
2. They respond to the antigens that previously sensitized the T – cells
3. Produce specific non antigenic products called lymphokines.
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Biochemistry
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CD2
CD2
Target
1. T cells
2. NK cells
Functions of CD2:
1. It interacts with other
adhesion molecules, such
as lymphocyte function-
associated antigen-3 (LFA-
3/CD58) in humans, or
CD48 in rodents, which are
expressed on the surfaces
of other cells.
2. CD2 also acts as a co-
stimulatory molecule on T
and NK cells.
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Biochemistry
CD3
Included in TCR complex
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Biochemistry
133
CD4
CD4
Targets
1. T helper cells
2. Regulatory T cells
3. Macrophages
4. Dendertic cells
5. Monocytes
CD4 receptor
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Biochemistry
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Functions of CD4
Helps TCR with antigen
presenting cells
Amplify TCR signal
Tyrosine kinase
T cell activation
Reacts directly with MHC-II
Using its extracellular domain
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Biochemistry
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CD8
CD8 co receptor
CD8
Its extracellular domain reacts with α3 of MHC-I
This affinity keeps the T cell receptor
of the cytotoxic T cell and the target
cell bound closely together during
antigen-specific activation.
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Biochemistry
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CYTOKINES
Substances of immunomodulating action
Immune cells
Glial nerve cells
Interleukins Interferon
Cyto = cell kinos = Movement
Proteins
Peptides Glycoprotein
Cell to cell communication
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Biochemistry
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Points Cytokines Hormones
Concentration of
circulation
Picomolar
(10-12 )
Nanomolar concentration
(10-9 )
Fold increase 1000 folds e.g., during
infection
One fold or less
Cells of
secretions
All nucleated cells especially
epithelial cells and
macrophages
Special cells in glands like B
cells of pancreas secretes
insulin etc
Action Systemic immunomodulating
action
Local in action
Specificity Not specific in their action
Immunomodulating and role
during embryogenesis
Specific in their action
Type of action Autocrine in chemotaxis or
paracrine as pyrogens
Almost hormones are
paracrine in their action
Cytokines / hormones
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Biochemistry
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Cytokines
Interleukins Chemokines Lymphokines
Leukocytes
T helper cells
Variable in action
Special type of interleukins
Chemotaxis
Lymphocytes
Cell signaling
Aid B cells to produce antibodies
Activation / attraction of other immune cells
IL- 2…..6 , GMCSF
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Biochemistry
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Classification of cytokines
Structural classification Functional classification
Four-α-helix
bundle family
IL-1 family IL-17 family
IL-2 IL-10
INF
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Thrombopoietin (TPO)
IL-18 IL-1
Enhance
cellular
immune
responses,
type 1
Enhance
cellular
immune
responses
type 2
IFN-γ, TGF-β IL-4, IL-10, IL-13
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Biochemistry
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Effect of cytokines
Cell
Cytokine
Receptor
Target cell
l
Different cell cascades
Key genes
Up/down regulation
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Biochemistry
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cytokine Producer cell Target cell Functions
Interleukin- 1 Macrophage,
monocyte and T helper
cells
T cell and B cells Activating lymphocytes
inflammatory mediator
Interleukin-2 T cells and NK cells T cells and NK cells
and Macrophage
Activates T4, T8 and B
cells
Interleukin-3 T cells Hemopiotic cells of
bone marrow
Activates bone marrow
to produce different
cells
Interleukin-4 T cells T cells, B cells and
mast cells
Activation and
proliferation of T and B
cells
Interleukin-5 T cells T cells, B cells and
eosinophils
Interleukin-6 T cells and fibroblast T cells, B cells
Interleukin-7 Stroma cells,
monocytes and
macrophages
Immature lymphoid
cells
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Biochemistry
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Interleukin-8 Macrophages Eosinophils,
macrophages and
neutophils
Chemotactic effect
Interleukin-9 T cells T cells Hemopiosis
Interleukin-10 Th cells T helper cells Stem cell
differentiation and
growth factor of
most cells
Interleukin-11 B cells and stroma
cells
B cells Absorption
Interleukin-12 Monocytes and B
cells and
Mcrophages
Th cells and NK cells Interferon population
and cytotoxic
activity.
cytokine Producer cell Target cell Functions
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Biochemistry
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INTERFERONS
lymphocyte
What is interferon?!
IFN
Virus
Bacteria
Tumor
Other cell
Protection
10 INFs in
mammals 7 of
them in human
Activates immune cells
(NK, macrophages)
Increase recognition
of infection
Increase resistance
of the non infected cells
146. 20-03-2018
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Biochemistry
146
Types of interferon
Interferon type I Interferon type III
Interferon type II
bind to a specific
cell
surface receptor
(IFN-α receptor)
IFN-β IFN-ω
IFN-α
IFN-γ
bind to a specific
cell
surface receptor
(IL-10R2
receptor)
bind to a specific
cell
surface receptor
(IFN-ɣ receptor)
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Biochemistry
147
Functions of interferons
Antiviral effect
Virus
Infected cell
Cell lysis
Release of viruses
To infect other cells
PKR
eIF-2 P
Reduce protein
biosynthesis
inactive
RNAse L
+
+
Destroys RNA
within the cells
P
Reduce
protein
synthesis of
both viral and
host genes.
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Biochemistry
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INFs
Interferon-
stimulated
genes (ISGs)
+
+
p53
Promoting
apoptosis
Other INFs functions
MHC
Viral peptides
presentation
and
destruction
Viral
destruction
+
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Biochemistry
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Interferon therapy
Treatment of Cancer
leukemia lymphomas
Type I (IFNs)
1. Antiproliferative
2. Apoptotic effects
3. Anti-angiogenic
effects
4. Activating dendritic
cells, cytolytic T cells
and NK cells.
Viral hepatitis
Hepatitis B Hepatitis C
IFN-α
1. Used in combinations with
other drugs (interferon-
α/ribavirin).
2. Immediately after infection
by C virus prevents
chronicity.
3. Chronic hepatitis control by
INFs can reduce HCC
Respiratory diseases
Cold and Flu
1. With non under
stood mechanism
2. In small doses
3. May act as
adjuvant to
influenza virus
4. Used now to
formulate flu
adjuvant vaccine
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Biochemistry
150
Adverse effects of interferon therapy
1. Increased body temperature.
2. Feeling ill, fatigue, headache.
muscle pain, convulsion.
3. Dizziness. hair thinning,
4. Depression and Erythema
and pain at the spot of
injection.
Systemic effect Immunosuppression
Flu like symptoms
1. Neutropenia
2. Infections manifestations by
unusual ways.
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Biochemistry
1.Cancer immunology
2.Organ transplantation
Station 10
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Biochemistry
152
CANCER IMMUNOLOGY
Immunosurveillance Immunoediting
Protects host cells
from continuously
arising, nascent
transformed cells.
Lymphocytes
Protection of body
cells from tumor
growth and
development
Elimination Equilibrium Escape
المناعي الترصد التحرير
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Biochemistry
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Elimination phase
Phase 1
Immune Cells recognize the tumor
Local tissue damage
1. killer cells
2. Natural killer
3. Macrophages
4. Dendritic cells
INF-ɣ
Tumor cells (growth)
Inflammatory signals
Starts the antitumor immune response
(Tumor death)
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Biochemistry
154
Phase 2
INF-ɣ
Tumor death (to a limited amount)
Production of chemokines
+
+
Formation of new blood vessels
-
Tumor cell debris
Recruitment of
more immune cells
+
Dendertic cell
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Biochemistry
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Phase 3
Macrophage
Transactivation
IFN-ɣ IL-12
Promotes more killer cells
Production of
reactive oxygen and nitrogen
Dendertic cell
Differentiation of Th1
Development of CD8+ T cells
1 2 3
Destruction of tumor
NK cells
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Biochemistry
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Phase 4
Destruction of antigen bearing tumors by cytolytic T cells
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Biochemistry
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Equilibrium and escape phase
For tumor cells that survive the elimination phase
Immune cells
Increase the pressure
IFN-ɣ
Tumor cells continue to
grow and expanded with
un controlled manner
Winning of
immune
response
1 2
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Biochemistry
160
ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION
Donor Recipient
Organ
Tissue
Stem cells
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Biochemistry
161
Types of organ transplantation
Autograft
Skin grafting
Vein extraction
for coronary
artery paypass
surgery(CABG)
1
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Biochemistry
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Allograft
Two genetically non-identical persons
Stimulate an immune response
Organ rejection
2
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Biochemistry
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Isograft
Two genetically identical persons
Not Stimulate an immune response
No Organ rejection
3
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Biochemistry
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Xenograft
Porcine heart valve
Islet transplant (pancreas)
4
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Biochemistry
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Split transplant
Heart transplant
Deceased person
Child
Adult
Split liver transplant
5
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Biochemistry
166
Domino transplant
Heart & lung Heart
Recipient 2
Recipient 1
Cystic fibrosis
Lung failure
6
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Biochemistry
167
Special from of liver transplant
Familial
amyloidotic
polyneuropathy
Liver produces protein damage other organs
Recipient 2
Recipient 1
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Biochemistry
168
TRANSPLANT REJECTION
Hyperacute rejection
Complement-mediated
response
Rapid –
immediate
Non identical
persons
Pre- existing
antibodies from
blood transfusion
Cross
matching
Acute rejection
One week- months –
years
Xenograft
Need
immunosuppressive
drugs
caused by
mismatched HLA
T cell mediated
immunity
Chronic rejection
long-term loss of
function in
transplanted organs
On long run
Chronic inflammatory
response to the transplanted
organ
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Biochemistry
169
Organ/tissue Mechanism
Blood Antibodies (isohaemagglutinins)
Kidney Antibodies, CMI
Heart Antibodies, CMI
Skin CMI
Bonemarrow CMI
Cornea
Usually accepted unless
vascularised, CMI
Rejection mechanisms